t.26
1
* • :
' '
THE NATIVE RACES
OF THE
PACIFIC STATES.
THE
NATIVE RACES
OF
THE PACIFIC STATES
OF
NORTH AMERICA.
BY
HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT.
VOLUME I.
WILD TRIBES.
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1875.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the ys.ir one thousand eight hundred and
seventy four, by
HUBERT H. BANCROFT.
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
RIVERSIDE, CAMBRIDGE:
PRINTED BV H O HOITOHTOV AND COMPANY.
TO
MY BBOTHEB
ALBERT L. BANCROFT
I DEDICATE THIS WORK.
PREFACE.
In pursuance of a general plan involving the produc
tion of a series of works on the western half of North
America, I present this delineation of its aboriginal in
habitants as the first. To the immense territory border
ing on the western ocean from Alaska to Darien, and in
cluding the whole of Mexico and Central America, I give
arbitrarily, for want of a better, the name Pacific States.
Stretching almost from pole to equator, and embracing
within its limits nearly one tenth of the earth's surface,
this last Western Land offers to lovers of knowledge a
new and enticing field ; and, although hitherto its several
parts have been held somewhat asunder by the force
of circumstances, yet are its occupants drawn by nature
into nearness of relationship, and will be brought yet
nearer by advancing civilization; the common oceanic
highway on the one side, and the great mountain ram
parts on the other, both tending to this result. The
characteristics of this vast domain, material and social,
are comparatively unknown and are essentially peculiar.
To its exotic civilization all the so-called older nations
of the world have contributed of their energies; and
this composite mass, leavened by its destiny, is now
working out the new problem of its future. The modern
history of .this West antedates that of the East by over
a century, and although there may be apparent hetero-
486816
viii PREFACE.
geneity in the subject thus territorially treated, there is
an apparent tendency toward ultimate unity.
To some it may be of interest to know the nature and
extent of my resources for writing so important a series
of works. The books and manuscripts necessary for the
task existed in no library in the W7orld; hence, in 1859,
I commenced collecting material relative to the Pacific
States. After securing everything within my reach in
America, I twice visited Europe, spending about two
years in thorough researches in England and the chief
cities of the Continent. Having exhausted every avail
able source, I was obliged to content myself with lying
in wait for opportunities. Not long afterward, and at
a time when the prospect of materially adding to my
collection seemed anything but hopeful, the Biblioteca
Imperial de JMejico, of the unfortunate Maximilian, col
lected during a period of forty years by Don Jose Maria
Andrade, litterateur and publisher of the city of Mexico,
was thrown upon the European market and furnished
me about three thousand additional volumes.
In 1869, having accumulated some sixteen thousand
books, manuscripts, and pamphlets, besides maps and
cumbersome files of Pacific Coast journals, I determined
to go to work. But I soon found that, like Tantalus,
while up to my neck in water, I was dying of thirst.
The facts which I required were so copiously diluted
with trash, that to follow different subjects through this
trackless sea of erudition, in the exhaustive manner I
had proposed, with but one life-time to devote to the
work, was simply impracticable. In this emergency my
friend, Mr Henry L. Oak, librarian of the collec
tion, came to my relief. After many* consultations,
and not a few partial failures, a system of indexing the
PREFACE. IX
subject-matter of the whole library was devised, suffi
ciently general to be practicable, and sufficiently partic
ular to direct me immediately to all my authorities on
any given point. The system, on trial, stands the test,
and the index when completed, as it already is for the
twelve hundred authors quoted in this work, will more
than double the practical value of the library.
Of the importance of the task undertaken, I need
not say that I have formed the highest opinion. At
present the few grains of wheat are so hidden by
the mountain of chaff as to be of comparatively little
benefit to searchers in the various branches of learn
ing; and to sift and select from this mass, to extract
from bulky tome and transient journal, from the archives
of convent and mission, facts valuable to the scholar
and interesting to the general reader; to arrange these
facts in a natural order, and to present them in such a
manner as to be of practical benefit to inquirers in the
various branches of knowledge, is a work of no small
import and responsibility. And though mine is the
labor of the artisan rather than that of the artist, a forg
ing of weapons for abler hands to wield, a producing
of raw materials for skilled mechanics to weave and
color at will; yet, in undertaking to bring to light from
sources innumerable essential facts, which, from the
very shortness of life if from no other cause, must other
wise be left out in the physical and social generalizations
which occupy the ablest minds, I feel that I engage in
no idle pastime.
A word as to the Nations of which this work is a de
scription, and my method of treating the subject. Abo
riginally, for a savage wilderness, there was here a dense
population; particularly south of the thirtieth parallel,
X . PREFACE.
and along the border of the ocean north of that line.
Before the advent of Europeans, this domain counted
its aborigines by millions; ranked among its people
every phase of primitive humanity, from the reptile-
eating cave-dweller of the Great Basin, to the Aztec and
Maya-Quiche civilization of the southern table-land,
—a civilization, if we may credit Dr Draper, " that
might have instructed Europe," a culture wantonly
crushed by Spain, who therein " destroyed races more
civilized than herself."
Differing among themselves in minor particulars only,
and bearing a general resemblance to the nations of east
ern and southern America; differing again, the whole,
in character and cast of features from every other people
of the wrorld, we have here presented hundreds of
nations and tongues, with thousands of beliefs and
customs, wonderfully dissimilar for so segregated a
humanity, yet wonderfully alike for the inhabitants of
a land that comprises within its limits nearly every phase
of climate on the globe. At the touch of European
civilization, whether Latin or Teutonic, these nations
vanished; and their unwritten history, reaching back
for thousands of ages, ended. All this time they had
been coming and going, nations swallowing up nations,
annihilating and being annihilated, amidst human con
vulsions and struggling civilizations. Their strange
destiny fulfilled, in an instant they disappear; and all
we have of them, besides their material relics, is the
glance caught in their hasty flight, which gives us a
few customs and traditions, arid a little mythological
history.
To gather and arrange in systematic compact form all
that is known of these people; to rescue some facts,
PKEFACE. xi
perhaps, from oblivion, to bring others from inaccessible
nooks, to render all available to science and to the
general reader, is the object of this work. Necessarily
some parts of it may be open to the charge of dryness;
I have not been able to interlard my facts with interest
ing anecdotes for lack of space, and I have endeavored
to avoid speculation, believing, as I do, the work of the
collector and that of the theorizer to be distinct, and
that he who attempts to establish some pet conjecture
while imparting general information, can hardly be
trusted for impartial statements. With respect to the
territorial divisions of the first volume, which is con
fined to the Wild Tribes, and the necessity of giving
descriptions of the same characteristics in each, there
may be an appearance of repetition; but I trust this
may be found more apparent than real. Although there
are many similar customs, there are also many minor
differences, and, as one of the chief difficulties of this
volume was to keep it within reasonable limits, no delin
eation has been repeated where a necessity did not ap
pear to exist. The second volume, which treats of the
Civilized Nations, offers a more fascinating field, and
with ample space and all existing authorities at hand,
the fault is the writer's if interest be not here combined
with value. As regards Mythology, Languages, Antiq
uities, and Migrations, of which the three remaining
volumes treat, it has been my aim to present clearly and
concisely all knowledge extant on these subjects; and
the work, as a whole, is intended to embody all facts that
have been preserved concerning these people at the time
of their almost simultaneous discovery and disappear
ance. It will be noticed that I have said little of the
natives or their deeds since the coming of the Euro-
xii PREFACE.
peans; of their wars against invaders and among them
selves; of repartimientos, presidios, missions, reserva
tions, and other institutions for their conquest, conver
sion, protection, or oppression. My reason for this is
that all these things, so far as they have any importance,
belong to the modern history of the country and will
receive due attention in a subsequent work.
In these five volumes, besides information acquired
from sources not therein named, are condensed the re
searches of twelve hundred writers, a list of whose works,
with the edition used, is given in this volume. I
have endeavored to state fully and clearly in my text
the substance of the matter, and in reaching my conclu
sions to use due discrimination as to the respective value
of different authorities. In the notes I give liberal quo
tations, both corroborative of the text, and touching points
on which authors differ, together with complete references
to all authorities, including some of little value, on each
point, for the use of readers or writers who may either
be dissatisfied with my conclusions, or may wish to in
vestigate any particular branch of the subject farther
than my limits allow.
I have given full credit to each of the many authors
from whom I have taken material, and if, in a few in
stances, a scarcity of authorities has compelled me to
draw somewhat largely on the few who have treated par
ticular points, I trust I shall be pardoned in view of
the comprehensive nature of the work. Quotations
are made in the languages in which they are written,
and great pains has been taken to avoid mutilation of
the author's words. As the books quoted form part of
my private library, I have been able, by comparison
with the originals, to carefully verify all references after
PREFACE, xiii
they were put in type; hence I may confidently hope
that fewer errors have crept in than are usually found
in works of such variety and extent.
The labor involved in the preparation of these volumes
will be appreciated by few. That expended on the first
volume alone, with all the material before me, is more
than equivalent to the well-directed efforts of one person
for ten years. In the work of selecting, sifting, and ar
ranging iny subject-matter, I have called in the aid of a
large corps of assistants, and, while desiring to place on
no one but myself any responsibility for the work, either
in style or matter, I would render just acknowledgment
for the services of all ; especially to the following gentle
men, for the efficient manner in which, each in his
special department, they have devoted their energies and
abilities to the carrying out of my plan; — to Mr T.
Arundel-Harcourt, in the researches on the manners
and customs of the Civilized Nations ; to Mr Walter M.
Fisher, in the investigation of Mythology ; to Mr Albert
Goldschmidt, in the treatise on Language; and to Mr
Henry L. Oak, in the subject of Antiquities and Aborig
inal History.
CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME.
CHAPTEK I.
ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
PAGE.
Facts and Theories — Hypotheses concerning Origin — Unity of Race —
Diversity of Race — Spontaneous Generation — Origin of Animals
and Plants — Primordial Centres of Population — Distribution of
Plants and Animals — Adaptability of Species to Locality — Classifi
cation of Species— Ethnological Tests— Races of the Pacific — First
Intercourse with Europeans 1
CHAPTEK II.
HYPERBOREANS.
General Divisions — Hyperborean Nations — Aspects of Nature — Vegeta
tion — Climate — Animals — The Eskimos — Their Country — Physical
Characteristics — Dress — Dwellings — Food — Weapons — Boats —
Sledges — Snow-Shoes — Government — Domestic Affairs — Amuse
ments — Diseases — Burial — The Koniagas, their Physical and Social
Condition— The Aleuts— The Thlinkeets— The Tiimeh '. . 33
CHAPTER III.
COLUMBIANS.
Habitat of the Columbian Group— Physical Geography — Sources of
Food Supply— Influence of Food and Climate — Four extreme Classes
— Haidahs — Their Home — Physical Peculiarities — Clothing— Shel
ter— Sustenance— Implements— Manufactures— Arts— Property-
Laws — Slavery — Women — Customs — Medicine — Death — TheNoot-
kas— The Sound Nations— The Chinooks^The Shushwaps— The
Salish— The Sahaptins 150
CHAPTER IV.
CALIFORNIANS.
Groupal Divisions; Northern, Central, and Southern Calif ornians, and
Shoshones— Country of the Califomians — The Klamaths, Modocs,
Shastas, Pitt River Indians, Eurocs, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Weeyots,
xvi CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Tolewahs, and Rogue River Indians and their Customs — The Teha-
mas, Pomos, Ukiahs, Gualalas, Sonomas, Petalumas, Napas, Sus-
cols, Suisunes, Tamales, Karquines, Tulomos, Thamiens, Olchones,
Runsiens, Escelens, and others of Central California — The Ca-
huillos, Diegueiios, Islanders, and Mission Rancherias of Southern
California — The Snakes or Shoshones proper, Utahs, Bannocks,
Washoes and other Shoshone Nations 322
CHAPTEK V.
NEW MEXICANS.
Geographical Position of this Group, and Physical Features of the Ter
ritory — Family Divisions; Apaches, Pueblos, Lower Californians,
and Northern Mexicans — The Apache Family: Comanches, Apaches
proper, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninos, Yampais, Yalchedunes, Ya-
majabs, Cruzados, Nijoras, Navajos, Mojaves, and their customs
— The Pueblo Family: Pueblos, Moquis, Pimas, Maricopas, Papa-
gos, and their Neighbors — The Cochimis, Waicuris, Pericuis, and
other Lower Californians — The Seris, Sinaloas, Tarahumares, Con-
chos, Tepehuanes, Tobosos, Acaxees, and others in Northern
Mexico 471
CHAPTER VI.
WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
Territorial Aspects — Two Main Divisions; Wild Tribes of Central Mex
ico, and Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico — The Coras and others in
Jalisco — Descendants of the Aztecs — The Otomis and Mazahuas
Adjacent to the Valley of Mexico — The Fames — The Tarascos and
Matlaltzincas of Michoacan — The Huaztecs and Totonacos of Vera
Cruz and Tamaulipas — The Chontales, Chinantecs, Mazatecs, Cui-
catecs, Chatinos, Miztecs, Zapotecs, Mijes, Huaves, Chiapanecs,
Zoques, Lacandones, Choles, Mames, Tzotziles, Tzendales, Cho-
chones and others of Southern Mexico 615
CHAPTER VII.
WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
Physical Geography and Climate — Three Groupal Divisions; First, the
nations of Yucatan, Guatemala, Salvador, Western Honduras, and
Nicaragua; Second, The Mosquitos of Honduras; Third, the na
tions of Costa Rica and the Isthmus of Panamd — The Popolucas,
Pipiles and Chontales — The Descendants of the Maya-Quiche Races
—The Natives of Nicaragua — The Mosquitos, Poyas, Ramas, Len-
cas, Towkas, Woolwas, and Xicaques of Honduras — The Guatusos
of the Rio Frio — The Caimanes, Bayamos, Dorachos, Goajiros,
Mandingos, Savanerics, Sayrones, and Viscitas living in Costa Rica
and on the Isthmus . 684
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Wilkes (Charles), ^SVestern America. Philadelphia, 1849.
Wilkes (George), History of Oregon. New York, 1845.
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1840.
THE NATIVE RACES
OP THE
PACIFIC STATES.
WILD TRIBES.
CHAPTER I.
ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
FACTS AND THEORIES — HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN — UNITY OP EACE —
DIVERSITY or RACE — SPONTANEOUS GENERATION — ORIGIN or ANIMALS AND
PLANTS — PRIMORDIAL CENTRES OP POPULATION — DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS
AND ANIMALS — ADAPTABILITY OF SPECIES TO LOCALITY — CLASSIFICATION
OF SPECIES — ETHNOLOGICAL TESTS — RACES OP THE PACIFIC — FIRST INTER
COURSE WITH EUROPEANS.
Facts are the raw material of science. They are to
philosophy and history, what cotton and iron are to
cloth and steam-engines. Like the raw material of the
manufacturer, they form the bases of innumerable fabrics,
are woven into many theories finely spun or coarsely
spun, which wear out with time, become unfashionable,
or else prove to be indeed true and fit, and as such re
main. This raw material of the scholar, like that of the
manufacturer, is always a staple article ; its substance
never changes, its value never diminishes ; whatever
may be the condition of society, or howsoever advanced
the mind, it is indispensable. Theories may be only for
the day, but facts are for all time and for all science.
When we remember that the sum of all knowledge is
but the sum of ascertained facts, and that every new
2 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
fact brought to light, preserved, and thrown into the
general fund, is so much added to the world's store of
knowledge, — when we consider that, broad and far as our
theories may reach, the realm of definite, tangible, ascer
tained truth is still of so little extent, the impoi tance
of every never-so-insignificant acquisition is manifest.
Compare any fact with the fancies which have been
prevalent concerning it, and consider, I will not say
their relative brilliance, but their relative importance.
Take electricity, how many explanations have been
given of the lightning and the thunder, yet there is but
one fact; the atmosphere, how many howling demons
have directed the tempest, how many smiling deities
moved in the soft breeze. For the one all-sufficient
First Cause, how many myriads of gods have been set
up ; for every phenomenon how many causes have been
invented ; with every truth how many untruths have
contended, with every fact how many fancies. The
profound investigations of latter-day philosophers are
nothing but simple and laborious inductions from ascer
tained facts, facts concerning attraction, polarity, chemi
cal affinity and the like, for the explanation of which
there are countless hypotheses, each hypothesis involving
multitudes of speculations, all of which evaporate as the
truth slowly crystallizes. Speculation is valuable to
science only as it directs the mind into otherwise-undis-
coverable paths ; but when the truth is found, there is
an end to speculation.
So much for facts in general ; let us now look for a
moment at the particular class of facts of which this
work is a collection.
The tendency of philosophic inquiry is more and more
toward the origin of things. In the earlier stages of
intellectual impulse, the mind is almost wholly absorbed
in ministering to the necessities of the present ; next, the
mysterious uncertainty of the after life provokes inquiry,
and contemplations of an eternity of the future command
attention ; but not until knowledge is well advanced
TENDENCY OF PHILOSOPHIC INQUIRY. 3
does it appear that there is likewise an eternity of the
past worthy of careful scrutiny, — without which scrutiny,
indeed, the eternity of the future must forever remain
a sealed book. Standing as we do between these
two eternities, our view limited to a narrow though
gradually widening horizon, as nature unveils her mys
teries to our inquiries, an infinity spreads out in either
direction, an infinity of minuteness no less than an
infinity of immensity ; for hitherto, attempts to reach the
ultimate of molecules, have proved as futile as attempts
to reach the ultimate of masses. Now man, the noblest
work of creation, the only reasoning creature, standing
alone in the midst of this vast sea of undiscovered truth,—
ultimate knowledge ever receding from his grasp, primal
causes only thrown farther back as proximate problems
are solved, — man, in the study of mankind, must follow
his researches in both of these directions, backward as
well as forward, must indeed derive his whole knowl
edge of what man is and will be from what he has been.
Thus it is that the study of mankind in its minuteness
assumes the grandest proportions. Viewed in this light
there is not a feature of primitive humanity without sig
nificance ; there is not a custom or characteristic of sav
age nations, however mean or revolting to us, from which
important lessons may not be drawn. It is only from
the study of barbarous and partially cultivated nations
that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive
being, and to recognize the successive stages through
which our savage ancestors have passed on their way to
civilization. With the natural philosopher, there is little
thought as to the relative importance of the manifold
works of creation. The tiny insect is no less an object
of his patient scrutiny, than the wonderful and complex
machinery of the cosmos. The lower races of men, in
the study of humanity, he deems of as essential import
ance as the higher ; our present higher races being but
the lower types of generations yet to come.
Hence, if in the following pages, in the array of
4 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
minute facts incident to the successive peoples of which
we speak, some of them appear small and unworthy of
notice, let it be remembered that in nature there is no
such thing as insignificance ; still less is there anything
connected with man unworthy of our most careful study,
or any peculiarity of savagism irrelevant to civilization.
Different schools of naturalists maintain widely differ
ent opinions regarding the origin of mankind. Existing
theories may be broadly divided into three categories;
in the first two of which man is considered as a special
creation, and in the third as a natural development from
some lower type. The special-creation school is divided
on the question of unity or diversity of race. The first
party holds by the time-honored tradition, that all the
nations of the earth are descended from a single human
pair ; the second affirms, that by one creative act were pro
duced several special creations, each separate creation being
the origin of a race, and each race primordially adapted
to that part of the globe which it now inhabits. The third
theory, that of the development school, denies that there
ever were common centres of origin in organic creation ;
but claims that plants and animals generate spontane
ously, and that man is but the modification of some pre
existing animal form.
The first hypothesis, the doctrine of the monogenists,
is ably supported by Latham, Prichard, and many other
eminent ethnologists of Europe, and is the favorite
opinion of orthodox thinkers throughout Christendom.
The human race, they say, having sprung from a single
pair, constitutes but one stock, though subject to various
modifications. Anatomically, there is no difference be
tween a Negro and a European. The color of the skin,
the texture of the hair, the convolutions of the brain,
and all other peculiarities, may be attributed to heat,
moisture, and food. Man, though capable of subduing
the world to himself, and of making his home under
climates and circumstances the most diverse, is none the
OKIGIN OF MAN. 5
less a child of nature, acted upon and molded by those
conditions which he attempts to govern. Climate, peri
odicities of nature, material surroundings, habits of
thought and modes of life, acting through a long series
of ages, exercise a powerful influence upon the human
physical organization ; and yet man is perfectly created
for any sphere in which he may dwell ; and is governed
in his condition by choice rather than by coercion.
Articulate language, which forms the great line of de
marcation between the human and the brute creation,
may be traced in its leading characteristics to one com
mon source. The differences between the races of men
are not specific differences. The greater part of the
flora and fauna of America, those of the circum polar
regions excepted, are essentially dissimilar to those of
the old world; while man in the new world, though
bearing traces of high antiquity, is specifically identical
with all the races of the earth. It is well known that
the hybrids of plants and of animals do not possess the
power of reproduction, while in the intermixture of the
races of men no such sterility of progeny can be found ;
and therefore, as there are no human hybrids, there are
no separate human races or species, but all are one fam
ily. Besides being consistent with sound reasoning, this
theory can bring to its support the testimony of the
sacred writings, and an internal evidence of a creation
divine and spiritual, which is sanctioned by tradition,
and confirmed by most philosophic minds. Man,
unlike animals, is the direct offspring of the Creator,
and as such he alone continues to derive his inherit
ance from a divine source. The Hebraic record, con
tinue the monogenists, is the only authentic solution of
the origin of all things; and its history is not only fully
sustained by science, but it is upheld by the traditions
of the most ancient barbarous nations, whose mythology
strikingly resembles the Mosaic account of the creation,
the deluge, and the distribution of peoples. The Semitic
family alone were civilized from the beginning. A pe-
6 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
culiar people, constantly upheld by special act of Provi
dence from falling into paganism, they alone possessed a
true knowledge of the mystery of creation. A universal
necessity for some form of worship, a belief inherent in
all mankind, in an omnipotent deity and a life beyond
the grave, point to a common origin and prophesy a
common destiny. This much for the monogenists.
The second hypothesis, that of the polygenists, holds
that there was not one only, but several independent
creations, each giving birth to the essential, unchangeable
peculiarities of a separate race; thus constituting a di
versity of species with primeval adaptation to their
geographical distribution. Morton, Agassiz, Gliddon,
and others in America, stand sponsors for this theory.
The physiological differences of race, they say, which
separate mankind into classes, do not result from climatic
surroundings, but are inherited from original progenitors.
They point to marked characteristics in various peoples
which have remained unchanged for a period of four
thousand years. In place of controverting divine reve
lation, they claim that Mosaic history is the history of a
single race, and not the history of all mankind ; that the
record itself contains an implied existence of other races ;
and that the distribution of the various species or races
of men, according to their relative organisms, was part
of the creative act, and of no less importance than was
the act of creation.
The third hypothesis, derived mainly from the writ
ings of Lamarck, Darwin, and Huxley, is based upon the
principle of evolution. All existing species are develop
ments of some preexisting form, which in like manner
descended by true generation from a form still lower.
Man, say they, bears no impress of a divine original that is
not common to brutes; he is but an animal, more perfectly
developed through natural and sexual selection. Com
mencing with the spontaneous generation of the lowest
types of vegetable and animal life, — as the accumulation
of mold upon food, the swarming of maggots in meat,
HYPOTHESES CONCERNING ORIGIN. 7
the infusorial animalcules in water, the generation of
insect life in decaying vegetable substances, — the birth of
one form arising out of the decay of another, the slow
and gradual unfolding from a lower to a higher sphere,
acting through a long succession of ages, culminate in the
grandeur of intellectual manhood. Thus much for this
life, while the hope of a like continued progress is enter
tained for the life to come. While the tendency of variety
in organic forms is to decrease, argue these latter-day
naturalists, individuals increase in a proportion greater
than the provisional means of support. A predomi
nating species, under favorable circumstances, rapidly
multiplies, crowding out and annihilating opposing spe
cies. There is therefore a constant struggle lor existence
in nature, in which the strongest, those best fitted to live
and improve their species, prevail; while the deformed
and ill-favored are destroyed. In courtship and sexual
selection the war for precedence continues. Throughout
nature the male is the wooer ; he it is who is armed for
fight, and provided with musical organs and ornamental
appendages, with which to charm the fair one. The
savage arid the wild beast alike secure their mate over
the mangled form of a vanquished rival. In this man
ner the more highly favored of either sex are mated,
and natural selections made, by which, better ever pro
ducing better, the species in its constant variation is
constantly improved. Many remarkable resemblances
may be seen between man and the inferior animals. In
embryonic development, in physical structure, in material
composition and the function of organs, man and animals
are strikingly alike. And, in the possession of that
immaterial nature which more widely separates the
human from the brute creation, the ' reasonable soul '
of man is but an evolution from brute instincts. The
difference in the mental faculties of man and ani
mals is immense ; but the high culture which belongs to
man has been slowly developed, and there is plainly a
wider separation between the mental power of the lowest
8 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
zoophyte and the highest ape, than between the most
intellectual ape and the least intellectual man. Physi
cally and mentally, the man-like ape and the ape-like
man sustain to each other a near relationship; while
between the mammal and the mollusk there exists the
greatest possible dissimilarity. Articulate language, it
is true, acting upon the brain, and in turn being acted
upon to the improvement of both, belongs only to man ;
yet animals are not devoid of expedients for express
ing feeling and emotion. It has been observed that no
brute ever fashioned a tool for a special purpose; but
some animals crack nuts with a stone, and an accident
ally splintered flint naturally suggests itself as the first
instrument of primeval man. The chief difficulty lies
in the high state of moral and intellectual power which
may be attained by man; yet this same progressive
principle is likewise found in brutes. Nor need we
blush for our origin. The nations now most civilized
were once barbarians. Our ancestors were savages, who,
with tangled hair, and glaring eyes, and blood-besmeared
hands, devoured man and beast alike. Surely a re
spectable gorilla lineage stands no unfavorable compari
son.
Between the first and the last of these three rallying
points, a whole continent of debatable land is spread,
stretching from the most conservative orthodoxy to the
most scientific liberalism. Numberless arguments may
be advanced to sustain any given position ; and not un-
frequently the same analogies are brought forward to
prove propositions directly oppugnant. As has been ob
served, each school ranks among its followers the ablest
men of science of the day. These men do not differ in
minor particulars only, meeting in general upon one
broad, common platform; on the contrary, they find
themselves unable to agree as touching any one thing,
except that man is, and that he is surrounded by those
climatic influences best suited to his organization. Any
one of these theories, if substantiated, is the death-blow
PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 9
of the others. The first denies any diversity of species
in creation and all immutability of race; the second
denies a unity of species and the possibility of change
in race ; the third denies all special acts of creation and,
like the first, all immutability of race.
The question respecting the origin of animals and
plants has likewise undergone a similar flux of beliefs,
but with different result. Whatever the conclusions
may be with regard to the origin of man, naturalists of
the present day very generally agree, that there was no
one universal centre of propagation for plants and ani
mals; but that the same conditions of soil, moisture,
heat, and geographical situation, always produce a simi
larity of species ; or, what is equivalent, that there were
many primary centres, each originating species, which
spread out from these centres and covered the earth.
This doctrine was held by early naturalists to be irrecon
cilable with the Scripture account of the creation, and
was therefore denounced as heretical. Linnceus and his
contemporaries drew up a pleasing picture, assigning the
birth-place of all forms of life to one particular fertile
spot, situated in a genial climate, and so diversified with
lofty mountains and declivities, as to present all the
various temperatures requisite for the sustenance of the
different species of animal and vegetable life. The most
exuberant types of flora and fauna are found within the
tropical regions, decreasing in richness and profusion
towards either pole; while man in his greatest perfection
occupies the temperate zone, degenerating in harmony of
features, in physical symmetry, and in intellectual vigor
in either direction. Within this temperate zone is placed
the hypothetical cradle of the human race, varying in
locality according to religion and tradition. The Cau
casians are referred for their origin to Mount Caucasus,
the Mongolians to Mount Altai, and the A means to
Mount Atlas. Three primordial centres of population
have been assigned to the three sons of Noah, — Arabia,
the Semitic ; India, the Japetic ; and Egypt, the Harmtie
10 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
centre. Thibet, and the mountains surrounding the Gobi
desert, have been designated as the point from which a
general distribution was made ; while the sacred writings
mention four rich and beautiful valleys, two of which are
watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, as the birth-place
of man. It was formerly believed that in the beginning,
the primeval ocean covered the remaining portion of the
globe, and that from this central spot the waters receded,
thereby extending the limits of terrestrial life.
Admitting the unity of origin, conjecture points with
apparent reason to the regions of Armenia and of Iran,
in western Asia, as the cradle of the human race. De
parting from this geographical centre, in the directions
of the extremities of the continent, the race at first de
generated in proportion to distance. Civilization was for
many ages confined within these central limits, until by
slow degrees, paths were marked out to the eastward and
to the westward, terminating the one upon the eastern
coast of Asia, and the other upon the American shores
of the Pacific.
Concerning the distribution of plants and animals,
but one general opinion is now sustained with any de
gree of reason. The beautifully varied systems of vege
tation with which the habitable earth is clothed, springing
up in rich, spontaneous abundance ; the botanical centres
of corresponding latitudes producing resemblance in gen
era without identity of species ; their inability to cross
high mountains or wide seas, or to pass through inhospi
table zones, or in any way to spread far from the original
centre, — all show conclusively the impossibility that such
a multitude of animal and vegetable tribes, with char
acters so diverse, could have derived their origin from
the same locality, and disappearing entirely from their
original birth-place, sprung forth in some remote part of
the globe. Linnaeus, and many others of his time, held
that all telluric tribes, in common with mankind, sprang
from a single pair, and descended from the stock which
was preserved by Noah. Subsequently this opinion was
PRIMORDIAL CENTRES. 11
modified, giving to each species an origin in some certain
spot to which it was particularly adapted by nature ; and
it was supposed that from these primary centres, through
secondary causes, there was a general diffusion through
out the surrounding regions.
A comparison of the entomology of the old world and
the new, shows that the genera and species of insects are
for the most part peculiar to the localities in which they
are found. Birds and marine animals, although unre
stricted in their movements, seldom wander far from
specific centres. With regard to wild beasts, and the
larger animals, insurmountable difficulties present them
selves ; so that we may infer that the systems of animal
life are indigenous to the great zoological provinces
where they are found.
On the other hand, the harmony which exists be
tween the organism of man and the methods by which
nature meets his requirements, tends conclusively to
show that the world in its variety was made for man,
and that man is made for any portion of the earth in
which he may be found. Whencesoever he comes, or
howsoever he reaches his dwelling-place, he always finds it
prepared for him. On the icy banks of the Arctic Ocean,
where mercury freezes and the ground never softens, the
Eskimo, wrapped in furs, and burrowing in the earth,
revels in grease and train-oil, sustains vitality by eating
raw flesh and whale-fat; while the naked inter-tropical
man luxuriates in life under a burning sun, where ether
boils and reptiles shrivel upon the hot stone over which
they attempt to crawl. The watery fruit and shading
vegetation would be as useless to the one, as the heating
food and animal clothing would be to the other.
The capability of man to endure all climates, his om
nivorous habits, and his powers of locomotion, enable
him to roam at will over the earth. He was endowed
with intelligence wherewith to invent methods of migra
tion and means of protection from unfavorable climatic
influence, and with capabilities for existing in almost
12 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
any part of the world ; so that, in the economy of nature
the necessity did not exist with regard to man for that
diversity of creation which was deemed requisite in the
case of plants and animals.
The classification of man into species or races, so as
to be able to designate by his organization the family to
which he belongs, as well as the question of his origin,
has been the subject of great diversity of opinion, from
the fact that the various forms so graduate into each
other, that it is impossible to determine which is species
and which variety. Attempts have indeed been made
at divisions of men into classes according to their pri
meval and permanent physiological structure, but what
uniformity can be expected from such a classification
among naturalists who cannot so much as agree what is
primeval and what permanent ?
The tests applied by ethnologists for distinguishing the
race to which an individual belongs, are the color of the
skin, the size and shape of the skull, — determined gen
erally by the facial angle, — the texture of the hair, and
the character of the features. The structure of language,
also, has an important bearing upon the affinity of races ;
and is, with some ethnologists, the primary criterion in
the classification of species. The facial angle is deter
mined by a line drawn from the forehead to the
front of the upper jaw, intersected by a horizontal line
passing over the middle of the ear. The facial angle
of a European is estimated at 85°, of a Negro at 75°,
and of the ape at 60°. Representations of an adult
Troglodyte measure 35°, and of a Satyr 30°. Some
writers classify according to one or several of these tests,
others consider them all in arriving at their conclusions.
Thus, Yirey divides the human family into twro
parts: those with a facial angle of from eighty-five
to ninety degrees, — embracing the Caucasian, Mongo
lian, and American; and those with a facial angle of
from seventy -five to eighty -two degrees, — including
the Malay, Negro, and Hottentot. Cuvier and Jaquinot
SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATIONS. 13
make three classes, placing the Malay and American
among the subdivisions of the Mongolian. Kant makes
four divisions under four colors : white, black, copper, and
olive. Linnaeus also makes four: European, whitish;
American, coppery; Asiatic, tawny; and African, black.
Buffon makes five divisions and Blumenbach live. Blu-
menbach's classification is based upon cranial admeasure
ments, complexion, and texture of the hair. His divis
ions are Caucasian or Aryan, Mongolian, Ethiopian,
Malay, and American. Lesson makes six divisions ac
cording to colors : white, dusky, orange, yellow, red,
and black. Bory de St "Vincent arranges fifteen stocks
under three classes which are differenced by hair : Euro
pean straight hair, American straight hair, and crisped
or curly hair. In like manner Prof. Zeune designates
his divisions under three types of crania for the eastern
hemisphere, and three for the western, namely, high
skulls, broad skulls, and long skulls. Hunter classifies
the human family under seven species; Agassiz makes
eight ; Pickering, eleven ; Desmoulins, sixteen ; and
Crawford, sixty-three. Dr Latham, considered by many
the chief exponent of the science of ethnology in En
gland, classifies the different races under three primary
divisions, namely: Mongolidce, Atlantidse, and Japetidse.
Prichard makes three principal types of cranial conforma
tion, which he denominates respectively, the civilized
races, the nomadic or wandering races, and the savage
or hunting races. Agassiz designates the races of men
according to the zoological provinces which they respect
ively occupy. Thus the Arctic realm is inhabited by
Hyperboreans, the Asiatic by Mongols, the European
by white men, the American by American Indians, the
African by black races, and the East Indian, Australian
and Polynesian by their respective peoples.
Now when we consider the wide differences between
naturalists, not only as to what constitutes race and
species, — if there be variety of species in the human
family, — but also in the assignment of peoples and indi-
U ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
viduals to their respective categories under the direction
of the given tests ; when we see the human race classi
fied under from one to sixty -three distinct species,
according to individual opinions; and when we see that
the several tests which govern classification are by no
means satisfactory, and that those who have made this
subject the study of their lives, cannot agree as touching
the fundamental characteristics of such classification —
we cannot but conclude, either that there are no abso
lute lines of separation between the various members of
the human family, or that thus far the touchstone by
which such separation is to be made remains undis
covered.
The color of the human skin, for example, is no cer
tain guide in classification. Microscopists have ascer
tained that the normal colorations of the skin are not the
results of organic differences in race ; that complexions
are not permanent physical characters, but are sub
ject to change. Climate is a cause of physical differ
ences, and frequently in a single tribe may be found
shades of color extending through all the various transi
tions from black to white. In one people, part occupying
a cold mountainous region, and part a heated low
land, a marked difference in color is always perceptible.
Peculiarities in the texture of the hair are likewise no
proof of race. The hair is more sensibly affected by
the action of the climate than the skin. Every degree
of color and crispation may be found in the Euro
pean family alone; and even among the frizzled locks
of negroes every gradation appears, from crisped to
flowing hair. The growth of the beard may be cul
tivated or retarded according to the caprice of the indi
vidual ; and in those tribes which are characterized by an
absence or thinness of beard, may be found the practice,
continued for ages, of careMly plucking out all traces
of beard at the age of puberty. ISTo physiological de
formities have been discovered which prevent any people
from cultivating a beard if such be their pleasure. The
ALL TESTS FALLACIOUS, 15
conformation of the cranium is often peculiar to habits
of rearing the young, and may be modified by acci
dental or artificial causes. The most eminent scholars
now hold the opinion that the size and shape of the skull
has far less influence upon the intelligence of the indi
vidual than the quality and convolutions of the brain.
The structure of language, especially when offered in
evidence supplementary to that of physical science, is
most important in establishing a relationship between
races. But it should be borne in mind that languages
are acquired, not inherited ; that they are less permanent
than living organisms ; that they are constantly changing,
merging into each other, one dialect dying out and an
other springing into existence; that in the migrations of
nomadic tribes, or in the arrival of new nations, although
languages may for a time preserve their severalty, they
are at last obliged, from necessity, to yield rio the as
similating influences which constantly surround them,
and become merged into the dialects of neighboring
clans. And on the other hand, a counter influence
is exercised upon the absorbing dialect. The dialectic
fusion of two communities results in the partial disap
pearance of both languages, so that a constant assimilation
and dissimilation is going on. a The value of language,"
says Latham, " has been overrated;" and Whitney
affirms that " language is no infallible sign of race;"
although both of these authors give to language the first
place as a test of national affinities. Language is not a
physiological characteristic, but an acquisition; and as
such should be used with care in the classification of
species.
Science, during the last half century, has unfolded
many important secrets; has tamed impetuous elements,
called forth power and life from the hidden recesses of
the earth ; has aroused the slumbering energies of both
mental and material force, changed the currents of
thought, emancipated the intellect from religious tran
scendentalism, and spread out to the broad light of open
16 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
day a vast sea of truth. Old-time beliefs have had to
give place. The debris of one exploded dogma is scarcely
cleared away before we are startled with a request for
the yielding up of another long and dearly cherished
opinion. And in the attempt to read the book of hu
manity as it comes fresh from the impress of nature, to
trace the history of the human race, by means of moral
and physical characteristics, backward through all its
intricate windings to its source, science has accomplished
much; but the attempt to solve the great problem of
human existence, by analogous comparisons of man with
man, and man with animals, has so far been vain and
futile in the extreme.
I would not be understood as attempting captiously to
decry the noble efforts of learned men to solve the prob
lems of nature. For who can tell what may or may
not be found out by inquiry? Any classification, more
over, and any attempt at classification, is better than
none; and in drawing attention to the uncertainty of
the conclusions arrived at by science, I but reiterate
the opinions of the most profound thinkers of the day.
It is only shallow and flippant scientists, so called,
who arbitrarily force deductions from mere postulates,
and with one sweeping assertion strive to annihilate all
history and tradition. They attempt dogmatically to set
up a reign of intellect in opposition to that of the Author
of intellect. Terms of vituperation and contempt with
which a certain class of writers interlard their sophisms,
as applied to those holding different opinions, are alike
an offense against good taste and sound reasoning.
Notwithstanding all these failures to establish rules
by which mankind may be divided into classes, there
yet remains the stubborn fact that differences do exist,
as palpable as the difference between daylight and
darkness. These differences, however, are so played
upon by change, that hitherto the scholar has been un
able to transfix those elements which appear to him
permanent and characteristic. For, as Draper remarks,
ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 17
" the permanence of organic forms is altogether depend
ent on the invariability of the material conditions under
which they live. Any variation therein, no matter how
insignificant it might be, would be forthwith followed by
a corresponding variation in form. The present invari
ability of the world of organization is the direct conse
quence of the physical equilibrium, and so it will con
tinue as long as the mean temperature, the annual supply
of light, the composition of the air, the distribution of
water, oceanic and atmospheric currents, and other such
agencies, remain unaltered ; but if any one of these, or
of a hundred other incidents that might be mentioned,
should suffer modification, in an instant the fanciful doc
trine of the immutability of species would be brought to
its true value."
The American Indians, their origin and consanguinity,
have, from the days of Columbus to the present time
proved no less a knotty question. Schoolmen and scien
tists count their theories by hundreds, each sustaining
some pet conjecture, with a logical clearness equaled
only by the facility with which he demolishes all the
rest. One proves their origin by holy writ; another
by the writings of ancient philosophers ; another by the
sage sayings of the Fathers. One discovers in them
Phoenician merchants; another, the ten lost tribes of
Israel. They are tracked with equal certainty from
Scandinavia, from Ireland, from Iceland, from Green
land, across Bering Strait, across the northern Pacific,
the southern Pacific, from, the Polynesian Islands, from
Australia, from Africa. Venturesome Carthaginians were
thrown upon the eastern shore ; Japanese junks on the
western. The breezes that wafted hither America' s primo
genitors are still blowing, and the ocean currents by which
they came cease not yet to flow. The finely spun webs of
logic by which these fancies are maintained would prove
amusing, did not the profound earnestness of their re
spective advocates render them ridiculous. Acosta, who
studied the subject for nine years in Peru, concludes
VOL. I. 2
18 ETHNOLOGICAL INTBODUCTION.
that America was the Ophir of Solomon. Aristotle re
lates that the Carthaginians in a voyage were carried to
an unknown island ; whereupon Florian, Gomara, Oviedo,
and others, are satisfied that the island was Espafiola.
" Who are these that fly like clouds," exclaims Esaias,
" or like doves to their windows ?" Scholastic sages
answer, Columbus is the columba or dove here prophesied.
Alexo Vanegas shows that America was peopled by Car
thaginians ; Anahuac being but another name for Anak.
Besides, both nations practiced picture-writing; both
venerated fire and water, wore skins of animals, pierced
the ears, ate dogs, drank to excess, telegraphed by means
of fires on hills, wore all their finery on going to war,
poisoned their arrows, beat drums and shouted in battle.
Garcia found a man in Peru who had seen a rock with
something very like Greek letters engraved upon it ; six
hundred yeara after the apotheosis of Hercules, Coleo
made a long voyage; Homer knew of the ocean; the
Athenians waged war with the inhabitants of Atlantis ;
hence the American Indians were Greeks. Lord Kings-
borough proves conclusively that these same American
Indians were Jews: because their " symbol of inno
cence " was in the one case a fawn and in the other a
lamb; because of the law of Moses, " considered in ref
erence to the custom of sacrificing children, which ex
isted in Mexico and Peru;" because " the fears of tumults
of the people, famine, pestilence, and warlike invasions,
were exactly the same as those entertained by the Jews
if they failed in the performance of any of their ritual
observances;" because "the education of children com
menced amongst the Mexicans, as with the Jews, at an
exceedingly early age;" because "beating with a stick
was a very common punishment amongst the Jews," as
well as among the Mexicans; because the priesthood of
both nations "was hereditary in a certain family;" be
cause both were inclined to pay great respect to lucky
or unlucky omens, such as the screeching of the owl.
the sneezing of a person in company," etc., and because
OBIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 19
of a hundred other equally sound and relevant argu
ments. Analogous reasoning to this of Lord Kings-
borough's was that of the Merced Indians of California.
Shortly after the discovery of the Yosemite Valley,
tidings reached the settlers of Mariposa that certain
chiefs had united with intent to drop down from their
mountain stronghold and annihilate them. To show
the Indians the uselessness of warring upon white men,
these chieftains were invited to visit the city of San
Francisco, where, from the number and superiority of
the people that they would there behold, they should
become intimidated, and thereafter maintain peace. But
contrary to the most reasonable expectations, no sooner had
the dusky delegates returned to their home than a coun
cil was called, and the assembled warriors were informed
that they need have no fear of these strangers: u For,"
said the envoys, ''the people of the great city of San Fran
cisco are of a different tribe from these white settlers of
Mariposa. Their manners, their customs, their language,
their dress, are all different. They wear black coats and
high hats, and are not able to walk along the smoothest
path without the aid of a stick."
There are many advocates for an Asiatic origin, both
among ancient and modern speculators. Favorable
winds and currents, the short distance between islands,
traditions, both Chinese and Indian, refer the peopling of
America to that quarter. Similarity in color, features,
religion, reckoning of time, absence of a heavy beard,
and innumerable other comparisons, are drawn by en
thusiastic advocates, to support a Mongolian origin. The
same arguments, in whole or in part, are used to prove
that America was peopled by Egyptians, by Ethiopians,
by French, English, Trojans, Frisians, Scythians; and
also that different parts were settled by different peoples.
The test of language has been applied with equal facility
and enthusiasm to Egyptian, Jew, Phoenician, Cartha
ginian, Spaniard, Chinese, Japanese, and in fact to nearly
all the nations of the earth. A complete review of
20 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
theories and opinions concerning the origin of the In
dians, I propose to give in another place ; not that intrin
sically they are of much value, except as showing the
different fancies of difterent men and times. Fancies, I
say, for modern scholars, with the aid of all the new rev
elations of science, do not appear in their investigations
to arrive one whit nearer an indubitable conclusion.
It was obvious to the Europeans wrhen they first
beheld the natives of America, that these were unlike
the intellectual white - skinned race of Europe, the bar
barous blacks of Africa, or any nation or people which
they had hitherto encountered, yet were strikingly like
each other. Into whatsoever part of the newly discov
ered lands they penetrated, they found a people seeminglv
one in color, physiognomy, customs, and in mental and
social traits. Their vestiges of antiquity and their lan
guages presented a coincidence which was generally
observed by early travelers. Hence physical and psy
chological comparisons are advanced to prove ethno
logical resemblances among all the peoples of America,
and that they meanwhile possess common peculiarities
totally distinct from the nations of the old world.
Morton and his confreres, the originators of the Amer
ican homogeneity theory, even go so far as to claim for
the American man an origin as indigenous as that of
the fauna and flora. They classify all the tribes of
America, excepting only the Eskimos who wandered over
from Asia, as the American race, and divide it into the
American family and the Toltecan family. Blumenbach
classifies the Americans as a distinct species. The
American Mongolidae of Dr Latham are divided into
Eskimos and American Indians. Dr Morton perceives
the same characteristic lineaments in the face of the
Fuegian and the Mexican, and in tribes inhabiting the
Rocky Mountains, the Mississippi Yalley, and Florida.
The same osteological structure, swarthy color, straight
hair, meagre beard, obliquely cornered eyes, prominent
cheek bones, and thick lips are common to them all.
INDIVIDUALITY OF RACE. 21
Dr Latham describes his American Mongolidae as exer
cising upon the world a material rather than a moral
influence ; giving them meanwhile a color, neither a true
white nor a jet black; hair straight and black, rarely
light, sometimes curly; eyes sometimes oblique; a broad,
flat face and a retreating forehead. Dr Prichard con
siders the American race, psychologically, as neither
superior nor inferior to other primitive races of the
world. Bory de St Vincent classifies Americans into
five species, including the Eskimos. The Mexicans
he considers as cognate with the Malays. Humboldt
characterizes the nations of America as one race, by
their straight glossy hair, thin beard, swarthy com
plexion, and cranial formation. Schoolcraft makes four
groups; the first extending across the northern end of
the continent ; the second, tribes living east of the Mis
sissippi; the third, those between the Mississippi and the
Rocky Mountains; and the fourth, those west of the
Rocky Mountains. All these he subdivides into thirty-
seven families; but so far as those on the Pacific Coast
are concerned, he might as reasonably have made of
them twice or half the number.
All writers agree in giving to the nations of America
a remote antiquity ; all admit that there exists a greater
uniformity between them than is to be found in
the old world; many deny that all are one race.
There is undoubtedly a prevailing uniformity in those
physical characteristics which govern classification ; but
this uniformity goes as far to prove one universal race
throughout the world, as it does to prove a race peculiar
to America. Traditions, ruins, moral and physical pecu
liarities, all denote for Americans a remote antiquity.
The action of a climate peculiar to America, and of
natural surroundings common to all the people of the
continent, could not fail to produce in time a similarity
of physiological structure.
The impression of a New World individuality of race
was no doubt strengthened in the eyes of the Conquerors,
22 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
and in the mind of the train of writers that followed, by
the fact, that the newly discovered tribes were more like
each other than were any other peoples they had ever
before seen ; and at the same time very much unlike any
nation whatever of the old world. And so any really
existing physical distinctions among the American stocks
came to be overlooked or undervalued. Darwin, on the
authority of Elphinstone, observes that in India, " al
though a newly arrived European cannot at first distin
guish the various native races, yet they soon appear to
him entirely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first
perceive any difference between the several European
nations."
It has been observed by Prof, von Martius that the lit
erary and architectural remains of the civilized tribes of
America indicate a higher degree of intellectual eleva
tion than is likely to be found in a nation emerging
from barbarism. In their sacerdotal ordinances, privi
leged orders, regulated despotisms, codes of law, and
forms of government are found clear indications of a
relapse from civilization to barbarism. Chateaubriand,
from the same premises, develops a directly opposite
conclusion, and perceives in all this high antiquity and
civilization only a praiseworthy evolution from primeval
barbarism.
Thus arguments drawn from a comparison of parallel
traits in the moral, social, or physical condition of man
should be received with allowance, for man has much in
common not only with man, but with animals. Vari
ations in bodily structure and mental faculties are gov
erned by general laws. The great variety of climate
which characterizes America could not fail to produce
various habits of life. The half-torpid Hyperborean,
the fierce warrior-hunter of the vast interior forests, the
sluggish, swarthy native of the tropics, and the intelli
gent Mexican of the table-land, slowly developing into
civilization under the -refining influences of arts and
letters, — all 1 these' indicate _ variety in the unity of the
EACES OF THE PACIFIC. 23
American race; while the insulation of American na
tions, and the general characteristics incident to peculiar
physical conditions could not fail to produce a unity in
their variety.
The races of the Pacific States embrace all the va
rieties of species known as American under any of the
classifications mentioned. Thus, in the five divisions
of Blumenbach, the Eskimos of the north would come
under the fourth division, which embraces Malays and
Polynesians, and which is distinguished by a high
square skull, low forehead, short broad nose, and pro
jecting jaws. To his fifth class, the American, which
he subdivides into the American family and the Tol-
tecan family, he gives a small skull with a high apex,
flat on the occiput, high cheek bones, receding forehead,
aquiline nose, large mouth, and tumid lips. Morton,
although he makes twenty-two divisions in all, classifies
Americans in the same manner. The Polar family he
characterizes as brown in color, short in stature, of thick,
clumsy proportions, with a short neck, large head, flat
face, small nose, and eyes disposed to obliquity. He
perceives an identity of race among all the other stocks
from Mount St Elias to Patagonia ; though he designates
the semi-civilized tribes of Mexico and Peru as the
Toltecan family, and the savage nations as the Appala
chian branch of the American family. Dr Prichard
makes three divisions of the tribes bordering the Pacific
between Mount St Elias and Cape St Lucas : the tribes
from the borders of the Eskimos southward to Van
couver Island constitute the first division; the tribes
of Oregon and Washington, the second ; and the tribes
of Upper and Lower California, the third. Pickering
assigns the limits of the American, Malay, or Toltecan
family to California and western Mexico. He is of the
opinion that they crossed from southeastern Asia by way
of the islands of the Pacific, and landed upon this con
tinent south of San Francisco, there being no traces of
them north of this point; while the Mongolians found
24 ETHNOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION.
their way from northeastern Asia across Bering Strait.
The Californians, therefore, he calls Malays; and the
inhabitants of Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
Washington, and Oregon, he classifies as Mongolians.
Californians, in the eyes of this traveler, differ from
their northern neighbors in complexion and physiog
nomy. The only physiological test that Mr Pickering
was able to apply in order to distinguish the Polynesian in
San Francisco from the native Californian, was that
the hair of the former was wavy, while that of the latter
was straight. Both have more hair than the Oregon-
ian. The skin of the Malay of the Polynesian Islands,
and that of the Californian are alike, soft and very
dark. Three other analogous characteristics were dis
covered by Mr Pickering. Both have an open coun
tenance, one wife, and no tomahawk ! On the other hand,
the Mongolian from Asia, and the Oregonian are of a
lighter complexion, and exhibit the same general resem
blances that are seen in the American and Asiatic Eskimos.
In general the Toltecan family may be described as of
good stature, well proportioned, rather above medium size,
of a light copper color ; as having long black obliquely
pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy black hair, thin
beard, prominent cheek bones, thick lips, large aquiline
nose, and retreating forehead. A gentle expression about
the mouth is blended with severity and melancholy in
the upper portion of the face. They are brave, cruel
in war, sanguinary in religion, and revengeful. They
are intelligent ; possess minds well adapted to the pursuit
of knowledge; and, at the time of the arrival of the
Spaniards, were well advanced in history, architect
ure, mathematics, and astronomy. They constructed
aqueducts, extracted metals, carved images in gold,
silver, and copper; they could spin, weave, and dye;
they could accurately cut precious stones; they culti
vated corn and cotton; built large cities, constructing
their buildings of stone and lime; made roads and
erected stupendous tumuli.
SAVAGE HUMANITY. 25
Certain ethnological zones have been observed by
some, stretching across the continent in various latitudes,
broken somewhat by intersecting continental elevations,
but following for the most part isothermal lines which,
on coming from the east, bend northward as the softer
air of the Pacific is entered. Thus the Eskimos nearly
surround the pole. Next come the Tinneh, stretch
ing across the continent from the east, somewhat irreg
ularly, but their course marked generally by thermic
lines, bending northward after crossing the Rocky
Mountains, their southern boundary, touching the Pa
cific, about the fifty-fifth parallel. The Algonkin family
border on the Tinneh, commencing at the mouth of the
St Lawrence River, and extending westward to the
Rocky Mountains. Natural causes alone prevent the
extension of these belts round the entire earth. In
deed, both philologists and physiologists trace lines of
affinity across the Pacific, from island to island, from
one continent to the other; one line, as we have seen,
crossing Bering Strait, another following the Aleutian
Archipelago, and a third striking the coast south of San
Francisco Bay.
It is common for those unaccustomed to look below
the surface of things, to regard Indians as scarcely
within the category of humanity. Especially is this the
case when we, maddened by some treacherous outrage,
some diabolic act of cruelty, hastily pronounce them
incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of
vipers, the extermination of which is a righteous act.
All of which may be true; but, judged by this stand
ard, has not every nation on earth incurred the death
penalty ? Human nature is in no wise changed by culture.
The European is but a white-washed savage. Civilized
venom is no less virulent than savage venom. It ill
becomes the full grown man to scoff at the ineffectual
attempts of the little child, and to attempt the cure of
its faults by killing it. No more is it a mark of benev
olent wisdom in those favored by a superior intel~
26 FIKST INTEKCOUKSE WITH EUROPEANS.
ligence, with the written records of the past from which
to draw experience and learn how best to shape their
course for the future, to cry down the untaught man of
the wilderness, deny him a place in this world or the
next, denounce him as a scourge, an outlaw, and seize
upon every light pretext to assist him oft' the stage from
which his doom is so rapidly removing him. We view
man in his primitive state from a wrong stand-point at
the outset. In place of regarding savages as of one
common humanity with ourselves, and the ancestors
perhaps of peoples higher in the scale of being, and
more intellectual than any the world has yet seen, we
place them among the common enemies of mankind, and
regard them more in the light of wild animals than of
wild men.
And let not him who seeks a deeper insight into the
mysteries of humanity despise beginnings, things crude
and small. The difference betwreen the cultured and the
primitive man lies chiefly in the fact that one has a few
centuries the start of the other in the race of progress.
Before condemning the barbarian, let us first examine
his code of ethics. Let us draw our light from his
light, reason after his fashion; see in the sky, the earth,
the sea, the same fantastic imagery that plays upon his
fancy, and adapt our sense of right and wrong to his
social surroundings. Just as human nature is able to
appreciate divine nature only as divine nature accords
with human nature ; so the intuitions of lower orders of
beings can be comprehended only by bringing into play our
lower faculties. Nor can we any more clearly appreciate
the conceptions of beings below us than of those above
us. The thoughts, reasonings, and instincts of an animal
or insect are as much a mystery to the human intellect
as are the lofty contemplations of an archangel.
THREE hundred and thirty-six years were occupied in the discovery of the
western border of North America. From the time when, in 1501, the adven
turous notary of Triana, Rodrigo de Bastidas, approached the Isthmus of
Darien, in search of gold and pearls, till the year 1837, when Messrs Dease and
PACIFICATION OF TIEKKA FIKME. 27
Simpson, by order of the Hudson's Bay Company, completed the survey of the
northern extremity, which bounds the Arctic Ocean, the intervening territory
was discovered at intervals, and under widely different circumstances. Dur
ing that time, under various immediate incentives, but with the broad princi
ple of avarice underlying all, such parts of this territory as were conceived
to be of sufficient value were seized, and the inhabitants made a prey to the
rapacity of the invaders. Thus the purpose of the worthy notary Bastidas,
the first Spaniard who visited the continent of North America, was pacific
barter with the Indians ; and his kind treatment was rewarded by a success
ful traffic. Next came Columbus, from the opposite direction, sailing south
ward along the coast of Honduras on his fourth voyage, in 1502. His was
the nobler object of discovery. He was striving to get through or round
this tierra firme which, standing between himself and his theory, persistently
barred his progress westward. He had no time for barter, nor any incli
nation to plant settlements; he was looking for a strait or passage through
or round these outer confines to the more opulent regions of India. But,
unsuccessful in his laudable effort, he at length yielded to the clamorous
cupidity of his crew. He permitted his brother, the Adelautado, to land and
take possession of the country for the king of Spain, and, in the year follow
ing, to attempt a settlement at Veragua.
In 1506-8, Juan de Solis with Piuzon continued the search of Columbus,
along the coast of Yucatan and Mexico, for a passage through to the southern
ocean. The disastrous adventures of Alonzo de Ojeda, Diego de Nicuesa, and
Juan de la Cosa, on the Isthmus of Darien, between the years 1507 and 1511,
brought into more intimate contact the steel weapons of the chivalrous
hidalgos with the naked bodies of the savages. Vasco Nunez de Balboa,
after a toilsome journey across the Isthmus in 1513, was rewarded by the
first view of the Pacific Ocean, of which he took possession for the king
of Spain on the twenty-fifth of September. The white sails of Cordova
Grijalva, and Garay, descried by the natives of Yucatan and Mexico in
1517-19, were quickly followed by Cortes and his keen-scented band of
adventurers, who, received by the unsuspecting natives as gods, would have
been dismissed by them as fiends had not the invasion culminated in the
conquest of Mexico. During the years 1522-24, Cortes made expeditions to
Tehuantepec, Panuco, and Central America ; Gil Gouzales and Cristobal de
Olid invaded Nicaragua and Honduras. Nuno de Guzman in 1530, with a
large force, took possession of the entire northern country from the city of
Mexico to the northern boundary of Siualoa; and Cabeza de Vaca crossed
the continent from Texas to Sinaloa in the years 1528-36. Journeys to the
north were made by Cortes, Ulloa, Coronado, Mendoza, and Cabrillo between
the years 1536 and 1542. Hundreds of Roman Catholic missionaries, ready
to lay down their lives in their earnest anxiety for the souls of the Indians,
spread out into the wilderness in every direction. During the latter part of
the sixteenth century had place, — the expedition of Francisco de Ibarra to
Sinaloa in 1556, the campaign of Hernando de Bazan against the Indians
of Sinaloa in 1570, the adventures of Oxenham in Darien in 1575, the voy
age round the world of Sir Francis Drake, touching upon the Northwest
28 FIEST INTEBCOUKSE WITH EUROPEANS.
Coast in 1579; the expedition of Antonio de Espejo to New Mexico in 1583;
Francisco de Gali's return from Macao to Mexico, by way of the Northwest
Coast, in 1584; the voyage of Maldonado to the imaginary Straits of Aiiiaii in
1588; the expedition of Castano de Sosa to New Mexico in 1590; the voyage of
Juan de Fuca to the Straits of Anian in 1592; the wreck of the 'San Agustin '
upon the Northwest Coast in 1595 ; the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino towards
California in 1596 ; the discoveries of Juan de Oiiate in New Mexico in 1599, and
many others. Intercourse with the natives was extended during the seven
teenth century by the voyage of Sebastian Vizcaino from Mexico to Cali
fornia in 1602; by the expedition of Francisco de Ortega to Lower California
in 1631; by the journey of Thomas Gage from Mexico to Guatemala in 1638;
by the voyage round the world of William Dampier in 1679; by the reckless
adventures of the Buccaneers from 1680 to 1690; by the expedition of Isidor
de Otondo into Lower California in 1683; by the expedition of Father Kino
to Sonora and Arizona in 1683; by the expeditions of Kino, Kappus, Mange,
Bernal, Carrasco, Salvatierra, and others to Sonora and Arizona in 1694-9;
and by the occupation of Lower California by the Jesuits, Salvatierra,
Ugarte, Kino, and Piccolo, from 1697 to 1701. Voyages of circumnavigation
were made by Dampier in 1703-4; by Rogers in 1708-11; by Shelvocke in
1719-22, and by Anson in 1740-4. Frondac made a voyage from China to
California in 1709.
The first voyage through Bering Strait is supposed to have been made
by Semun Deschneff and his companions in the year 1648, and purports to
have explored the Asiatic coast from the river Kolyma to the south of the
river Anadir, thus proving the separation of the continents of Asia and Amer
ica. In 1711, a Russian Cossack, named Popoff, was sent from the fort
on tho Anadir river to subdue the rebellious Tschuktschi of Tschuk-
tschi Noss, a point of land on the Asiatic coast near to the American
continent. He there received from the natives the first intelligence of the
proximity of the continent of America and the character of the inhabitants ;
an account of which will be given in another place. In 1741, Vitus Bering
and Alexei Tschirikoff sailed in company, from Petropaulovski, for the oppo
site coast of America. They parted company during a storm, the latter
reaching the coast in latitude fifty-six, and the former landing at Cape St
Elias in latitude sixty degrees north. The earliest information concerning
the Aleutian Islanders was obtained by the Russians in the year 1745, when
Michael Nevodtsikoff sailed from the Kamtchatka river in pursuit of furs.
A Russian commercial company, called the Promyschleniki, was formed, and
other hunting and trading voyages followed. Lasareff visited six islands of
the Andreanovski group in 1761; and the year following was made the dis
covery of the Alaskan Peninsula, supposed to be an island until after the
survey of the coast by Captain Cook. Drusinin made a hunting expedition
to Unalaska and the Fox Islands in 1763; and, during the same year, Stephen
Glottoff visited the island of Kadiak. Korovin, Solovieff, Syiid, Otseredin,
Krenitzen, and other Russian fur-hunters spent the years 1762-5 among the
Aleutian Islands, capturing sea-otters, seals, and foxes, and exchanging, with
the natives, beads and iron utensils, for furs.
OCCUPATION OF CALIFORNIA. 29
A grand missionary movement, growing out of the jealous rivalries of the
two great orders of the Catholic Church, led to the original occupation of
Upper California by Spaniards. The work of Christianizing Lower Cali
fornia was inaugurated by the Jesuits, under Fathers Salvatierra and Kino, in
1697. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, their missions
were turned over to the Franciscans. This so roused the jealousy of the
Dominicans that they immediately appealed to Spain, and in 1769 obtained
an edict, giving them -a due share in the missions of Lower California. The
Franciscans, thinking it better to carry their efforts into new fields than to
C3ntend for predominance at home, generously offered to cede the whole of
Lower California to the Dominicans, and themselves retire to the wild and
distant regions of Upper California. This being agreed upon, two expedi
tions were organized to proceed northward simultaneously, one by water
and the other by land. In January, 1769, the ship ' San Carlos,' commanded
by Vicente Vila, was dispatched for San Diego, followed by the ' San Antonio, '
under Juan Perez, and the 'San Jose,' which was unfortunately lost. The
land expedition was separated into two divisions; the first under Rivera y
Moncada departed from Mexico in March, and arrived at San Diego in May;
the second under Gaspar de Portola and Father Junfpero Serra reached
San Diego in July, 1769. Portola with his companions immediately set out
by land for the Bay of Monterey; but, unwittingly passing it by, they con
tinued northward until barred in their progress by the magnificent Bay of
San Francisco. Unable to find the harbor of Monterey, they returned to
San Diego in January, 1770. In April, Portola made a second and more
successful attempt, and arrived at Monterey in May. Meanwhile Perez and
Junfpero Serra accomplished the voyage by sea, sailing in the ' San
Carlos.' In 1772, Pedro Fages and Juan Crespi proceeded from Monterey to
explore the Bay of San Francisco. They were followed by Rivera y Mon
cada in 1774, and Palou and Ezeta in 1775; and in 1776, Moraga founded
the Mission of Dolores. In 1775, Bodega y Quadra voyaged up the
Californian coast to the fifty-eighth parallel. In 1776, Dominguez and Es-
calante made an expedition from Santa Fe to Monterey. Menonville jour
neyed to Oajaca in New Spain in 1777. In 1778, Captain Cook, in his
third voyage round the world, touched along the Coast from Cape Flattery
to Norton Sound; and in 1779, Bodega y Quadra, Maurelle, and'Arteaga
voyaged up the western coast to Mount St Elias. During the years 1785-8,
voyages of circumnavigation were made by Dixon and Portlock, and by La
Perouse, all touching upon the Northwest Coast.
French Canadian traders were the first to penetrate the northern interior
west of Hudson Bay. Their most distant station was on the Saskatchewan
River, two thousand miles from civilization, in the heart of an unknown
wilderness inhabited by savage men and beasts. These coureurs des bois or
wood-rangers, as they were called, were admirably adapted, by their disposi
tion and superior address, to conciliate the Indians and form settlements
among them. Unrestrained, however, by control, they committed excesses
which the French government could check only by prohibiting, under penalty
of death, any but its authorized agents from trading within its territories.
30 FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.
British merchants at New York soon entered into competition with the fur
princes of Montreal. But, in 1670, a more formidable opposition arose in the
organization of the Hudson's Bay Company, by Prince Rupert and other
noblemen, under a charter of Charles II. which granted exclusive right to all
the territory drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. Notwithstanding
constant feuds with the French merchants regarding territorial limits, the
company prospered from the beginning, paying annual dividends of twenty-
five and fifty per cent, after many times increasing the capital stock. In
1676, the Canadians formed the Compagnie du Nord, in order the more suc
cessfully to resist encroachment. Upon the loss of Canada by the French in
1762, hostilities thickened between the companies, and the traffic for a time
fell off. In 1784, the famous Northwest Company was formed by Cana
dian merchants, and the management entrusted to the Frobisher brothers
and Simon M'Tavish. The head-quarters of the company were at Montreal,
but annual meetings were held, with lordly state, at Fort William, on the
shore of Lake Superior. The company consisted of twenty-three partners,
and employed over two thousand clerks and servants. It exercised an almost
feudal sway over a wide savage domain, and maintained a formidable com
petition with the Hudson's Bay Company, with which they were for two
years in actual war. In 18 i3, they purchased, from the partners of John
Jacob Astor, the settlement of Astoria on the Columbia River. In 1821, they
united with the Hudson's Bay Company; and the charter covering the entire
region occupied by both was renewed by act of Parliament. In 1762, some
merchants of New Orleans organized a company which was commissioned
by D'Abadie, director-general of Louisiana, under the name of Pierre Li-
gueste Laclede, Antoine Maxan, and Company. Their first post occupied the
spot upon which the city of St Louis is now situated; and, under the auspices
of the brothers Chouteau, they penetrated northwestward beyond the Rocky
Mountains. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company was formed at St Louis,
consisting of the Chouteaus and others; and an expedition under Major
Henry was sent across the Rocky Moimtains, which established the first post
on the Columbia River. Between the years 1825 and 1830, the Rocky Mount-'
ain Fur Company of St Louis extended their operations over California and
Oregon, but at a loss of the lives of nearly one half of their employes.
John Jacob Astor embarked in the fur trade at New York in 1784, purchasing
at that time in Montreal. In 1808, he obtained a charter for the American Fur
Company, which was, in 1811, merged into the Southwest Company. In 1809,
Mr Astor conceived the project of establishing a transcontinental line of
posts. His purpose was to concentrate the fur trade of the United States,
and establish uninterrupted communication between the Pacific and the At
lantic. He made proposals of association to the Northwest Company, which
were not only rejected, but an attempt was made by that association to antici
pate Mr Astor in his operations, by making a settlement at the mouth of the
Columbia River. In 1810, the Pacific Fur Company was founded by Mr
Astor, and an expedition dispatched overland by way of St Louis and the
Missouri River. At the same time a vessel was sent round Cape Horn to
the mouth of the Columbia; but, their adventure in that quarter proving
THE GKEAT NOKTHWEST. 31
unsuccessful, the company was dissolved, and the operations of Mr Astor
were thereafter confined to the territory east of the Rocky Mountains.
Samuel Hearne, an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company, was the first
European to reach the Arctic Ocean through the interior of the continent.
He descended Coppermine Eiver to its mouth in the year 1771 . The Upper
Misinipi Eiver was first visited by Joseph Frobisher in 1775. Three years
later, one Peter Pond penetrated to within thirty miles of Athabasca Lake,
and established a trading post at that point. Four canoe-loads of merchan
dise were exchanged by him for more fine furs than his canoes could carry.
Other adventurous traders soon followed ; but not long afterwards the inevi
table broils which always attended the early intercourse of Europeans and
Indians, rose to such a height that, but for the appearance of that terrible
scourge, the small -pox, the traders would have been extirpated. The
ravages of this dire disease continued to depopulate the country until
1782, when traders again appeared among the Knisteueaux and Tinneh.
The most northern division of the Northwest Company was at that time
the Athabascan Lake region, where Alexander Mackenzie was the man
aging partner. His winter residence was at Fort Chipewyan, on Athabasca
Lake. The Indians who traded at his establishment informed him of the
existence of a large river flowing to the westward from Slave Lake. Think
ing thereby to reach the Pacific Ocean, Mr Mackenzie, in the year 1789, set
out upon an expedition to the west ; and, descending the noble stream which
bears his name, found himself, contrary to his expectations, upon the shores
of the Arctic Sea. In 1793, he made a journey to the Pacific, ascending
Peace River, and reaching the coast in latitude about fifty-two. The first
expedition organized by the British government for the purpose of surveying
the northern coast, was sent out under Lieutenants Franklin and Parry in
1819. During the year following, Franklin descended Coppermine River, and
subsequently, in 1825, he made a journey down the Mackenzie. In 1808,
D. W. Harmon, a partner in the Northwest Company, crossed the Rocky
Mountains, at about the fifty-sixth parallel, to Fraser and Stuart Lakes.
The accounts of the natives given by these travelers and their companions
are essentially the same, and later voyagers have failed to throw much addi
tional light upon the subject. John Meares, in 1788, visited the Straits of
Fuca, Nootka Sound, and Cook Inlet; and, during the same year, two ships,
sent out by Boston merchants, under Robert Gray and John Kendrick,
entered Nootka Sound. Estevan Martinez and Gonzalo Haro, sent from
Mexico to look after the interest of Spain in these regions, explored Prince
"William Sound, and visited Kadiak. During the same year, the Russians
established a trading post at Copper River. In 1789, Joseph Billings visited
the Aleutian Islands, and the Boston vessels explored the Eastern coast of
Queen Charlotte Island. In 1790, Salvador Hidalgo was sent by the Mexican
government to Nootka; and Monaldo explored the Straits of Juan de Fuca.
In 1791, four ships belonging to Boston merchants, two Spanish ships, one
French and several Russian vessels touched upon the Northwest Coast. The
Spanish vessels were under the command of Alejandro Malespina ; Etienne Mar-
chand was the commander of the French ship. The ' Sutil y Mexicana ' en-
32 FIRST INTEECOUESE WITH EUEOPEANS.
tered Nootka Sound in 1792; and during the same year, Vancouver commenced
his explorations along the coast above Cape Flattery. In 1803-4, Baron Von
Humboldt was making his searching investigations in Mexico; while the
captive New Englander, Jewett, was dancing attendance to Maquina, king
of the Nootkas. Lewis and Clark traversed the continent in 1805. In 1806,
a Mr Fraser set out from Canada, and crossed the Eocky Mountains near
the headwaters of the river which bears his name. He descended Fraser
Eiver to the lake which he also called after himself. There he built a fort
and opened trade with the natives. Kotzebue visited the coast in 1816; and
the Eussian expedition under Kramchenko, Wasilieff, and Etolin, in 1822.
Captain Morrel explored the Californian coast from San Diego to San Fran
cisco in 1825; Captains Beechey and Liitke, the Northwest Coast in 1826; and
Sir Edward Belcher in 1837. J. K. Townsend made an excursion west of the
Eocky Mountains in 1834. In 1837, Dease and Simpson made an open
boat voyage from the Mackenzie Eiver, westward to Point Barrow, the far
thest point made by Beechey from the opposite direction, thus reaching the
Ultima Thitle of northwestern discovery. Sir George Simpson crossed the
continent in 1841, Fremont in 1843, and Paul Kane in 1845. Kushevaroff
visited the coast in 1838, Laplace in 1839, Commodore Wilkes in 1841, and
Captain Kellett in 1849. Following the discovery of gold, the country was del
uged by adventurers. In 1853-4, commenced the series of explorations for a
Pacific railway. The necessities of the natives were examined, and remnants
of disappearing nations were collected upon reservations under government
agents. The interior of Alaska was first penetrated by the employes of the
Eussian-American Fur Company. Malakoff ascended the Yukon in 1838;
and, in 1842, Derabin established a fort upon that river. In 1849, W. H.
Hooper made a boat expedition from Kotzebue Sound to the Mackenzie
Eiver; and, in 1866, William H. Dall and Frederick Whymper ascended the
Yukon.
I have here given a few only of the original sources whence my informa
tion is derived concerning the Indians. A multitude of minor voyages and
travels have been performed during the past three and a half centuries, and
accounts published by early residents among the natives, the bare enumera
tion of which I fear would prove wearisome to the reader. Enough, how
ever, has been given to show the immediate causes which led to the discovery
and occupation of the several parts of this western coast. The Spanish
cavaliers craved from the Indians of the Souih their lands and their gold.
The Spanish missionaries demanded from the Indians of Northern Mexico
and California, faith. The French, English, Canadian, and American fur
companies sought from the Indians of Oregon and New Caledonia, peltries.
The Eussians compelled the natives of the Aleutian Islands to hunt sea-
animals. The filthy raw-flesh-eating Eskimos, having nothing wherewith to
tempt the cupidity of the superior race, retain their primitive purity.
We observe then three original incentives urging on civilized white
men to overspread the domain of the Indian. The first was that thirst
for gold, which characterized the fiery hidalgos from Spain in their con-
CUPIDITY AND ZEAL. 33
quests, and to obtain which no cmelty was too severe nor any sacrifice of
human life too great; as though of all the gifts vouchsafed to man, material
or divine, one only was worth possessing. The second, following closely
in the footsteps of the first, and oftentimes constituting a part of it, was
religious enthusiasm ; a zealous interest in the souls of the natives and the
form in which they worshiped. The third, which occupied the attention of
other and more northern Europeans, grew out of a covetous desire for
the wild man's clothing; to secure to themselves the peltries of the great
hyperborean regions of America. From the south of Europe the Spaniards
landed in tropical North America, and exterminated the natives. From the
north of Europe the French, English, and Russians crossed over to the
northern part of America; and, with a kinder and more refined Cruelty, no
less effectually succeeded in sweeping them from the face of the earth by the
introduction of the poisonous elements of a debased cultivation.
Fortunately for the Indians of the north, it was contrary to the interests
of white people to kill them in order to obtain the skins of their animals;
for, with a few trinkets, they could procure what otherwise would require
long and severe labor to obtain. The policy, therefore, of the great fur-
trading companies has been to cherish the Indians as their best hunters, to
live at peace '.vith them, to heal their ancient feuds, and to withhold from
them intoxicating liquors. The condition of their women, who were considered
by the natives as little better than beasts, has been changed by their inter-
social relations with the servants of the trading companies; and their more
barbarous practices discontinued. It was the almost universal custom of the
employes of the Hudson's Bay Company to unite to themselves native
""/omen; thus, by means of this relationship, the condition of the women has
been raised, while the men manifest a kinder feeling towards the white race
who thus in a measure become one with them.
The efforts of early missionaries to this region were not crowned with that
success which attended the Spaniards in their spiritual warfare upon the south
ern nations, from the fact that no attention was paid to the temporal necessi
ties of the natives. It has long since been demonstrated impossible to reach
the heart of a savage through abstract ideas of morality and elevation of char
acter. A religion, in order to find favor in his eyes, must first meet some
of his material requirements. If it is good, it will clothe him better
and feed him better, for this to him is the chiefest good in life. Intermix
tures of civilized with savage peoples are sure to result in the total disappear
ance of refinement on the one side, or in the extinction of the barbaric race on
the other. The downward path is always the easiest. Of all the millions
of native Americans who have perished under the withering influences of
European civilization, there is not a single instance on record, of a tribe or
nation having been reclaimed, ecclesiastically or otherwise, by artifice and
argument. Individual savages have been educated with a fair degree of suc
cess. But, with a degree of certainty far greater, no sooner is the white man
freed from the social restraint of civilized companionship, than he immedi
ately tends towards barbarism ; and not unfrequently becomes so fascinated
with his new life as to prefer it to any other. Social development is inherent:
VOL. I. 3
34 FIRST INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS.
superinduced culture is a failure. Left alone, the nations of America might
have unfolded into as bright a civilization as that of Europe. They were
already well advanced, and still rapidly advancing towards it, when they
were so mercilessly stricken down. But for a stranger to re-create the heart
or head of a red man, it were easier to change the color of his skin.
CHAPTER III
HYPERBOREANS.
GENERAL DIVISIONS— HYPERBOREAN NATIONS— ASPECTS OF NATURE — VEGETA
TION — CLIMATE — ANIMALS — THE ESKIMOS — THEIR COUNTRY — PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS — DRESS — DWELLINGS — FOOD — WEAPONS — BOOTS —
SLEDGES — SNOW-SHOES — GOVERNMENT — DOMESTIC AFFAIRS — AMUSEMENTS
— DISEASES — BURIAL — THE KONIAGAS, THEIR PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CON
DITION — THE ALEUTS— THE THLINKEETS— THE TINNEH.
I shall attempt to describe the physical and mental
characteristics of the Native Races of the Pacific States
under seven distinctive groups; namely, I. Hyperbo
reans, being those nations whose territory lies north of
the fifty-fifth parallel; II. Columbians, who dwell be
tween the fifty -fifth and forty -second parallels, and
whose lands to some extent are drained by the Columbia
River and its tributaries; III. Californians, and the In
habitants of the Great Basin; IY. New Mexicans,
including the nations of the Colorado River and northern
Mexico; V. Wild Tribes of Mexico; VI. Wild Tribes of
Central America; VII. Civilized Nations of Mexico and
Central America. It is my purpose, without any attempt
at ethnological classification, or further comment con
cerning races and stocks, plainly to portray such customs
and characteristics as were peculiar to each people at the
time of its first intercourse with European strangers;
leaving scientists to make their own deductions, and
draw specific lines between linguistic and physiological
families, as they may deem proper. I shall endeavor to
picture these nations in their aboriginal condition, as seen
86 HYPEKBOKEANS.
by the first invaders, as described^ by those who beheld
them in their savage grandeur, and before they were
startled from their lair by the treacherous voice of civilized
friendship. Now they are gone. — those dusky denizens
of a thousand forests, — melted like hoar-frost before the
rising sun of a superior intelligence ; and it is only from
the earliest records, from the narratives of eye witnesses,
many of them rude unlettered men, trappers, sailors,
and soldiers, that we are able to know them as they
were. Some division of the work into parts, how
ever arbitrary it may be, is indispensable. In deal
ing with Mythology, and in tracing the tortuous course
of Language, boundaries will be dropped and beliefs
and tongues will be followed wherever they lead ; but in
describing Manners and Customs, to avoid confusion,
territorial divisions are necessary.
In the groupings which 1 have adopted, one cluster of
nations follows another in geographical succession; the
dividing line not being more distinct, perhaps, than that
which distinguishes some national divisions, but suffi
ciently marked, in mental and physical peculiarities, to
entitle each group to a separate consideration.
The only distinction of race made by naturalists, upon
the continents of both North and South America, until
a comparatively recent period, was by segregating the
first of the above named groups from all other people of
both continents, and calling one Mongolians and the
other Americans. A more intimate acquaintance with
the nations of the North proves conclusively that one
of the boldest types of the American Indian proper, the
Tinneh, lies within the territory of this first group,
conterminous with the Mongolian Eskimos, and crowding
them down to a narrow line along the shore of the Arctic
Sea. The nations of the second group, although exhibit
ing multitudinous variations in minor traits, are essen
tially one people. Between the California Diggers of
the third division and the New Mexican Towns -people
of the fourth, there is more diversity ; and a still greater
GKOUPINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS. 37
difference between the savage and civilized nations of
the Mexican table-land. Any classification or division
of the subject which could be made would be open to
criticism. I therefore adopt the most simple practical
plan, one which will present the subject most clearly to
the general reader, and leave it in the best shape for
purposes of theorizing and generalization.
In the first or HYPERBOREAN group, to which this chap
ter is devoted, are five subdivisions, as follows: The Eski
mos, commonly called Western Eskimos, who skirt the
shores of the Arctic Ocean from Mackenzie River to Kotze-
bue Sound ; the Koniagas or Southern Eskimos, who, com
mencing at Kotzebue Sound, cross the Kaviak Peninsula,
border on Bering Sea from Norton Sound southward,
and stretch over the Alaskan1 Peninsula and Koniagan
1 Of late, custom gives to the main hind of Russian America, the name Alas
ka; to the peninsula, Aliaska; and to a large island of the Aleutian Archipelago,
Unalashka. The word of which the present name Alaska is a corruption, is
first encountered in the narrative of Betsevin, who, in 1761, wintered on the
peninsula, supposing it to be an island. The author of Neue NachricMen von
denen nenentd^kte.'i Jnsuln, writes, page 53, ' womit man nach der abgelegen-
sten Insul Aldksu oder Alachsvhak fiber gieng.' Again, at page 57, in giving
a description of the animals on the supposed island he calls it 'auf der Insul
Alaska.' 'This,' says Coxe, Russian Discoveries, p. 72, ' is probably the same
island which is laid down in Krenitzin's chart under the name of Alaxa.'
Unalaschka is given by the author of Neae Nachrlchten, p. ?4, in his nar
rative of the voyage of Drusinin, who hunted on that island in 1703. At page
115 he again mentions the 'grosse Insul AUiksu.' On page 125, in Glottoff's
log-book, 17(;4, is the entry: 'Den28sten May der Wind Ostsiidost; man kam
an die Insul Alaska oder Alfiksu.' Still following the author of Neue Xa<:l/-
richten, we have on page 1GG, in an account of the voyages of Otserediii and
Popoff, who hunted upon the Aleutian Islands in 17(59, mention of a report
by the natives ' that beyond Unimak is said to be a large land Alfischka, the
extent of which the islanders do not know.' On Cook's Atlas, voyage 1778,
the peninsula is called Alaska, and the island Oonalaska. La Perouse, in his
atlas, map No. 15, 178G, calls the peninsula Alaska, and the island Ounalas/ca.
The Spaniards, in the Atlas para el Viaye de las yoletas tiidil y Mexicana,
1792, write Alasca for the peninsula, and for the island Unalaska. Sauer, in
his account of Billings' expedition, 1790, calls the main land Alaska, the
peninsula Alyaska, and the island Oonalashka. Wrangell, in Baer's titatis-
tische und ethnoyraphische Nachrichten, p. 123, writes for the peninsula Alaska
and for the island Unalaschka. Holmberg, Ethnographische tikizzen, p. 78,
calls the island Unalaschka and the peninsula Aljaska. Dall, Alaska, p. 529,
says that the peninsula or main land was called by the natives Alayeksa,
(ind the island Nayun-alayelcsa, 'or the land near Alayeksa.' Thus we
have, from which to choose, the orthography of the earliest voyagers to this
coast — Russian, English, French, Spanish, German, and American. The
simple word Alaksu. after undergoing many contortions, some authors writ
ing it differently on different pages of the same book, has at length become
Alaska, as applied to the main laud; Aliaska for the peninsula, and Una-
38 HYPEEBOEEANS.
Islands to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River,
extending back into the interior about one hundred and
fifty miles ; the Aleuts, or people of the Aleutian Archi
pelago ; the IMinkeets, who inhabit the coast and islands
between the rivers Atna and Nass; and the Tinneh,
or Athabascas, occupying the territory between the
above described boundaries and Hudson Bay. Each of
these families is divided into nations or tribes , distin
guished one from another by slight dialectic or other
differences, which tribal divisions will be given in treat
ing of the several nations respectively.
Let us first cast a glance over this broad domain, and
mark those aspects of nature which exercise so powerful
an influence upon the destinies of mankind. Midway be
tween Mount St Elias and the Arctic seaboard rise three
mountain chains. One, the Rocky Mountain range, cross
ing from the Yukon to the Mackenzie River, deflects south
ward, and taking up its mighty line of march, throws a
barrier between the east and the west, which extends
throughout the entire length of the continent. Between
the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, interposes another
called in Oregon the Cascade Range, and in California
the Sierra Nevada; while from the same starting-point,
the Alaskan range stretches out to the southwest along
the Alaskan Peninsula, and breaks into fragments in the
Aleutian Archipelago. Three noble streams, the Macken
zie, the Yukon, and the Kuskoquim, float the boats of the
inland Hyperboreans and supply them with food ; while
from the heated waters of Japan comes a current of the
sea, bathing the icy coasts with genial warmth, temper
ing the air, and imparting gladness to the oily watermen
of the coast, to the northernmost limit of their lands.
The northern border of this territory is treeless; the
southern shore, absorbing more warmth and moisture
from the Japan current, is fringed with dense forests;
lashka as the name of the island. As these names are all corruptions from
some one original word, whatever that may be, I see no reason for giving
the error three different forms. I therefore write Alaska for the mainland
and peninsula, and Unalaska for the island.
MAN AND NATURE. 39
while the interior, interspersed with hills, and lakes,
and woods, and grassy plains, during the short summer
is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
Notwithstanding the frowning aspect of nature, ani
mal life in the Arctic regions is most abundant. The
ocean swarms with every species of fish and sea-mam
mal ; the land abounds in reindeer, moose, musk-oxen ; in
black, grizzly, and Arctic bears ; in wolves, foxes, beavers,
mink, ermine, martin, otters, raccoons, and water- fowl.
Immense herds of buffalo roam over the bleak grassy
plains of the eastern Tinneh, but seldom venture far to
the west of the Rocky Mountains. Myriads of birds
migrate to and fro between their breeding-places in the
interior of Alaska, the open Arctic Sea, and the warmer
latitudes of the south. From the Gulf of Mexico, from
the islands of the Pacific, from the lakes of California,
of Oregon, and of Washington they come, fluttering and
feasting, to rear their young during the sparkling Arctic
summer-day.
The whole occupation of man throughout this region,
is a struggle for life. So long as the organism is plenti
fully supplied with heat -producing food, all is well.
Once let the internal fire go down, and all is ill. Un
like the inhabitants of equatorial latitudes, where, Eden-
like, the sheltering tree drops food, and the little
nourishment essential to life may be obtained by only
stretching forth the hand and plucking it, the Hyper
borean man must maintain a constant warfare with
nature, or die. His daily food depends upon the suc
cess of his daily battle with beasts, birds, and fishes,
which dispute with him possession of sea and land.
Unfortunate in his search for game, or foiled in his
attempt at capture, he must fast. The associate of
beasts, governed by the same emergencies, preying
upon animals as animals prey upon each other, the
victim supplying all the necessities of the victor, oc
cupying territory in common, both alike drawing sup
plies directly from the storehouse of nature, — primitive
40 HYPERBOREANS.
man derives his very quality from the brute with which
he struggles. The idiosyncrasies of the animal fasten
upon him, and that upon which he feeds becomes a part
of him.
Thus, in a nation of hunters inhabiting a rigorous
climate, we may look for wiry, keen-scented men, who
in their war upon wild beasts put forth strength and
endurance in order to overtake and capture the strong;
cunning is opposed by superior cunning; a stealthy
watchfulness governs every movement, while the intelli
gence of the man contends with the instincts of the brute.
Fishermen, on the other hand, who obtain their food
with comparatively little effort, are more sluggish in
their natures and less noble in their development. In
the icy regions of the north, the animal creation supplies
man with food, clothing, and caloric; with all the requi
sites of an existence under circumstances apparently the
most adverse to comfort ; and when he digs his dwelling
beneath the ground, or walls out the piercing winds with
snow, his ultimate is attained.
The chief differences in tribes occupying the interior
.and the seaboard, — the elevated, treeless, grassy plains
east of the Rocky Mountains, and the humid islands
and shores of the great Northwest, — grow out of neces
sities arising from their methods of procuring food.
Even causes so slight as the sheltering bend of a coast
line; the guarding of a shore by islands; the breaking
•of a seaboard by inlets and covering of the strand with
sea- weed and polyps, requiring only the labor of gather
ing; or the presence of a bluff coast or windy prom
ontory, whose occupants are obliged to put forth more
vigorous action for sustenance — all govern man in his
•development. Turn now to the most northern division
of our most northern group.
THE ESKIMOS, Esquimaux, or as they call themselves,
Innuitj 'the people,' from inuk, 'man,'2 occupy the
2 The name is said, by Charlevoix 'to be derived from the language of the
Abenaqiri, a tribe of Algonquins in Canada, who border upon them and call
THE ESKIMOS. 41
Arctic seaboard from eastern Greenland along the en
tire continent of America, and across Bering3 Strait to
the Asiatic shore. Formerly the inhabitants of our
whole Hyperborean sea -coast, from the Mackenzie River
to Queen Charlotte Island — the interior being en
tirely unknown — were denominated Eskimos, and were
of supposed Asiatic origin.4 The tribes of southern
them "Esquimantsic." ' 'L'originedeleurnomn'est pas certain. Toutefois
il y a bien de 1'apparence qu'il vieiit du mot Abenaqui, esqnim anisic qui veut
dire "maugeur de viande erne." :l See Prichard's Physical History of Man
kind, vol. v., pp. 367, 373. ' French writers call them Eskimaux.' 'English
authors, in adopting this term, have most generally written it "Esquimaux,"
but Dr. Latham, and other recent ethnologists, write it "Eskimos," after
the Danish orthography.' Richardson's Polar Regions, p. 298. ' Probably of
Canadian origin, and the word, which in French orthography is written Es-
quimatix, was probably originally Ceux qui miuux (wiaulent).' Richardson's
Journal, vol. i., p. 340* 'Said to be a corruption of Eskunantik, i. e. raw-
fish-eaters, a nickname given them by their former neighbors, the Mohicans.'
Seemann's Voyage of the Herald, vol. ii., p. 49. Eskimo is derived from a
word indicating sorcerer or Shaman. ' The northern Tinneh use the word
Uskeenn.' ball's Alaska, pp. 144, 531. 'Their own national designation is
" Keralit." ' Morton's Crania Americana, p. 52. They ' call themselves "In-
nuit," which signifies "man." " Armstrong's Narrative, p. 191.
3 It is not without reluctance that I change a word from the commonly
accepted orthography. Names of places, though originating in error, when
once established, it is better to leave unchanged. Indian namefc, coming to
us through Russian, German, French, or Spanish writers, should be presented
in English by such letters as will best produce the original Indian pronun
ciation. European personal names, however, no matter how long, nor
how commonly they may have been erroneously used, should be immedi
ately corrected. Every man who can spell is supposed to be able to give the
correct orthography of his own name, and his spelling should in every
instance be followed, when it can be ascertained. Veit Bering, aiiglice Vitus
Behring, was of a Danish family, several members of which were well known in
literature before his own time. In Danish writings, as well as among the biogra
phies of Russian admirals, where may be found a fac-simile of his autograph,
the name is spelled tiering. It is so given by Humboldt, and by the Diciionnuire
de la Conversation. The author of the Neue Nachrichten von denen iieuentdehten
Jnsi.dn, one of the oldest printed works on Russian discoveries in America;
as well as Miiller, who was the companion of Bering for many years; and
Buschmaun,— all write tiering. Baer remarks: 'Ich schreibe ferner Bering,
obgleich es jetzt fast allgemein geworden ist, Behring zu schreiben, mid auch
die Euglauder und Franzosen sich der letztern Schreibart beqiiemt haben.
Bering war ein Diine und seine Familie war lange vor ihm in der Literatur-
Geschichte bekannt. Sie hat ihren Nameii auf die von mir angenommene
"Weise drucken lassen. Derselben Schreibart bediente sich auch der Historio-
ra'apli Miiller, der langere Zeit unter seinen Befehlen gedient hatte, nnd
Pallas.' Stfitistische und ethnographische Nachrichten, p. 328. There is no
doubt that the famous navigator wrote his name Bering, and that the letter
' h ' was subsequently inserted to give the Danish sound to the letter 'e.'
To accomplish the same purpose, perhaps, Coxe, Laugsdorff, Beechey, ancj
others write Peering.
4 ' Die Kadjacker im Gegentheil nahern sich mehr den Amerikanischen
Stiimmen und gleichen in ihrem Aeussern gar nicht den Eskimos oder den
42 HYPERBOREANS.
Alaska were then found to differ essentially from those
of the northern coast. • Under the name Eskimos, there
fore, I include only the Western Eskimos of certain
writers, whose southern boundary terminates at Kotzebue
Sound.5
Eskimo -land is thinly peopled, and but little is
known of tribal divisions. At the Coppermine River,
the Eskimos are called Naggeuktormutes, or deer -horns;
at the eastern outlet of the Mackenzie, their tribal
name is Kitteyarute ; between the Mackenzie River and
Barter Reef, they go by the name of Kangmali Innuit;
at Point Barrow they call themselves Nuwungmutes;
while on the Nunatok River, in the vicinity of Kotzebue
Sound, they are known as Nunatangmutes. Their vil
lages, consisting of five or six families each,6 are scattered
along the coast. A village site is usually selected upon
some good landing-place, where there is sufficient depth
of water to float a whale. Between tribes is left a spot
of unoccupied or neutral ground, upon which small parties
meet during the summer for purposes of trade.7
The Eskimos are essentially a peculiar people. Their
character and their condition, the one of necessity grow
ing out of the other, are peculiar. First, it is claimed
for them that they are the. anomalous race of America—
the only people of the new world clearly identical with
any race of the old. Then they are the most littoral peo
ple in the world. The linear extent of their occupancy,
all of it a narrow seaboard averaging scarcely one hundred
Asiatischen Volkern, wahrsclieinlich liaben sie durch die Vermiscliung mit
den Stammen Arnerika's ihre urspriingliche Asiatische aussere Gestalt und
Gesichtsbildung verloreu und irar die Sprache beibehalten.' Baer, Stat. u.
etlm. Nadir., p. 124. ' Us ressemblent beaucoup aux indigenes des iles
Curiles, dependantes du Japon.' Laplace, Circumnavigation de I'Artemise,
vol. vi., p. 45.
5 ' The tribes crowded together on the shores of Beering's Sea within a
comparatively small extent of coast-line, exhibit a greater variety, both in
personal appearance and dialect, than that which exists between the Western
Eskimos and their distant countrymen in Labrador; and ethnologists have
found some difficulty in classifying them properly.' Richardson's Jour.,
vol. i., p. 363.
6 For authorities, see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.
7 Collinson, in London Geographical Society Journal, vol. xxv. p. 201.
ESKIMO LAND. 43
miles in width, is estimated at not less than five thou
sand miles. Before them is a vast, unknown, icy ocean,
upon which they scarcely dare venture beyond sight of
land ; behind them, hostile mountaineers ever ready to
dispute encroachment. Their very mother-earth, upon
whose cold bosom they have been borne, age after age
through countless generations,8 is almost impenetrable,
thawless ice. Their days and nights, and seasons and
years, are not like those of other men. Six months of
day succeed six months of night. Three months of
sunless winter; three months of nightless summer; six
months of glimmering twilight.
About the middle of October9 commences the long
night of winter. The earth and sea put on an icy
covering ; beasts and birds depart for regions sheltered
or more congenial ; humanity huddles in subterraneous
dens ; all nature sinks into repose. The little heat left
by the retreating sun soon radiates out into the deep
blue realms of space ; the temperature sinks rapidly to
forty or fifty degrees below freezing; the air is hushed,
the ocean calm, the sky cloudless. An awful, painful
stillness pervades the dreary solitude. Not a sound is
heard ; the distant din of busy man, and the noiseless
hum of the wilderness alike are wanting. Whispers
become audible at a considerable distance, and an insup
portable sense of loneliness oppresses the inexperienced
visitor.10 Occasionally the aurora borealis flashes out in
prismatic coruscations, throwing a brilliant arch from
east to west — now in variegated oscillations, graduating
through all the various tints of blue, and green, and vio
let, and crimson ; darting, flashing, or streaming in yellow
columns, upwards, downwards ; now blazing steadily, now
8 ' Im nordwestlichsten. Theile von Arnerika fand Franklin den Boden,
Mitte August, shon in eiuer Tiefe von 16 Zoll gefroren. Richardson sah an
einem ostlicheren Pvmkte der Kiiste, in 71° 12' Breite, die Eisschiclit im
Julius aufgetliaut bis 3 Fuss unter der krautbedeckten Oberflache. Hwn-
boldt, Kosmos, torn. iv. p. 47.
9 Silliman's Journal, vol. xvi., p. 130. Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii.,
p. 13. Armstrong's Nar,, p. 289.
i° ' Characteristic of the Arctic regions.' Silliman's Jour., vol. xvi., p. 143.
44 HYPERBOREANS.
in wavy undulations, sometimes up to the very zenith ;
momentarily lighting up in majestic grandeur the
cheerless frozen scenery, but only to fall back with
exhausted force, leaving a denser obscurity. Nature's
electric lantern, suspended for a time in the frosty
vault of heaven; — munificent nature's fire -works;
with the polar owl, the polar bear, and the polar
man, spectators.
In January, the brilliancy of the stars is dimmed
perceptibly at noon; in February, a golden tint rests
upon the horizon at the same hour; in March, the
incipient dawn broadens; in April, the dozing Eski
mo rubs his eyes and crawls forth; in May, the snow
begins to melt, the impatient grass and flowers arrive
as it departs.11 In June, the summer has fairly come.
Under the incessant rays of the never setting sun, the
snow speedily disappears, the ice breaks up, the glacial
earth softens for a depth of one, two, or three feet; cir
culation is restored to vegetation,12 which, during winter,
had been stopped, — if we may believe Sir John Rich
ardson, even the largest trees freezing to the heart. Sea,
and plain, and rolling steppe lay aside their seamless
shroud of white, and a brilliant tint of emerald over
spreads the landscape.13 All Nature, with one re
sounding cry, leaps up and claps her hands for joy.
Flocks of birds, lured from their winter homes, fill
the air with their melody ; myriads of wild fowls send
forth their shrill cries; the moose and the reindeer flock
down from the forests ;14 from the resonant sea comes the
11 At Kotzebue Sound, in July, Choris writes: ' Le sol etait emaille de
fleurs de couleurs variees, clans tous les eiidroitsou la neige venait de foudre.'
Voyage Pittoresque, pt. ii., p. 8.
12 ' In der Eiiiikle der Inseln von Neu-Sibirien finden grosse Heerden von
Remithieren und zahllose Lemminge noch hinlaugliche Nahrung.' Ilun>.-
boldt, Kosmos, vol. iv., p. 42.
13 ' Thermometer rises as high as 61° Fahr. With a sun shining through
out the twenty-four hours the growth of plants is rapid in the extreme.'
Seernann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 15.
11 ' During the period of incubation of the aquatic birds, every hole and
projecting crag on the sides of this rock is occupied by them. Its shores
resound with the chorus of thousands of the feathery tribe.' Beechey's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 349.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 45
noise of spouting whales and barking seals ; and this so
lately dismal, cheerless region, blooms with an exhuber-
ance of life equaled only by the shortness of its dura
tion. And in token of a just appreciation of the
Creator's goodness, this animated medley — man, and
beasts, and birds, and fishes — rises up, divides, falls to,
and ends in eating or in being eaten.
The physical characteristics of the Eskimos are: a
fair complexion, the skin, when free from dirt and paint,
being almost white;15 a medium stature, well propor
tioned, thick-set, muscular, robust, active,16 with small
and beautifully shaped hands and feet;17 a pyramidal
15 ' Their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly
be called dark.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51. 'In comparison
with other Americans, of a white complexion.' McCulloh's Aboriginal His
tory of America, p. 20. ' White Complexion, not Copper coloured.' Dobbs'
Hudson's lt(iy, p. 50. 'Almost as white as Europeans.' Kalm's Travels,
vol. ii., p. 263. 'Not darker than that of a Portuguese.' Lyon's Journal,
p. 224. ' Scarcely a shade darker than a deep brunette.' Parry's 3rd Voy-
age, p. 493. . ' Their complexion is light.' Ball's Alaska, p. 381. 'Eye-wit
nesses agree in their superior lightness of complexion over the Chinooks.'
Pickering's Races of Man, U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 28. At Coppermine
River they are ' of a dirty copper color; some of the women, however, are more
fair and ruddy.' Hearne's Travels, p. 166. ' Considerably fairer than the In
dian tribes.' Simpson's Nar., p. 110. At Cape Bathurst 'The complexion is
swarthy, chiefly, I think, from exposure and the accumulation of dirt.'
Armstrong's Nar., p. 192. 'Shew little of the copper - colour of the Red
Indians.' Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 303. ' From exposure to weather they
become dark after manhood.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 343.
16 'Both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active.' See-
mann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 50. 'A stout, well-looking people.' Simp
son's Nar., pp. 110, 114. ' Below the mean of the Caucasian race.' Dr.
Hayes in Historic. Magazine, vol. i., p. 6. ' They are thick set, have a de
cided tendency to obesity, and are seldom more than five feet in height.'
Figuier's Human Race,p. 211. At Kotzebue Sound, 'tallest man was five feet
nine inches; tallest woman, five feet four inches.' BeecJiey's Voy., vol. i., p.
360. 'Average height was five feet four and a half inches.' At the mouth
of the Mackenzie they are of ' middle stature, strong and muscular.' Arm
strong's Nar., pp. 149, 192. Low, broad-set, not well made, nor strong.
Hearne's Trav., p. 166. ' The men were in general stout.' Franklin's Nar.,
vol. i., p. 29. 'Of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance.'
Kotzebue' s Voy., vol. i., p. 209. ' Men vary in height from about five feet to
five feet ten inches.' Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 304. 'Women were gen
erally short.' 'Their figure inclines to squat.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 224.
17 ' Tons lea individus qui appartiennent a la famille des Eskimaux, se
distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la grosseur
enorme de leurs tetes.' De Pauw. Recherches Phil., torn, i., p. 262. 'The
hands and feet are delicately small and well formed.' Richardson's Pol.
Reg., p. 304. ' Small and beautifully made.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol.
ii., p. 50. At Point Barrow, 'their hands, notwithstanding the great amount
of manual labour to which they are subject, were beautifully small and well-
46 HYPERBOREANS.
head;18 a broad egg-shaped face; high rounded cheek
bones; flat nose; small oblique eyes; large mouth;
teeth regular, but well worn ;19 coarse black hair, closely
cut upon the crown, leaving a monk-like ring around
the edge,20 and a paucity of beard.21 The men fre-
formed, a description equally applicable to their feet.' Armstrong's Nar., p.
101.
18 ' The head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully devel
oped posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the animal passions; the
forehead was, for the most part, low and receding; in a few it was somewhat
vertical, but narrow. Armstrong's Nar., p. 193. Their cranial character
istics ' are the strongly developed coronary ridge, the obliquity of the
zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the Indian cranium. The
former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a
cubic shape.' Dall's Alaska, p. 376. 'Greatest breadth of the face is just
below the eyes, the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly, but not
acutely, and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone.' Richardson's Pol.
Reg., p. 302. Dr Gall, whose observations on the same skulls presented
him for phrenological observation are published by M. Louis Choris, thus
comments upon the head of a female Eskimo from Kotzebue Sound: ' L'or-
gane de 1 'instinct de la propagation se trouve extremenient developpe pour
une tete de femme.' He finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly
developed; while vanity and love of children are well displayed. ' En gene
ral, ' sagely concluded the doctor, ' cette tete femme pre'sentait une organiza
tion aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des fernmes d'Europe.' Voy.
Pitt., pt. ii., p. 16.
w ' Large fat round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eye
brows slanting like the Chinese, and wide mouths.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i.,
p. 345. ' Broad, flat faces, high cheek bones.' Dr Hayes in Hist. Mag., vol.
i., p. 6. Their 'teeth are regular, but, from the nature of their food, and
from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to
the gums at an early age.' Seemanris Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51. At
Hudson Strait, broad, flat, pleasing face; small and generally sore eyes;
given to bleeding at the nose. Franklin's Nar., vol. i., p. 29. ' Small eyes
and very high cheek bones.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 209. 'La face
platte, la bouche ronde, le nez petit sans e'tre ecrase, le blanc de 1'oeil
jaunatre, 1'iris noir et peu brillant. ' De Pauw, Recherclies Phil., torn. i., p. 262.
They have ' small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the hair
generally black, but sometimes fair, and always in extreme disorder.'
BrowneU's 2nd. Races, p. 467. ' As contrasted with the other native Amer
ican races, their eyes are remarkable, being narrow and more or less ob
lique.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 343. Expression of face intelligent
a ad good-natured. Both sexes have mostly round, flat faces, with Mongo
lian cast. Hooper's Tuski, p. 223.
20 ' Allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder.' Richardson's Pol.
old, vol. ii., p. 51. A fierce expression characterized them on the Mackenzie
River, which ' was increased by the long disheveled hair flowing about their
shoulders.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 149. At Kotzebue Sound ' their hair was
done up in large plaits on each side of the head.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p.
360. At Camden Bay, lofty top-knots; at Point Barrow, none. At Copper
mine River the hair is worn short, unshaven 011 the crown, and bound with
strips of deer-skin. Simpson's Nar., pp. 121, 157. Some of the men have
IMPROVEMENTS UPON NATUEE. 47
quently leave the hair in a natural state. The women
of Icy Reef introduce false hair among their own, wear
ing the whole in two immense bows at the back of the
head. At Point Barrow, they separate the hair into two
parts or braids, saturating it with train-oil, and binding
it into stiff bunches with strips of skin. Their lower
extremities are short, so that in a sitting posture they
look taller than when standing.
Were these people satisfied with what nature has
done for them, they would be passably good-looking.
But with them as with all mankind, no matter how high
the degree of intelligence and refinement attained, art
must be applied to improve upon nature. The few fin
ishing touches neglected by the Creator, man is ever
ready to supply.
Arrived at the age of puberty, the great work of im
provement begins. Up to this time the skin has been
kept saturated in grease and filth, until the natural color
is lost, and until the complexion is brought down to the
Eskimo standard. Now pigments of various dye are ap
plied, both painted outwardly and pricked into the skin;
holes are cut in the face, and plugs or labrets inserted.
These operations, however, attended with no little solem
nity, are supposed to possess some significance other than
that of mere ornament. Upon the occasion of piercing
the lip, for instance, a religious feast is given.
bare crowns, but the majority wear the hair flowing naturally. The women
cut the hair short in front, level with the eyebrows. At Humphrey Point it
is twisted with some false hair into two immense bows on the back of the
head. Hooper's Tuski, p. 225. ' Their hair hangs down long, but is cut
quite short on the. crown of the head.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 210.
Hair cut like ' that of a Capuchin friar. ' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 51.
21 Crantz says the Greenlanders root it out. ' The old men had a few
gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones, though grown up, were beard
less.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 332. 'The possession of a beard is very
rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent.' Seemann's Voy. Herald,
vol. ii., p. 51. 'As the men grow old, they have more hair on the face than
Red Indians.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 343. ' Generally an absence of
beard and whiskers.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 193. ' Beard is universally want
ing.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 252. 'The young men have little beard,
but some of the old ones have a tolerable shew of long gray hairs on the
upper lip and chin.' Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 303. 'All have beards.'
Bell's Geography, vol. v., p. 294. Kirby affirms that in Alaska ' many of them
have a profusion of whiskers and beard.' Smithsonian Report, 1864, p. 416.
48 . HYPERBOREANS.
On the northern coast the women paint the eyebrows
and tattoo the chin; while the men only pierce the lower
lip under one or both corners of the mouth, and insert
in each aperture a double-headed sleeve-button or dumb
bell-shaped labret, of bone, ivory, shell, stone, glass, or
'wood. The incision when first made is about the size
of a quill, but as the aspirant for improved beauty grows
older, the size of the orifice is enlarged until it reaches
a width of half or three quarters of an inch.22 In tat
tooing, -the color is applied by drawing a thread under
the skin, or pricking it in with a needle. Different
tribes, and different ranks of the same tribe, have each
their peculiar form of tattooing. The plebeian female of
certain bands is permitted to adorn her chin with but
one vertical line in the centre, and one parallel to it on
either side, while the more fortunate noblesse mark two
vertical lines from each corner of the mouth.23 A fem
inine cast of features, as is common with other branches of
the Mongolian race, prevails in both sexes. Some trav
elers discover in the faces of the men a characteristic
expression of ferociousness, and in those of the women,
an extraordinary display of wantonness. A thick coat
ing of filth and a strong odor of train-oil are inseparable
from an Eskimo, and the fashion of labrets adds in no
wise to his comeliness.24
22 « The lip is perforated for the labret as the boy approaches manhood,
and is considered an important era in his life.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 194.
' Some wore but one, others one on each side of the mouth. ' Hooper's
Titslci, p. 224. ' Lip ornaments, with the males, appear to correspond with
the tattooing of the chins of the females.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 384.
23 ' The women tattoo their faces in blue lines produced by making
stitches with a fine needle and thread, smeared with lampblack. ' Richardson's
Pol. Keg., p. 305. Between Kotzebue Sound and Icy Cape, 'all the women
were tattooed upon the chin with three small lines.' They blacken 'the
edges of the eyelids with plumbago, rubbed up with a little saliva upon a
piece of slate.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 360. At Point Barrow, the
women have on the chin 'a vertical line about half an inch broad in the
uentre, extending from the lip, with a parallel but narrower one on either
side of it, a little apart. Some had two vertical lines protruding from
either angle of the mouth; which is a mark of their high position in the
tribe. Armstrong's Nar., pp. 101, 149. On Bering Isle, men as well as
women tattoo. 'Plusieurs homines avaient le visage tatoueV Choris. Voy.
Pitt., pt. ii., p. 5.
24 ' Give a particularly disgusting look when the bones are taken out,
as
ESKIMO DKESS. 49
For covering to the body, the Eskimos employ the
skin of all the beasts and birds that come within their
reach. Skins are prepared in the fur,25 and cut and
sewed with neatness and skill. Even the intestines of
seals and whales are used in the manufacture of water
proof overdresses.26 The costume for both sexes consists
of long stockings or drawers, over which are breeches
extending from the shoulders to below the knees; and
a frock or jacket, somewhat shorter than the breeches
wkh sleeves and hood. This garment is made whole,
there being no openings except for the head and arms.
The frock of the male is cut at the bottom nearly
square, while that of the female reaches a little lower,
and terminates before and behind in a point or scol
lop. The tail of some animal graces the hinder part of
the male frock; the woman's has a large hood, in which
she carries her infant, Otherwise both sexes dress
alike; and as, when stripped of their facial decorations,
their physiognomies are alike, they are not unfre-
quently mistaken one for the other.27 They have boots
the saliva continually runs over the chin.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 227.
At Camden, labrets were made of large blue beads, glued to pieces of ivory.
None worn at Coppermine River. Simpson's Nar., pp. 119, 347. ' Many of
them also transfix the septum of the nose with a dentalium shell or ivory
needle.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 355.
85 ' These natives almost universally use a very unpleasant liquid for
cleansing purposes. They tan and soften the seal-skin used for boot-soles
with it.' IVhyniper's Alaska, p. 161. ' Females occasionally wash their hair
and faces with their own urine, the odour of which is agreeable to both sexes,
and they are well acciistomed to it, as this liquor is kept in tubs in the
porches of their huts for use in dressing the deer and seal skins. ' Richard
son's Pol. lletj., p. 304. ' Show much skill in the preparation of whale, seal,
and deer-skins.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 357. They have a great
antipathy to water. ' Occasionally they wash their bodies with a certain
animal fluid, but even this process is seldom gone through.' Seemann's
Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 62.
26 ' During the summer, when on whaling or sealing excursions, a coat of
the gut of the whale, and boots of seal or walrus hide, are used as water
proof coverings.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 53. At Point Barrow
they wear 'Kamleikas or water-proof shirts, made of the entrails of seals.'
Simpson's Nar., p. 156* Women wear close-fitting breeches of seal-skin.
Hooper's Tuski, p. 224. ' They are on the whole as good as the best oil
skins in England.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 340.
2' The dress of the two sexes is much alike, the outer shirt or jacket
having a pointed skirt before and behind, those of the female being merely
a little longer. ' Pretty much the same for both sexes.' Figuier's Human
Race, p. 214.
VOL. I. 4
50 HYPERBOREANS.
of walrus or seal skin, mittens or gloves of deer-skin,
and intestine water-proofs covering the entire body.
Several kinds of fur frequently enter into the composi
tion of one garment. Thus the body of the frock,
generally of reindeer- skin, may be of bird, bear, seal,
mink, or squirrel skin; while the hood may be of fox-
skin, the lining of hare-skin, the fringe of wolverine-
skin, and the gloves of fawn-skin.28 Two suits are
worn during the coldest weather; the inner one with
the fur next the skin, the outer suit with the fur out
ward.29 Thus, with their stomachs well filled with fat,
•and their backs covered with furs, they bid defiance to
the severest Arctic winter.30
In architecture, the Eskimo is fully equal to the
emergency; building, upon a soil which yields him little
<or no material, three classes of dwellings. Penetrating
the frozen earth, or casting around him a frozen wall,
he compels the very elements from ' which he seeks
protection to protect him. For his yourt or winter
28 ' They have besides this a jacket made of eider drakes' skins sewed
together, which, put oil underneath their other dress, is a tolerable protec
tion against a distant arrow, and is worn in times of hostility.' Beech-
ey's Voy. vol. i., p. 340. Messrs Dease and Simpson found those of
Point Barrow 'well clothed in seal and reindeer skins.' Loud. Geog. 8oc.
Jour., vol. viii., p. 221. ' The finest dresses are made of the skins of unborn
deer.' Richardson's Pol Reg., p. 300. ' The half-developed skin of a fawn
that has never lived, obtained by driving the doe till her offspring is pre
maturely born.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 160. Eskimo women pay much
regard to their toilet. Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 355.
29 Their dress consists of two suits. Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii.,
p. 52. 'Reindeer skin— the fur next the body.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 149.
4 Two women, dressed like men, looked frightfully with their tattooed faces.'
Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 191. Seal-skin jackets, bear-skin trowsers, and
white-fox skin caps, is the male costume at Hudson Strait. The female
dress is the same, with the addition of a hood for carrying children. Frank
lin's Nar., vol. i., p 29. At Camden Bay, reindeer-skin jackets and water-
Cof boots. Simpson's Nar., p. 119. At Coppermine River, 'women's
ts which are not stiffened out with whalebone, and the tails of their
jackets are not over one foot long.' Hearne's Travels, p 166. Deer-skin, hair
outside, ornamented with white fur. Kirby in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p.
416. The indoor dress of the eastern Eskimo is of reindeer-skin, with the
fur inside. ' When they go out, another entire suit with the fur outside is
put over all, and a pair of watertight sealskin moccasins, with similiar mit
tens for their hands.' Sillbnan's Journal, vol. xvi., p. 146. The frock at Cop
permine River has a tail something like a dress-coat. Simpson's Nar., p . 350.
30 ' Some of them are even half-naked, as a summer heat, even of 10J is
insupportable to them.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 205.
DWELLINGS OF THE ESKIMOS. 51
residence he digs a hole of the required dimensions,
to a depth of about six feet.31 Within this excava
tion he erects a frame, either of wood or whalebone,
lashing his timbers with thongs instead of nailing them.
This frame is carried upward to a distance of two or three
feet above the ground,32 when it is covered by a dome-
shaped roof of poles or whale-ribs turfed and earthed
over.33 In the centre of the roof is left a hole for the
admission of light and the emission of smoke. In ab
sence of fire, a translucent covering of whale -intestine
confines the warmth of putrifying filth, and completes the
Eskimo's sense of comfort, To gain admittance to this
snug retreat, without exposing the inmates to the storms
without, another and a smaller hole is dug to the same
depth, a short distance from the first. From one to
the other, an underground passage-way is then opened,
through which entrance is made on hands and knees.
The occupants descend by means of a ladder, and over the
entrance a shed is erected, to protect it from the snow.34
Within the entrance is hung a deer-skin door, and ante
rooms are arranged in which to deposit frozen outer gar
ments before entering the heated room. Around the
sides of the dwelling, sleeping-places are marked out ; for
bedsteads, boards are placed upon logs one or two feet in
diameter, and covered with willow branches and skins.
A little heap of stones in the centre of the room, under
the smoke -hole, forms the fireplace. In the corners of
the room are stone lamps, which answer all domestic
31 ' Down to the frozen subsoil.' Richardson's Pol. Peg., p. 310. ' Some
are wholly above ground, others have their roof scarcely raised above it. '
Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 301.
32 ' Formed of stakes placed upright in the ground about six feet high,
either circular or oval in form, from which others inclined so as to form a
sloping roof.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 149. ' Half underground, with the
entrance more or less so.' Dall's Alaska, p. 13. 'They are more than
half underground,' and are 'about twenty feet square and eight feet deep.'
Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 57.
33 ' The whole building is covered with earth to the thickness of a foot or
more, and in a few years it becomes overgrown with grass, looking from a
short distance like a small tumulus.' Richardson^s Pol. Reg., p. 310.
34 A smaller drift-wood house is sometimes built with a side-door. ' Light
and air are admitted by a low door at one end.' Richardson's Nar., vol.
i., p. 245.
52 HYPERBOKEANS.
purposes in the absence of fire-wood.35 In the better class
of buildings, the sides and floor are boarded. Supplies
are kept in a store house at a little distance from the
dwelling, perched upon four posts, away from the reach
of the dogs, and a frame is always erected on which
to hang furs and fish. Several years are sometimes
occupied in building a hut.36
Mark how nature supplies this treeless coast with
wood. The breaking-up of winter in the mountains of
Alaska is indeed a breaking-up. The accumulated
masses of ice and snow, when suddenly loosened by the
incessant rays of the never-setting sun, bear away all
before them. Down from the mountain -sides comes
the avalanche, uprooting trees, swelling rivers, hurry
ing with its burden to the sea. There, casting itself
into the warm ocean current, the ice soon disappears,
and the driftwood which accompanied it is carried north
ward and thrown back upon the beach by the October
winds. Thus huge forest-trees, taken up bodily, as it
were, in the middle of a continent, and carried by the
currents to the incredible distance, sometimes, of three
thousand miles, are deposited all along the Arctic sea
board, laid at the very door of these people, a people
whose store of this world's benefits is none of the most
abundant.37 True, wood is not an absolute necessity with
them, as many of their houses in the coldest weather
35 ' The fire in the centre is never lit merely for the sake of warmth, as
the lamps are sufficient for that purpose.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol.
ii., p. 58, 'They have no fire-places; but a stone placed in the centre
serves for a support to the lamp, by which the little cooking that is required
is performed.' Richardson's JVar., vol. i., p. 348.
36 ' On trouva plusieurs huttes construites en bois, moitie dans la terre,
moitie en dehors.' Charts' Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 6. At Beaufort Bay are
wooden huts. Simpson's Nar., p. 177. At Toker Point, 'built of drift-wood
and sods of turf or mud ' Hooper's Tuski, p. 343. At Cape Krusenstern the
houses ' appeared like little round hills, with fences of whale-bone.' Koize-
bue's Voy., vol. i., p. 237. ' They construct yourts or winter residences upon
those parts of the shore which are adapted to their convenience, such as the
mouths of rivers, the entrances of inlets, or jutting points of land, but always
upon low ground.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii.. p, 300.
37 ' I was surprised at the vast quantity of driftwood accumulated on its
shore, several acres being thickly covered with it, and many pieces at least
sixty feet in length.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 104.
SNOW HOUSES. 53
have no fire; only oil -lamps being used for cooking
and heating. Whale-ribs supply the place of trees for
house and boat timbers, and hides are commonly used
for boards. Yet a bountiful supply of wood during their
long, cold, dark winter comes in no wise amiss.38 Their
summer tents are made of seal or untanned deer skins
with the hair outward, conical or bell-shaped, and without
a smoke -hole as no fires are ever kindled within them.
The wet or frozen earth is covered with a few coarse
skins for a floor.39
But the most unique system of architecture in America
is improvised by the Eskimos during their seal-hunting
expeditions upon the ice, when they occupy a veritable
crystal palace fit for an Arctic fairy. On the frozen
river or sea, a spot is chosen free from irregu
larities, and a circle of ten or fifteen feet in diam
eter drawn on the snow. The snow within the
circle is then cut into slabs from three to four
inches in thickness, their length being the depth
of the snow, and these slabs are formed into a
wall enclosing the circle and carried up in courses
similar to those of brick or stone, terminating in a
dome -shaped roof. A wedge -like slab keys the arch;
and this principle in architecture may have first been
known to the Assyrians, Egyptians, Chinese or Es
kimos.40 Loose snow is then thrown into the crevices,
which quickly congeals; an aperture is cut in the
side for a door; and if the thin wall is not sufficiently
38 ' Eastern Esquimaux never seem to think of fire as a means of imparting
warmth.' Simpson's Nar., p. 346.
39 Their houses are 'moveable tents, constructed of poles and skins.'
Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 469. 'Neither wind nor watertight.' Beechey's
Voy., vol. i., p. 361. At Cape Smythe, Hooper saw seven Eskimo tents
of seal skin. Tuski, p. 216. 'We entered a small tent of morse -skins,
made in the form of a canoe.' Kotzebw's Voy., vol. i., p. 226. At Cop
permine River their tents in summer are of deer-skin with the hair on,
and circular, flearne's Travels, p. 167. At St Lawrence Island, Kotzebue
saw no settled dwellings, ' only several small tents built of the ribs of whales,
and covered with the skin of the morse.' Voyage, vol. i., pp. 190-191.
40 ' In parallelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda, with an
arched roof.' Silliman's Jour., vol. xvi., p. 146. Parry's Voy., vol. v., p.
200. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 44.
54 HYPERBOREANS.
translucent, a piece of ice is fitted into the side
for a window. Seats, tables, couches, and even fire
places are made with frozen snow, and covered with
reindeer or seal skin. Out -houses connect with the
main room, and frequently a number of dwellings are
built contiguously, with a passage from one to another.
These houses are comfortable and durable, resisting
alike the wind and the thaw until late in the season.
Care must be taken that the walls are not so thick as to
make them too warm, and so cause a dripping from the
interior. A square block of snow serves as a stand for
the stone lamp which is their only fire.41
" The purity of the material," says Sir John Frank
lin, who saw them build an edifice of this kind at
Coppermine River, " of which the house was framed,
the elegance of its construction, and the translucency of
its walls, which transmitted a very pleasant light, gave
it an appearance far superior to a marble building, and
one might survey it with feelings somewhat akin to
those produced by the contemplation of a Grecian tem
ple, reared by Phidias; both are triumphs of art, inimi
table in their kind."42
Eskimos, fortunately, have not a dainty palate. Ev
erything which sustains life is food for them. Their
substantials comprise the flesh of land and marine ani
mals, fish and birds; venison, and whale and seal
blubber being chief. Choice dishes, tempting to the
appetite, Arctic epicurean dishes, Eskimo nectar and
ambrosia, are daintily prepared, hospitably placed before
strangers, and eaten and drunk with avidity. Among
41 ' These houses are durable, the wind has little effect on them, and they
resist the thaw until the sun acquires very considerable power.' Eichard-
son's Nar., vol. i., p. 350.
42 The snow houses are called by the natives igloo, and the underground
huts yourts, or yurts, and their tents topeks. Winter residence, 'iglut.' Eich-
ardson's Pol. Reg., p. 310. Beechey, describing the same kind of buildings,
calls them 'yourts.' Voy., vol. i., p. 366. Tent of skins, tie-poo-eet; topak;
toopek. Tent, too-pote. Ibid., vol. ii., p. 381. 'Yourts.' Seemann'8 Voy.
Herald, vol. ii., p. 59. Tent, topek. Dall says Richardson is wrong, and
that igloo or iglu is the name of ice houses. Alaska, p. 532. House, iglo.
Tent, tuppek. Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 378. Snow house, eegloo.
Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 47.
MIGKATIONS FOE FOOD. 55
them are : a bowl of coagulated blood, mashed cranberries
with rancid train-oil, whortleberries and walrus-blubber,
alternate streaks of putrid black and white whale-fat;
venison steeped in seal -oil, raw deer's liver cut in small
pieces and mixed with the warm half-digested contents of
the animal's stomach ; bowls of live maggots, a draught of
warm blood from a newly killed animal.43 Fish are some
times eaten alive. Meats are kept in seal-skin bags for
over a year, decomposing meanwhile, but never becoming
too rancid for our Eskimos. Their winter store of oil
they secure in seal -skin bags, which are buried in the
frozen ground. Charlevoix remarks that they are the
only race known who prefer food raw. This, however, is
not the case. They prefer their food cooked, but do not
object to it raw or rotten. They are no lovers of salt.44
In mid -winter, while the land is enveloped in dark
ness, the Eskimo dozes torpidly in his den. Early in
September the musk-oxen and reindeer retreat south
ward, and the fish are confined beneath the frozen cov
ering of the rivers. It is during the short summer,
when food is abundant, that they who would not perish
must lay up a supply for the winter. When spring
opens, and the rivers are cleared of ice, the natives follow
the fish, which at that time ascend the streams to spawn,
and spear them at the falls and rapids that impede their
progress. Small wooden fish are sometimes made and
thrown into holes in the ice for a decoy; salmon are
taken in a whalebone seine. At this season also rein
deer are captured on their way to the coast, whither
they resort in the spring to drop their young. Multi-
43 They are so fond of the warm blood of dying animals that they invented
an instrument to secure it. See Seechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 344. ' Whale-
blubber, their great delicacy, is sickening and dangerous to a European
stomach.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 192.
4* Hearne says that the natives on the Arctic coast of British America are
so disgustingly filthy that when they have bleeding at the nose they lick
up their own blood. Travels, p. 161. 'Salt always appeared an abom
ination.' 'They seldom cook their food, the frost apparently acting as a
substitute for fire.' Collinson, in Lond. Geoy. Soc. Jour., vol. xxv., p. 201.
At Kotzebue Sound they ' seem to subsist entirely on the flesh of marine ani
mals, which they, for the most part, eat raw.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 239.
'56 HYPEBBOBEANS.
tudes of geese, ducks, and swans visit the ocean during
the same period to breed.45
August and September are the months for whales.
When a whale is discovered rolling on the water, a
boat starts out, and from the distance of a few feet a
weapon is plunged into its blubbery carcass. The har
poons are so constructed that when this blow is given,
the shaft becomes disengaged from the barbed ivory point.
To this point a seal-skin buoy or bladder is attached by
means of a cord. The blows are repeated ; the buoys en
cumber the monster in diving or swimming, and the inge
nious Eskimo is soon able to tow the carcass to the shore.
A successful chase secures an abundance of food for the
winter.46 Seals are caught during the winter, and con
siderable skill is required in taking them. Being a warm
blooded respiratory animal, they are obliged to have
air, and in order to obtain it, while the surface of the
water is undergoing the freezing process, they keep open
a breathing -hole by constantly gnawing away the ice.
They produce their young in March, and soon afterward
the natives abandon their villages and set out on the
ice in pursuit of them. Seals, like whales, are also
killed with a harpoon to which is attached a bladder.
The seal, when struck, may draw the float under water
for a time, but is soon obliged to rise to the surface
from exhaustion and for air, when he is again attacked
and soon obliged to yield.
The Eskimos are no less ingenious in catching wild
fowl, which they accomplish by means of a sling or net
made of woven sinews, with ivory balls attached. They
also snare birds by means of whalebone nooses, round
which fine gravel is scattered as a bait. They ma-
45 ' During the two summer months they hunt and live on swans, geese,
and ducks.' Richardson's Nar., vol. i., p. 346.
46 ' Secures winter feasts and abundance of oil for the lamps of a whole
village, and there is great rejoicing.' Richardson's Pol. Keg., p. 313. ' The
capture of the seal and walrus is effected in the same manner. Salmon and
other fish are caught in nets.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 61. 'Six
small perforated ivory balls attached separately to cords of sinew three feet
long.' Dease & Simpson, in Lond. (Jeog. &oc. Jour., vol. viii., 222.
BEAR- HUNTING . 57
noeuvre reindeer to near the edge of a cliff, and, driving
them into the sea, kill them from canoes. They also
waylay them at the narrow passes, and capture them in
great numbers. They construct large reindeer pounds,
and set up two diverging rows of turf so as to represent
men ; the outer extremities of the line being sometimes
two miles apart, and narrowing to a small enclosure.
Into this trap the unsuspecting animals are driven, when
they are easily speared.47
To overcome the formidable polar bear the natives
have two strategems. One is by imitating the seal, upon
which the bear principally feeds, and thereby enticing it
within gunshot. Another is by bending a piece of stiff
whalebone, encasing it in a ball of blubber, and freezing
the ball, which then holds firm the bent whalebone.
Armed with these frozen blubber balls, the natives ap
proach their victim, and, with a discharge of arrows, open
the engagement. The bear, smarting with pain, turns
upon his tormentors, who, taking to their heels, drop
now and then a blubber ball. Bruin, as fond of food
as of revenge, pauses for a moment, hastily swallows
one, then another, and another. Soon a strange sensa
tion is felt within. The thawing blubber, melted by the
heat of the animal's stomach, releases the pent-up whale
bone, which, springing into place, plays havoc with the
intestines, and brings the bear to a painful and ignomin
ious end. To vegetables, the natives are rather indiffer
ent; berries, acid sorrel leaves, and certain roots, are
used as a relish. There is no native intoxicating liquor,
but in eating they get gluttonously stupid.
Notwithstanding his long, frigid, biting winter, the
Eskimo never suffers from the cold so long as he has an
abundance of food. As we have seen, a whale or a moose
supplies him with food, shelter, and raiment. With an
internal fire, fed by his oily and animal food, glow-
47 Near Smith River, a low piece of ground, two miles broad at the beach,
was found enclosed by double rows of turf set up to represent men, narrow
ing towards a lake, into which reindeer were driven and killed. Simpson's
Nar., p. 135.
58 HYPEEBOEEANS
ing in his stomach, his blood at fever heat, he bur
rows comfortably in ice and snow and frozen ground,
without necessity for wood or coal.48 Nor are those pas
sions which are supposed to develop most fully under a
milder temperature, wanting in the half-frozen Hyper
borean.49 One of the chief difficulties of the Eskimo
during the winter is to obtain water, and the women
spend a large portion of their time in melting snow over
oil-lamps. In the Arctic regions, eating snow is at
tended, with serious consequences. Ice or snow, touched
to the lips or tongue, blisters like caustic. Fire is ob
tained by striking sparks from iron pyrites with quartz.
It is a singular fact that in the coldest climate inhabited
by man, fire is less used than anywhere else in the world,
equatorial regions perhaps excepted. Caloric for the
body is supplied by food and supplemented by furs.
Snow houses, from their nature, prohibit the use of
fire; but cooking with the Eskimo is a luxury, not a
necessity. He well understands how to utilize every
part of the animals so essential to his existence. With
their skins he clothes himself, makes houses, boats, and
oil-bags; their flesh and fat he eats. He even devours
the contents of the intestines, and with the skin makes
water-proof clothing. Knives, arrow-points, house, boat,
and sledge frames, fish-hooks, domestic utensils, ice-chisels,
and in fact almost all their implements, are made from the
horns and bones of the deer, whale, and seal. Bow
strings are made of the sinews of musk-oxen, and ropes
of seal-skin.50 The Eskimo's arms are not very formidable.
48 ' Ce qu'il y a encore de frappant dans la complexion de ces barbares,
c'est 1'extreme chaleur de leur estomac et de leur sang; ils echauffent telle-
ment, par leur haleine ardente, les huttes ou ils assemblent en hiver, que les
Europeans, s'y senteiit etouffes, comme dans une etuve dont la clialeur est
trop graduee : aussi ne font-ils janiais de feu dans leur habitation en aucuue
saison, et ils ignorent 1'usage des cheminees, sous le climat le plus froid du
globe.' De Pauw. Recherches Phil., torn, i., p. 261.
49 'The voluptuousness and Polygamy of the North American Indians,
under a temperature of almost perpetual winter, is far greater than that of
the most sensual tropical nations.' Martin's British Colonies, vol. iii., p. 524.
50 ' The .seal is perhaps their most useful animal, not merely furnishing
oil and blubber, but the skin used for their canoes, thongs, nets, lassoes, and
boot soles.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 161^
SLEDGES, SNOW-SHOES, AND BOATS. 59
Backed by his ingenuity, they nevertheless prove suffi
cient for practical purposes; and while his neighbor
possesses none better, all are on an equal footing in
war. Their most powerful as well as most artistic
weapon is the bow. It is made of beech or spruce,
in three pieces curving in opposite directions and in
geniously bound by twisted sinews, so as to give the
greatest possible strength. Richardson affirms that
u in the hands of a native hunter it will propel an
arrow with sufficient force to pierce the heart of a
musk-ox, or break the leg of a reindeer." Arrows, as
well as spears, lances, and darts, are of white spruce,
and pointed with bone, ivory, flint, and slate.51 East
of the Mackenzie, copper enters largely into the com
position of Eskimo utensils.52 Before the introduction
of iron by Europeans, stone hatchets were common.53
The Hyperboreans surpass all American nations in their
facilities for locomotion, both upon land and water. In
their skin boats, the natives of the Alaskan seaboard from
Point Barrow to Mount St Elias, made long voyages,
crossing the strait and sea of Bering, and held commercial
intercourse with the people of Asia. Sixty miles is an
ordinary day's journey for sledges, while Indians on
snow-shoes have been known to run down and cap
ture deer. Throughout this entire border, including
the Aleutian Islands, boats are made wholly of the
skins of seals or sea-lions, excepting the frame of wood
51 They have 'two sorts of bows; arrows pointed with iron, flint," and
bone, or blunt for birds; a dart with throwing-board for seals; a spear
headed with iron or copper, the handle about six feet long; and formidable
iron knives, equally adapted for throwing, cutting, or stabbing.' Simpson's
Nar., p. 123. They ascended the Mackenzie in former times as far as
the Ramparts, to obtain flinty slate for lance and arrow points. Richard
son's Jour., vol. i., p. 213. At St. Lawrence Island, they are armed with a
knife two feet long Kotzebm's Voy., vol. i., pp. 193, 211. One weapon was
'a walrus tooth fixed to the end of a wooden staff.' Beechey's Voy., vol. i.,
p. 343.
M At the Coppermine River, arrows are pointed with slate or copper; hatch
ets also are made of a thick lump of copper. Hearne's Travels, pp. 161-9.
53 « The old ivory knives and flint axes are now superseded, the Russians
having introduced the common European sheath-knife and hatchet. The
board for throwing darts is in use, and is similar to that of the Polynesians.'
Seeniann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 53.
60 HYPEKBOBEANS.
or whale-ribs. In the interior, as well as on the coast
immediately below Mount St Elias, skin boats disap^
pear, and canoes or wooden boats are used.
Two kinds of skin boats are employed by the natives
of the Alaskan coast, a large and a small one. The
former is called by the natives oomiaJc, and by the Rus
sians baidar. This is a large, flat-bottomed, open boat;
the skeleton of wood^or whale-ribs, fastened with seal
skin thongs or whale's sinews, and covered with oiled
seal or sea-lion skins, which are first sewed together
and then stretched over the frame. The baidar is
usually about^ thirty feet in length, six feet in extreme
breadth, and three feet in depth. It is propelled by
oars, and will carry^ fifteen or twenty persons, but its
capacity is greatly increased by lashing inflated seal
skins to the. outside. In storms at sea, two or three
baidars are sometimes tied together.5* The small boat
is called by the natives Jcyak, and by the Russians bai
dar Jca. It is constructed of the same material and in
the same manner as the baidar, except that it is entirely
covered with skins, top as well as bottom, save one hole
left in the deck, which is filled by the navigator. After
54 The 'baydare is a large open boat, quite flat, made of sea-lions' skins,'
and is used also for a tent. At Lantscheff Island it was ' a large and prob
ably leathern boat, with black sails.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., pp. 202, 216.
' The kaiyaks are impelled by a double-bladed paddle, used with or without
a central rest, and the umiaks with oars.' Can 'propel their kaiyaks at the
rate of seven miles an hour. ' Richardson's Jour ., vol. i., pp. 238, 358. At Hud
son Strait they have canoes of seal-skin, like those of Greenland. Franklin's
'Nar., vol. i., p. 29. Not a drop of water can penetrate the opening into the
canoe. Mutter's Voy., p. 46. The kyak is like an English wager-boat.
They are 'much stronger than their lightness would lead one to suppose.'
Hooper's Tuski, pp. 226, 228. Oomiaks or family canoes of skin; float in six
inches of water, Simpson's Nar.,p. 148. 'With these boats they make long voy
ages, frequently visiting St. Lawrence Island.' Dall's Alaska, p. 380. ' Frame
work of wood — when this cannot be procured whalebone is substituted. ' Arm
strong's Nar., p. 98. Mackenzie saw boats put together with whalebone; 'sewed
in some parts, and tied in others.' Voyages, p. 67. They also use a sail. ' On
decouvrit au loin, dans la baie, un bateau qui allait a la voile; elle etait en
cuir.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 6. They 'are the best means yet discov
ered by mankind to go from place to place.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 43.
4 It is wonderful what long voyages they make in these slight boats.' Camp
bell's Voy., p. 114. ' The skin, when soaked with water, is translucent; and
a stranger placing his foot upon the flat yielding surface at the bottom of
the boat fancies it a frail security.' JJeecliey's Voy., vol. i., p. 346.
DOGS AND SLEDS. 61
taking his seat, and thereby filling this hole, the occu
pant puts on a water-proof over-dress, the bottom of
which is so secured round the rim of the hole that not
a drop of water can penetrate it. This dress is pro
vided with sleeves and a hood. It is securely fastened
at the wrists and neck, and when the hood is drawn over
the head, the boatman may bid defiance to the water.
The baidarka is about sixteen feet in length, and two
feet in width at the middle, tapering to a point at either
end.55 It is light and strong, and when skillfully han
dled is considered very safe. The native of Norton
Sound will twirl his kyak completely over, turn an
aquatic somersault, and by the aid of his double-bladed
paddle come up safely on the other side, without even
losing his seat. So highly were these boats esteemed
by the Russians, that they were at once universally
adopted by them in navigating these waters. They
were unable to invent any improvement in either of
them, although they made a baidarka with two and
three seats, which they employed in addition to the
one-seated kyak. The Kadiak baidarka is a little
shorter and wider than the Aleutian.50
Sleds, sledges, dogs, and Arctic land-boats play an
important part in Eskimo economy. The Eskimo sled
is framed of spruce, birch, or whalebone, strongly bound
with thongs, and the runners shod with smooth strips of
55 The ' kajak is shaped like a weaver's shuttle.' Richardson's Pol. Keg.,
p. 308. 'The paddle is ill the hands of an Eskimo, what the balancing pole
is to a tight-rope dancer.' tieemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 56.
56 ' The Koltshaiien construct birch-bark canoes ; but oil the coast skin
boats or baidars, like the Eskimo kaiyaks and umiaks, are employed.' Rich
ardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 405. If by accident a hole should be made, it is
stopped with a piece of the flesh of the sea-dog, or fat of the whale, which
they always carry with them. LanysdorflFs Voy., pt. ii., p. 43. They strike
' the water with a quick, regular motion, first on one side, and then on the
other.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 516. 'Wiegeii nie iiber^O Pfund,
wild haben ein diiimes mit Leder iiberzogues Gerippe.' Neue Nachrichten,
p. 152. 'The Aleutians put to sea with them in all weathers.' Kotzebue's New
Voy., vol. ii., p. 40. At the Shumagin Islands they ' are generally about
twelve feet in length, sharp at each end, and about twenty inches broad.'
Hearts' Voy.. p. x. They are as transparent as oiled paper. At Unalaska
they are so light that they can be carried in one hand. Sauert Billing's Voy.,
p. 157, 159.
62 HYPERBOKEANS.
whale's jaw-bone. This sled is heavy, and fit only for
traveling over ice or frozen snow. Indian sleds of the
interior are lighter, the runners being of thin flexible
boards better adapted to the inequalities of the ground.
Sledges, such as are used by the voyagers of Hudson
Bay, are of totally different construction. Three boards,
each about one foot in width and twelve feet in length,
thinned, and curved into a semicircle at one end, are
placed side by side and firmly lashed together with
thongs. A leathern bag or blanket of the full size of
the sled is provided, in which the load is placed and
lashed down with strings.57 Sleds and sledges are
drawn by dogs, and they will carry a load of from a
quarter to half a ton, or about one hundred pounds
to each dog. The dogs of Alaska are scarcely up to
the average of Arctic canine nobility.58 They are of
various colors, hairy, short-legged, with large bushy
tails curved over the back ; they are wolfish, suspicious,
yet powerful, sagacious, and docile, patiently performing
an incredible amount of ill-requited labor. Dogs are
harnessed to the sledge, sometimes by separate thongs at
unequal distances, sometimes in pairs to a single line.
They are* guided by the voice accompanied by a whip,
and to the best trained and most sagacious is given the
longest tether, that he may act as leader. An eastern
dog will carry on his back a weight of thirty pounds.
The dogs of the northern coast are larger and stronger
w ' They average twelve feet in length, two feet six inches in height, two
feet broad, and have the fore part turned tip in a gentle curve.' ' The floor
resembles a grating without cross-bars, and is almost a foot from the level of
the snow.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 56. At Saritscheff Island 'I
particularly remarked two very neat sledges made of morse and whalebones.'
Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 201. ' To make the runners glide smoothly, a
coating of ice is given to them.' Richardson's Pol. Jtey., p. 309. At Norton
Sound Captain Cook found sledges ten feet long and twenty inches in width.
A rail-work on each side, and shod with bone; 'neatly put together; some
with wooden pins, but mostly with thongs or lashings of whale-bone. ' Third
Voy., vol. ii., p. 442, 443. Mackenzie describes the sledges of British Amer
ica, Voyages, pp. 67, 68.
58 'About the size of those of Newfoundland, with shorter legs.' Dall's
Alaska, p. 25. 'Neither plentiful nor of a good class.' Whywper's Alaska,
p. 171.
PKOPEKTY. 63
than those of the interior. Eskimo dogs are used in
hunting reindeer and musk-oxen, as well as in drawing
sledges.59 Those at Cape Prince of Wales appear to be
of the same species as those used upon the Asiatic coast
for drawing sledges.
Snow-shoes, or foot-sledges, are differently made ac
cording to the locality. In traveling over soft snow
they are indispensable. They consist of an open light
wooden frame, made of two smooth pieces of wood each
about two inches wide and an inch thick; the inner
part sometimes straight, and the outer curved out to
about one foot in the widest part. They are from two
to six feet in length, some oval and turned up in front,
running to a point behind; others flat, and pointed at
both ends, the space within the frame being filled with a
network of twisted deer-sinews or fine seal-skin.60 The
Hudson Bay snow-shoe is only two and a half feet in
length. The Kutchin shoe is smaller than that of the
Eskimo.
The merchantable wealth of the Eskimos consists of
peltries, such as wolf, deer, badger, polar-bear, otter, hare,
musk-rat, Arctic-fox, and seal skins ; red ochre, plumbago,
and iron pyrites; oil, ivory, whalebone; in short, all parts
of all species of beasts, birds, and fishes that they can se
cure and convert into an exchangeable shape.61 The arti
cles they most covet are tobacco, iron, and beads. They
are not particularly given to strong drink. On the shore
of Bering Strait the natives have constant commercial
59 The dog will hunt bear and reindeer, but is afraid of its near relative,
the wolf. Browmll's 2nd. Races, p. 474.
60 ' An average length is four and a half feet.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 183.
' The Iniiuit snowshoe is small and nearly flat,' 'seldom over thirty inches
long.' 'They are always rights and lefts.' Ingalik larger; Kutchin same
style ; Hudson Bay, thirty inches in length. JJalVs Alaska, pp. 190, 191.
' They are from two to three feet long, a foot broad, and slightly turned up in
front.' tieemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 60.
61 ' Blue beads, cutlery, tobacco, and buttons, were the articles in request.'
Beechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 352. At Hudson Strait they have a custom of
licking with the tongue each article purchased, as a finish to the bargain.
Franklin's Nar., vol. i., 27. 'Articles of Russian manufacture find their
way from tribe to tribe along the American coast, eastward to Repulse Bay.'
Richardson's Pol Reg., p. 317.
64 HYPERBOREANS.
intercourse with Asia. They cross easily in their
boats, carefully eluding the vigilance of the fur com
pany. They frequently meet at the Gwosdeff Islands,
where the Tschuktschi bring tobacco, iron, tame-rein
deer skins, and walrus-ivory; the Eskimos giving in
exchange wolf and wolverine skins, wooden dishes, seal
skins and other peltries. The Eskimos of the American
coast carry on quite an extensive trade with the Indians
of the interior,6'2 exchanging with them Asiatic merchan
dise for peltries. They are sharp at bargains, avaricious,
totally devoid of conscience in their dealings; will sell
their property thrice if possible, and, if caught, laugh it
off as a joke. The rights of property are scrupulously
respected among themselves, but to steal from strangers,
which they practice on every occasion with considerable
dexterity, is considered rather a mark of merit than
otherwise. A successful thief, when a stranger is the
victim, receives the applause of the entire tribe.63 Cap
tain Kotzebue thus describes the manner of trading
with the Russo- Indians of the south and of Asia.
" The stranger first comes, and lays some goods on
the shore and then retires; the American then comes,
looks at the things, puts as many things near them as
he thinks proper to give, and then also goes away.
Upon this the stranger approaches, and examines what
is offered him; if he is satisfied with it, he takes the
skins and leaves the goods instead ; but if not, then he
lets all the things lie, retires a second time, and expects
62 Are very anxious to barter arrows, seal-skin boots, and ivory orna
ments for tobacco, beads, and particularly for iron. Hooper's Tuski, p. 217.
Some of their implements at Coppermine River are: stone kettles, wood
en dishes, scoops and spoons made of buffalo or musk-ox horns. Uearne's
Travels, p. 1G8. At Point Barrow were ivory implements with carved figures
of sea-animals, ivory dishes, and a ' fine whalebone net.' Also 'knives and
other implements, formed of native copper ' at Coppermine River. Simpson's
.Nar., pp. 147, 156, 264. At Point Barrow they ' have unquestionably an in
direct trade with the Russians.' Simpson's Nar., 161.
C3 'They are very expert traders, haggle obstinately, always consult to
gether, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they have cheated anybody. '
Kotzebue 's Voy., vol. i., p. 2 11. 'A thieving, cunning race. ' Armstrong's Nar.,
p. 110. They respect each other's property, 'but they steal without scruple
from strangers.' liichardsoris Jour., vol. i., p. 352.
SOCIAL ECONOMY. 65
an addition from the buyer." If they cannot agree,
each retires with his goods.
Their government, if it can be called a government,
is patriarchal. Now and then some ancient or able
man gains an ascendency in the tribe, and over
awes his fellows. Some tribes even acknowledge an
hereditary chief, but his authority is nominal. He can
neither exact tribute, nor govern the movements of the
people. His power seems to be exercised only in treat
ing with other tribes. Slavery in any form is unknown
among them. Caste has been mentioned in connection
with tattooing, but, as a rule, social distinctions do not
exist.64
The home of the Eskimo is a model of filth and free-
ness. Coyness is not one of their vices, nor is modesty
ranked among their virtues. The latitude of innocency
characterizes all their social relations ; they refuse to do
nothing in public that they would do in private. Female
chastity is little regarded. The Kutchins, it is said, are
jealous, but treat their wives kindly; the New Cale
donians are jealous, and treat them cruelly; but the
philosophic Eskimos are neither jealous nor unkind.
Indeed, so far are they from espionage or meanness in
marital affairs, that it is the duty of the hospitable host
to place at the disposal of his guest not only the house
and its contents, but his wife also.65 The lot of the
6* ' They have a chief (Nalegak) ill name, but do not recognize his authority. '
Dr Hayes in Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 6. Government, ' a combination of the mon
archical and republican;' 'every one is on a perfect level with the rest.'
Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 59, 60. ' Chiefs are respected principally as
senior men.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 41. At Kotzebue Sound, a robust
young man was taken to be chief, as all his commands were punctually
obeyed. Xotzcbue's Voy., vol. i., p. 235. Quarrels ' are settled by boxing,
the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately, until one of them
gives in.' Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 326. Every man governs his own
family. Brownell's 2nd. Races, p. 475. They 'have a strong respect for
their territorial rights, and maintain them with firmness.' Richardson's
Jour., vol. i., p. 351.
65 They are ' horribly filthy in person and habits.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 224.
* A husband will readily traffic with the virtue of a wife for purposes of gain .'
Armstrong's Nar., p. 195. ' More than once a wife was proffered by her
husband.' Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 356. As against the above testimony,
Seemann affirms : ' After the marriage ceremony has been performed infi-
VOL. I. 5
66 HYPEKBOKEANS.
women is but little better than slavery. All the work,
except the nobler occupations of hunting, fishing, and
fighting, falls to them. The lesson of female inferi
ority is at an early age instilled into the mind of
youth. Nevertheless, the Eskimo mother is remark
ably affectionate, and fulfills her low destiny with pa
tient kindness. Polygamy is common ; every man being
entitled to as many wives as he can get and main
tain. On the other hand, if women are scarce, the men
as easily adapt themselves to circumstances, and two
of them marry one woman. Marriages are celebrated
.as follows : after gaining the consent of the mother, the
lover presents a suit of clothes to the lady, who arrays
herself therein and thenceforth is his wife.06 Dancing,
accompanied by singing and violent gesticulation, is their
chief amusement. In all the nations of the north, every
well-regulated village aspiring to any degree of respect
ability has its public or town house, which among the
Eskimos is called the Casine or Kashim. It consists of
one large subterranean room, better built than the com
mon dwellings, and occupying a central position, where
the people congregate on feast-days.67 This house is
also used as a public work-shop, where are manufact
ured boats, sledges, and snow-shoes. A large portion
of the winter is devoted to dancing. Feasting and vis
iting commence in November. On festive occasions, a
dim light and a strong odor are thrown over the scene
deli ty is rare.' Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 66. 'These people are in the habit
of collecting certain fluids for the purposes of tanning; and that, judging
from what took place in the tent, in the most open manner, in the presence
of all the family.' Beechey's Voy., vol.i., p. 407.
66 'Two men sometimes marry the same woman.' Seemann's Voy. Her
ald, vol. ii., p. 66. ' As soon as a girl is born, the young lad who wishes to
have her for a wife goes to her father's tent, and proffers himself. If ac
cepted, a promise is given which is considered binding, and the girl is
delivered to her betrothed husband at the proper age.' Franklin's Nar.,
vol. ii., p. 41. Women ' carry their infants between their reindeer-skin
jackets and their naked backs.' Simpson's JVar., p. 121. 'All the drudgery
falls upon the women; even the boys would transfer their loads to their
sisters.' Collinson, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxv., p. 201.
67 The 'Kashim is generally built by the joint labour of the community.'
Richardson's Pol. Reg., p. 311.
AMUSEMENTS. 67
by means of blubber-lamps. The dancers, who are
usually young men, strip themselves to the waist, or
even appear in puris naturalibus, and go through num
berless burlesque imitations of birds and beasts, their
gestures being accompanied by tambourine and songs.
Sometimes they are fantastically arrayed in seal or
deer skin pantaloons, decked with dog or wolf tails
behind, and wear feathers or a colored handkerchief on
the head. The ancients, seated upon benches which en
circle the room, smoke, and smile approbation. The
women attend with fish and berries in large wooden
bowls; and, upon the opening of the performance, they
are at once relieved of their contributions by the actors,
who elevate the provisions successively to the four cardi
nal points and once to the skies above, when all partake
of the feast. Then comes another dance. A monotonous
refrain, accompanied by the beating of an instrument
made of seal-intestines stretched over a circular frame,
brings upon the ground one boy after another, until
about twenty form a circle. A series of pantomimes then
commences, portraying love, jealousy, hatred, and friend
ship. During intervals in the exercises, presents are
distributed to strangers. In their national dance, one
girl after another comes in turn to the centre, while the
others join hands and dance and sing, not unmusically,
about her. The most extravagant motions win the
greatest applause.68
Among other customs of the Eskimo may be men
tioned the following. Their salutations are made by
rubbing noses together. No matter how oily the skin,
nor how rank the odor, he who would avoid offense
68 ' Their dance is of the rudest kind, and consists merely in violent
motion of the arms and legs.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 63. They
make ' the most comical motions with the whole body, without stirring from
their place.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. i., p. 192. Their song consisted of the
words: 'Hi, Yangah yangah; ha ha, yangah — with variety only in the inflec
tion of voice.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 225. When heated by the dance, even
the women were stripped to their breeches. Simpson's Nar., p. 158. 'An
old man, all but naked, jumped into the ring, and was beginning some in
decent gesticulations, when his appearance not meeting with our approba
tion he withdrew.' Heechey's Voy., vol. i., p. 396.
68 HYPEEBOEEANS.
must submit his nose to the nose of his Hyperborean
brother,69 and his face to the caressing hand of his polar
friend. To convey intimations of friendship at a distance,
they extend their arms, and rub and pat their breast.
Upon the approach of visitors they form a circle, and sit
like Turks, smoking their pipes. Men, women, and chil
dren are inordinately fond of tobacco. They swallow
the smoke and revel in a temporary elysium. They are
called brave, simple, kind, intelligent, happy, hospitable,
respectful to the aged. They are also called cruel, un
grateful, treacherous, cunning, dolorously complaining,
miserable.70 They are great mimics, and, in order to
terrify strangers, they accustom themselves to the most
extraordinary contortions of features and body. As a
measure of intellectual capacity, it is claimed for
them that they divide time into days, lunar months,
seasons, and years ; that they estimate accurately by the
sun or stars the time of day or night; that they can
count several hundred and draw maps. They also
make rude drawings on bone, representing dances, deer-
hunting, animals, and all the various pursuits followed
by them from the cradle to the grave.
But few diseases are common to them, and a deformed
person is scarcely ever seen. Cutaneous eruptions, re
sulting from their antipathy to water, and ophthalmia,
arising from the smoke of their closed huts and the glare
of sun-light upon snow and water, constitute their chief
disorders.71 For protection to their eyes in hunting and
69 ' C'etait la plus grande marque d'amitie qn'ils pouvaieiit nous donner.'
Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. ii., p. 5. ' They came up to me one after the other —
each of them embraced me, rubbed his nose hard against mine, and ended
his caresses by spitting in his hands and wiping them several times over my
face.' Kolzebue's Voy., vol. i., pp. 192, 195.
TO ' Their personal bravery is conspicuous, and they are the only nation
on the North American Continent who oppose their enemies face to face in
open fight.' Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 244. ' Simple, kind people; very
rr, very filthy, and to us looking exceedingly wretched.' McClare's Dis.
W. Passage, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 242. ' More bold and
crafty than the Indians; but they use their women much better.' BelVs
Geog., vol. v., p. 294.
'i ' Their diseases are few.' Seemanris Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. 67. 'Dis
eases are quite as prevalent among them as among civilized people.' Doll's
THE KONIAGAS. 69
fishing, they make goggles by cutting a slit in a piece of
soft wood, and adjusting it to the face.
The Eskimos do not, as a rule, bury their dead ; but
double the body up, and place it on the side in a plank
box, which is elevated three or four feet from the
ground, and supported by four posts. The grave-box is
often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes, and
animals. Sometimes it is wrapped in skins, placed upon
an elevated frame, and covered with planks, or trunks of
trees, so as to protect it from wild beasts. Upon the
frame or in the grave-box are deposited the arms,
clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the
deceased. Frequent mention is made by travelers of
burial places where the bodies lie exposed, with their
heads placed towards the north.72
THE KONIAGAS derive their name from the inhabit
ants of the island of Kadiak, who, when first discovered,
called themselves Kanagist.™ They were confounded
Alaska, p. 195. * Ophthalmia was very general with them.' Beechey's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 345. 'There is seldom any mortality except amongst the old
people and very young children.' Armstrong's Nar., p. 197.
72 At Point Barrow, bodies were found in great numbers scattered over the
ground in their ordinary seal-skin dress; a few covered with pieces of wood,
the heads all turned north-east towards the extremity of the point. Simp
son's Nar., p. 155. ' They lay their dead on the ground, with their heads all
turned to the north.' ' The bodies lay exposed in the most horrible and dis
gusting manner.' Dease and Simpson, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. viii., p.
221, 222. « Their position with regard to the points of the compass is not
taken into consideration.' Setmann's Voy. Herald, vol. ii., p. G7. ' There are
many more graves than present inhabitants of the village, and the story is
that the whole coast was once much more densely populated.' DalVs Alaska,
p. 19. Hooper, on coming to a burial place not far from Point Barrow,
' conjectured that the corpses had been buried in an upright position, with
their heads at or above the surface.' Tuski, p. 221.
73 Kadiak ' is a derivative, according to some authors, from the Russian
Kadia, a large tub; more probably, however, it is a corruption of Kaniag,
the ancient Innuit name.' Dall's Alaska, p. 532. Holmberg thinks that the
word Kadiak arose from Jfikchtak, which in the language of the Koniagas
means a large island. ' Der Name Kadjak ist offenbar eine Verdrehung von
Kikchtak, welches Wort in der Sprache der Konjagen "grosse Insel" be-
deutet und daher auch als Benennung der grossten Insel dieser Gruppe
diente.' Ethnographixche Skizzen ilber die Volker des Kussischen Amerika, p.
75. 'A la division Koniagi appartient la partie la plus septentrionale de
1' Alaska, et 1'ile de Kodiak, que les Russes appellent vulgairement Kichtak,
quoique, dans la langue des naturels, le mot Kightak ne designe en general
qti'une lie.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 347. Coxe affirms that the
natives 'call themselves Kanagist.' Russian Dis., p. 135. And Sauer says,
70 HYPERBOEEANS.
by early Russian writers with the Aleuts. English
ethnologists sometimes call them Southern Eskimos.
From Kadiak they extend along the coast in both di
rections; northward across the Alaskan Peninsula to
Kotzebue Sound, and eastward to Prince William Sound.
The Koniagan family is divided into nations as fol
lows: the Koniayas proper, who inhabit the Konia
gan Archipelago; the Chuyatshes™ who occupy the
islands and shores of Prince William Sound ; the Ayley-
mutes, of Bristol Bay ; the Keyataiymutes, who live upon
the river Nushagak and the coast as far as Cape New-
enham ; the Ayidmutes, dwelling upon the coast between
the Kuskoquim and Kishunak rivers; the Kuskoguiy-
mutes™ occupying the banks of the river Kuskoquim;
the Mageniutes, in the neighborhood of Cape RomanzofF;
the Kwichpay mutes, Kwichluay mutes, and Pashtoliks, on
the Kwichpak, Kwickluak, and Pashtolik rivers; the
Chnaymutes, near Pashtolik Bay ; the Anlyymutes, of Go-
lovnin Bay, and the Kaviaks and Malemutes, of Norton
Sound.76 " All of these people," says Baron von Wran-
gell, " speak one language and belong to one stock."
The most populous district is the Kuskoquim Yalley.77
The small islands in the vicinity of Kadiak were once
Well peopled ; but as the Russians depopulated them, and
hunters became scarce, the natives were not allowed to
scatter, but were forced to congregate in towns.78 Sche-
likoff, the first settler on Kadiak, reported, in that and
contiguous isles, thirty thousand natives. Thirty years
later, Saritsheff visited the island and found but three
' the natives call themselves Soo-oo-it.' Billing's Ex., p. 175. 'Man verstand
von ihnen, das sie sich selbst Kanagist nennen.' Neue Nachr., p. 114.
74 Tschugatsches, Tschugatsi or Tschjatzi. Latham, Native Races, p. 290,
says the name is Athabascan, and signifies ' men of the sea. '
75 Kuskoqidgmiites, Kuskokwimen, Kuskokwigmjuten, Kusckockwagemuten,
Kuschkukchwakmuten, or Kuskutcheioak.
76 The termination mute, mut, meut, muten, or mjuten, signifies people or
village. It is added to the tribal name sometimes as a substantive as well as
in an adjective sense.
77 ' Herr Wassiljew schatzt ihre Zahl auf mindestens 7000 Seelen beiderlei
Geschlechts und jeglichen Alters.' Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 127.
i* 'Es waren wohl einst alle diese Inseln bewohnt.' Holmberg, Ethn.
Skiz., p. 76.
LAND OF THE KONIAGAS. 71
thousand. The Chugatshes not long since lived upon
the island of Kadiak, but, in consequence of dissensions
with their neighbors, they were obliged to emigrate and
take up their residence on the main land. They de
rived their manners originally from the northern nations ;
but, after having been driven from their ancient posses
sions, they made raids upon southern nations, carried
off their women, and, from the connections thus formed,
underwent a marked change. They now resemble the
southern rather than the northern tribes. The Kadiaks,
Chugatshes, Kuskoquims, and adjacent tribes, according
to their own traditions, came from the north, while
the Unalaskas believe themselves to have originated in
the west. The Kaviaks intermingle to a considerable
extent with the Malemutes, and the two are often taken
for one people ; but their dialects are quite distinct.
The country of the Koniagas is a rugged wilderness,
into many parts of which no white man has ever pene
trated. Mountainous forests, glacial canons, down which
flow innumerable torrents, hills interspersed with lakes
and marshy plains; ice-clad in winter, covered with
luxuriant vegetation in summer. Some sheltered inlets
absorb an undue proportion of oceanic warmth. Thus
the name Aglegmutes signifies the inhabitants of a
warm climate.
Travelers report chiefs among the Koniagas seven
feet in height, but in general they are of medium
stature.79 Their complexion may be a shade darker
79 The Male mutes are 'a race of tall and stout people.' Wliymper's
Alaska, p. 159. ' Die Kuskokwimer sind, mittlerer Statur, schlank,
riistig und oft rait grosser Sttirke begabt.' Baer. Stat. u. Ethn., p. 135.
Dixon's Voy., p. 186. ' Bisweilen fallen sogar riesige Gestalten atif, wie
ich z. B. eineu Hauptling in der igatschen Bucht zu sehen Gelegen-
heit liatte, dessen Lange 6% Fuss betrug.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 80.
The chief at Prince William Sound was a man of low stature, ' with a
long beard, and seemed about sixty years of age.' Porilock's Voy., p. 237.
A strong, raw-boned race. Meares' Voy., p. 32. At Cook's Inlet they
seemed to be of the same nation as those of Pr. Wm Sd , but entirely differ
ent from those at Nootka, in persons and language. Cook's Third Voy., vol
ii., p. 400. They are of ' middle size and well proportioned. ' Dixon's Voy.,
p. 68. ' They emigrated in recent times from the Island of Kadyak, and
they claim, as their hereditary possessions, the coast lying between Bristol
72 HYPERBOKEANS.
than that of the Eskimos of the northern coast, but it is
still very light.80 The Chugatshes are remarkable for
their large heads, short necks, broad faces, and small
eyes. Holrnberg claims for the Koniagas a peculiar
formation of the skull; the back, as he says, being not
arched but flat. They pierce the septum of the nose and
the under lip, and in the apertures wear ornaments of
various materials; the most highly prized being of shell
or of amber. It is said that at times amber is thrown
up in large quantities by the ocean, on the south side of
Kadiak, generally after a heavy earthquake, and that
at such times it forms an important article of commerce
with the natives. The more the female chin is rid
dled with holes, the greater the respectability. Two
ornaments are usually worn, but by very aristocratic
ladies as many as six.81 Their favorite colors in face-
painting are red and blue, though black and leaden
colors are common.82 Young Kadiak wives secure the
affectionate admiration of their husbands by tattooing
the breast and adorning the face with black lines; while
the Kuskoquim women sew into their chin two parallel
blue lines. The hair is worn long by men as well as
women. On state occasions, it is elaborately dressed;
first saturated in train-oil, then powdered with red clay
or oxide of iron, and finished off with a shower of white
feathers. Both sexes wear beads wherever they can
find a place for them, round the neck, wrists, and ankles,
Bay and Beering's Straits.' Richardson? s Nar., vol. i., p. 364. 'Die Tschu-
gatschen sind Ankommlinge von cler Insel Kadjack, die wahrend innerer
Zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 116.
80 Achkugmjuten, 'BewohnerderwarmenGegend.' Holmberg, Ethn.Skiz.,
p. 5. ' Copper complexion.' Lisiansky's Voy,, p. 194.
81 ' They bore their under lip, where they hang fine bones of beasts and
birds.' Staehlin's North. Arch., p. 33. ' Setzen sich auch — Zahne von Vogel
oder Thierknochen in Kiinstliche Oeffnungen der Unterlippe und unter der
Nase ein.' Neue Nachr., p. 113.
82 The people of Kadiak, according to Langsdorff, are similar to those of
Unalaska, the men being a little taller. They differ from the Fox Islanders.
Voy., pt. ii., p. 62. 'Die Insulaner waren hier von den Einwohnern,
der vorhin entdeckten iibrigen Fuchsinsuln, in Kleidung und Sprache ziem-
lich verschieden.' Neue Nachr., p. 113. 'Us ressemblent beaucoup aux
indigenes des iles Curiles, dependantes du Japon.' Laplace, Circumnav.,
vol. vi., p. 45.
KADIAK AND KUSKOQUIM DKESS. 73
besides making a multitude of holes for them in the
ears, nose, and chin. Into these holes they will also
insert buttons, nails, or any European trinket which
falls into their possession.83
The aboriginal dress of a wealthy Kadiak was a bird-
skin parka, or shirt, fringed at the top and bottom, with
long wide sleeves out of which the wearer slipped his
arms in an emergency. This garment was neatly sewed
with bird-bone needles, and a hundred skins were some
times used in the making of a single parka. It was
worn with the feathers outside during the day, and in
side during the night. Round the waist was fastened
an embroidered girdle, and over all, in wet weather, was
worn an intestine water-proof coat. The Kadiak breeches
and stockings were of otter or other skins, and the boots,
when any were worn, were of seal-neck leather, with
whale-skin soles. The Russians in a measure prohib
ited the use of furs among the natives, compelling them
to purchase wroolen goods from the company, and deliver
up all their peltries. The parkas and stockings of the
Kuskoquims are of reindeer-skin, covered with em
broidery, and trimmed with valuable furs. They also
make stockings of swamp grass, and cloaks of sturgeon-
skin. The Malemute and Kaviak dress is similar to
that of the northern Eskimo.84
83 « They wore strings of beads suspended from apertures in the lower
lip.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 195. 'Their ears are full of holes, from which
hang pendants of bone or shell.' Meares' Voy., p. xxxii. ' Elles portent
des perles ordinairement en verre bleu, suspendues au-dessous du nez
a un fil passe dans la cloison nasale.' D'Orbiyny, Voy., p. 573. ' Upon the
whole, I have nowhere seen savages who take more pains than these peo
ple do to ornament, or rather to disfigure their persons.' At Prince Wil
liam Sound they are so fond of ornament ' that they stick any thing in their
perforated lip; one man appearing with two of our iron nails projecting from
it like prongs : and another endeavouring to put a large brass button into it. '
Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 370. They slit the under lip, and have orna
ments of glass beads and muscle-shells in nostrils and ears; tattoo chin and
neck. LrmysdorfTs Voy., vol. ii., p. 63. ' Die Frauen machen Einschnitte
in die Lippen. Der Nasenknorpel ist ebenfalls durchstochen.' Baer, Stat. u.
Ethn., p. 135.
84 The Kadiaks dress like the Aleuts, but their principal garment they call
Kon&gen; Lanysdorff' s Voy., pt. ii., p. 63. Like the Unalaskas, the neck
being more exposed, fewer ornamentations. Sauer, Billing's Voy., p. 177.
' Consists wholly of the skins of animals and birds.' Portlock's Voy., p.
74 HYPEKBOKEANS.
The ChugatsheSj men, women, and children, dress
alike in a close fur frock, or robe, reaching sometimes
to the knees, but generally to the ankles. Their feet
and legs are commonly bare, notwithstanding the high
latitude in which they live; but they sometimes wear
skin stockings and mittens. They make a truncated
conic hat of straw or wood, in whimsical representation
of the head of some fish or bird, and garnished with
colors.85
The Koniagas build two kinds of houses ; one a large,
winter village residence, called by the Russians barabara,
and the other a summer hunting-hut, placed usually upon
the banks of a stream whence they draw food. Their
winter houses are very large, accommodating three or four
families each. They are constructed by digging a square
space of the required area to a depth of two feet, placing
a post, four feet high above the surface of the ground, at
every corner, and roofing the space over to constitute a
main hall, where eating is done, filth deposited, and
boats built. The sides are of planks, and the roof of
boards, poles, or whale-ribs, thickly covered with grass.
In the roof is a smoke-hole, and on the eastern side a
door-hole about three feet square, through which en
trance is made on hands and knees, and which is pro
tected by a seal or other skin. Under the opening in
the roof, a hole is dug for fire ; and round the sides of
the room, tomb-like excavations are made, or boards put
up, for sleeping-places, where the occupant reposes on his
back with his knees drawn up to the chin. Adjoining
249. A coat peculiar to Norton Sound appeared 'to be made of reeds
sewed very closely together.' Dixon's Voy., p. 191. ' Nahen ihre Parken
(Winter-Kleider) aus Vogelhauten und ihre Kamleien ( Sommer-Kleider) aus
den Gedarmen von Wallfischen und Robben.' J3aer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 117. At
Norton Sound 'principally of deer-skins.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p.
484. 'Ihre Kleider sind aus schwarzen und andern Fuchsbalgen, Biber,
Vogelhauten, aucli jungen Rennthier and Jewraschkenfellen, alles mit Seh-
nen geniiht.' Neue Nachr., p. 113. 'The dress of both sexes consists of
parkas and camleykas, both of which nearly resemble in form a carter's
frock.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 194.
M 'Una tunica entera de pieles que les abriga bastantemente.' Bodega y
Qnadm JVau., MS. p. 66. 'By the use of such a girdle, it should seem that
they sometimes go naked.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 437.
DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE KONIAGAS. 75
rooms are sometimes made, with low underground passages
leading off from the main hall. The walls are adorned
with implements of the chase and bags of winter food ;
the latter of which, being in every stage of decay, emits an
odor most offensive to unhabituated nostrils. The ground
is carpeted with straw. When the smoke-hole is covered
by an intestine window, the dwellings of the Koniagas
are exceedingly warm, and neither fire nor clothing is re
quired.80 The kashwij or public house of the Koniagas,
is built like their dwellings, and is capable of accommo
dating three or four hundred people.87 Huts are built by
earthing over sticks placed in roof-shape ; also by erect
ing a frame of poles, and covering it with bark or skins.
The Koniagas will eat any digestible substance in
nature except pork ; from which fact Lord Kingsborough
could prove incontestably a Jewish origin. I should
rather give them swinish affinities, and see in this sin
gularity a hesitancy to feed upon the only animal, except
themselves, which eats with equal avidity bear's excre
ments, carrion birds, maggoty fish, and rotten sea-ani
mals.88 When a whale is taken, it is literally stripped
of everything to the bare bones, and these also are
used for building huts and boats.89 These people can dis-
86 « Plastered over with mud, which gives it an appearance not very unlike
a dung hill.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 214. Sea-dog skin closes the opening.
Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 62. The Kuskoquims have 'huttes qu'ils
appellent barabores pour 1'ete.' U'Orbigny, Voy., p. 574. ' Mit Erde uud Gras
bedeckt, so dass man mit Recht die Wohnuugen der Konjagen Erdhutteu
nennen kann.' Holtnberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 97. 'A door fronting the east.'
8auer, Billing's Voy., p.' 175. At Norton Sound 'they consist simply of a
sloping roof, without any side-walls.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 484.
Build temporary huts of sticks and bark. Portlock's Voy., p. 253.
87 ' In dem Kashim versammelt sich die mannliche Bevolkerung des
ganzen Dorfes zur Berathschlagung iiber wichtige Augelegenheiten, iiber
Krieg und Frieden, etc.' Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 129.
88 ' Le poisson est la principale nourriture.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 574.
' Berries mixed with rancid whale oil.' 'The fat of the whale is the prime
delicacy.' Lisiansky's Voy., pp. 178, 195. * Meistentheils niihren sie sich mit
rohen und trocknen Fischen, die sie theils in der See mit knilchernen Angel-
haken, theils in denen Bachen mit Sacknetzen, die sie aus Sehnen flechten,
einfangen.' Neue Nachr., p. 114. They generally eat their food raw, but
sometimes they boil it in water heated with hot stones. Meares' Voy., p. xxxv.
The method of catching wild geese, is to chase and knock them down im
mediately after they have shed their large wing-feathers ; at which time they
are not able to fly. Portlock's Voy., p. 265.
89 ' Ich hatte auf der Insel Afognak Gelegenheit dem Zerschneiden eines
76 HYPEKBOEEANS.
pose of enormous quantities of food; or, if necessary,
they can go a long time without eating.90 Before the
introduction of intoxicating drinks by white men, they
made a fermented liquor from the juice of raspberries
and blueberries. Tobacco is in general use, but chew
ing and snuffing are more frequent than smoking. Sal
mon are very plentiful in the vicinity of Kadiak, and
form one of the chief articles of diet. During their
periodical ascension of the rivers, they are taken in
great quantities by means of a pole pointed with bone or
iron. Salmon are also taken in nets made of whale-
sinews. Codfish are caught with a bone hook. Whales
approach the coast of Kadiak in June, when the inhab
itants pursue them in baidarkas. Their whale-lance is
about six feet in length, and pointed with a stone upon
which is engraved the owner's mark. This point sep
arates from the handle and is left in the whale's flesh,
so that when the body is thrown dead upon the beach,
the whaler proves his property by his lance-point.
Many superstitions are mentioned in connection with
the whale-fishery. When a whaler dies, the body is
cut into small pieces and distributed among his fellow-
craftsmen, each of whom, after rubbing the point of his
lance upon it, dries and preserves his piece as a sort of
talisman. Or the body is placed in a distant cave, where,
before setting out upon a chase, the whalers all congre
gate, take it out, carry it to a stream, immerse it and
then drink of the water. During the season, whalers
bear a charmed existence. No one may eat out of the
same dish with them, nor even approach them. When
the season is over, they hide their weapons in the
mountains.
In May, the Koniagas set out in two-oared baidarkas
Wallfisches zuzusehenund versicliere, dass nach Verlauf von kaum 2 Stunden
nur die blanken Knochen-auf dem Ufer lagen.' Hoimberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 91.
90 The Kadiaks 'pass their time in hunting, festivals, and abstinence.
The first takes place in tlte summer; the second begins in the month of De
cember, and continues as long as any provisions remain; and then follows
the period of famine, which lasts till the re-appearance of fish in the rivers.
During the period last mentioned, many have nothing but shell-fish to sub
sist on, and some die for want.' Lisiansky's V'oy., pp. 209, 210.
THE KUSKOKWIGMUTES AND MALEMUTES. 77
for distant islands, in search of sea-otter. As success
requires a smooth sea, they can only hunt them during
the months of May and June, taking them in the man
ner following. Fifty or one hundred boats proceed
slowly through the water, so closely together that it is
impossible for an otter to escape between them. As soon
as the animal is discovered, the signal is given, the
area within which he must necessarily rise to the surface
for air, is surrounded by a dozen boats, and when he
appears upon the surface he is filled with arrows. Seals
are hunted with spears ten or twelve feet in length, upon
the end of which is fastened an inflated bladder, in order
to float the animal when dead.
The Kuskokwigmutes are less nomadic than their
neighbors; being housed in permanent settlements dur
ing the winter, although in summer they are obliged to
scatter in various directions in quest of food. Every
morning before break of day, during the hunting-season,
a boy lights the oil-lamps in all the huts of the village,
when the women rise and prepare the food. The men,
excepting old men and boys, all sleep in the kashim,
whither they retire at sunset. In the morning they
are aroused by the appearance of the shaman, arrayed
in his sacerdotal robes, and beating his sacred drum.
After morning worship, the women carry breakfast to
their husbands in the kashim. At day-break the men
depart for their hunting or fishing, and when they re
turn, immediately repair to the kashim, leaving the
women to unload and take care of the products of the
day's work. During the hunting-season the men visit
their wives only during the night, returning to the
kashim before daylight.
The Malemutes leave their villages upon the coast
regularly in February, and, with their families, resort to
the mountains, where they follow the deer until snow
melts, and then return to catch water-fowl and her
ring, and gather eggs upon the cliffs and promontories of
the coast and islands. In July is their salmon feast.
The fawns of reindeer are caught upon the hills by the
78 HYPERBOREANS.
women in August, either by chasing them down or
by snaring them. Deer are stalked , noosed in snares,
or driven into enclosures, where they are easily
killed. At Kadiak, hunting begins in February, and in
April they visit the smaller islands for sea-otter, seals,
sea-lions, and eggs. Their whale and other fisheries
commence in June and continue till October, at which
time they abandon work and give themselves up to
festivities. The seal is highly prized by them for its
skin, blubber, and oil. One method of catching seals
illustrates their ingenuity. Taking an air-tight seal
skin, they blow it up like a bladder, fasten to it a long
line, and, concealing themselves behind the rocks, they
throw their imitation seal among the live ones and draw
it slowly to the shore. The others follow, and are
speared or killed with bow and arrows. Blueberries and
huckleberries are gathered in quantities and dried for
winter use; they are eaten mixed with seal-oil. The
Koniagas are also very fond of raw reindeer-fat. They
hunt with guns, and snare grouse, marten, and hares.
A small white fish is taken in great quantities from
holes in the ice. They are so abundant and so easily
caught that the natives break off the barbs from their
fish-hooks in order to facilitate their operations.
The white polar bear does not wander south of the
sixty-fifth parallel, and is only found near Bering Strait.
Some were found on St Matthew Island, in Bering Sea,
but were supposed to have been conveyed thither upon
floating ice. The natives approach the grizzly bear with
great caution. When a lair is discovered, the opening
is measured, and a timber barricade constructed, with an
aperture through which the bear may put his head. The
Indians then quietly approach and secure their timbers
against the opening of the den with stones, and throw a
fire-brand into the den to arouse the animal, who there
upon puts his his head out through the hole and meets
with a reception which brings him to an untimely end.91
si ' Wild animals which they hunt, and especially wild sheep, the flesh of
WAE, IMPLEMENTS, AND GOVEKNMENT. 79
In former times, the Koniagas went to war behind a
huge wooden shield a foot thick and twelve feet in
width. It was made of three thicknesses of larch- wood,
bound together with willows, and with it they covered
thirty or forty lancers.92 They poisoned their arrow and
lance points with a preparation of aconite, by drying and
pulverizing the root, mixing the powder with water, and,
when it fermented, applying it to their weapons.93 They
made arrow-points of copper, obtaining a supply from
the Kenai of Copper River j94 and the wood was as finely
finished as if turned in a lathe.
The boats of the Koniagas are similar to those of the
north, except that the bow and stem are not alike, the
Dne turning up to a point and the other cut off square.95
Needles made of birds' bones, and thread from whale-
sinews, in the hands of a Kadiak woman, produced
work, "many specimens of which," says Lisiansky,
" would do credit to our best seamstresses. "9(i They
produced fire by revolving with a bow-string a hard dry
stick upon a soft dry board, one end of the stick being
held in a mouth-piece of bone or ivory. Their imple-
whichis excellent.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 188. They eat the larger sort of fern,
root baked, and a substance which seemed the inner bark of the pine. Cook's
Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 374. 'Die Eingebornen essen diese Wurzeln (Lagat)
roh und gekocht; aus der Wurzel, nachdem sie in Mehl verwandelt ist, backt
man, mit einer geringen Beimischung von Weizenmehl, siissliche, diinne
Kuchen.' Sagoskin, Tayebuch, in Denkschr. d. russ. Geocj. Gesell., p. 343.
92 ' Ihre holzerne Schilde nennen sie Kujaki.' Neu'e Nachr., p. 114.
93 ' Selecting the roots of such plants as grow alone, these roots are dried
and pounded, or grated.' Saner, Bill'my's Ex., p. 178.
9* ' Die Pfeilspitzen sind aus Eisen oder Kupfer, ersteres erhalten sie von
den Kenayern, letzteres von den Tutnen.' Baer, Mat. u. Ethn., p. 118. ' De
pedernal en forma de arpon, cortado con tanta delicadeza como pudiera hacer-
lo el mas habil lapidario.' Bodeaa y Quadra, Nau., MS. p. 66.
95 At Prince William Sound Cook found the canoes not of wood, as at
Nootka. At Bristol Bay they were of skin, but broader. Third Voy., vol. ii.,
pp. 371, 437. 'Die kadjakschen Baidarken unterscheiden sich in' der Form
ein wenig von denen der andern Bewohner der amerikanischen Kiiste, von
denen der Aleuten aber namentlich darin, das sie kiirzer und breiter sind.'
llolmbert/, Ethn. Skiz., p. 99. At Prince William Sound, ' formada la canoa
en esqueleto la forran por fuera con pieles de animales.' Bodega y Quadra,
Nav., MS. p. 65. ' Qii'on se figure une nacelle de quatre metres de long
et de soixante centimetres de large tout au plus.' Laplace, Circumnav.,
vol. vi., p. 48. ' These canoes were covered with skins, the same as we had
«een last season in Cook's Eiver. JJixon's Voy., p. 147. ' Safer at sea in bad
weather than European boats. ' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 211.
96 Their whale-sinew thread was as fine as silk. Li^iansky'a Voy., p. 207.
80 HYPERBOEEANS.
ments were few— a stone adze, a shell or flint knife, a
polishing stone, and a handled tooth.97 Yet they excel
in carving^ and in working walrus-teeth and whalebone,
the former being supplied them mostly by the Agle-
mutes of the Alaskan Peninsula. The tools used in
these manufactures were of stone, and the polishing tools
of shell. Traces of the stone age are found in lamps,
hammers and cutting instruments, wedges and hatchets.
Carving is done by the men, while the women are no less
skillful in sewing, basket-making, crotcheting, and knit
ting. The women tan , and make clothing and boat-covers
from skins and intestines.98 The Agulmutes are skilled
in the carving of wood and ivory; the Kuskoquims
excel in wood and stone carving. They make in this
manner domestic utensils and vases, with grotesque rep
resentations of men, animals, and birds, in relief.
Authority is exercised only by heads of households,
but chiefs may, by superior ability, acquire much influ
ence.99 Before they became broken up and demoralized
by contact with civilization, there was a marked division
of communities into castes ; an hereditary nobility and
commonalty. In the former was embodied all author
ity ; but the rule of American chieftains is nowhere of a
very arbitrary character. Slavery existed to a limited
extent, the thralls being mostly women and children.
Their male prisoners of war, they either killed im
mediately or reserved to torture for the edification and
improvement of their children.100 Upon the arrival of
97 The only tool seen was a stone adze. Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii. p. 373.
93 ' Their sewing, plaiting of sinews, and small work on their little bags
may be put in competition with the most delicate manufactures found in any
part of the known world.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., pp. 373, 374. ' If we may
judge by these figures, the inhabitants of Cadiack must have lost much o'f
their skill in carving, their old productions of this kind being greatly superior. '
TAsiansky, p. 178. The Ingalik's household furniture is made ' von geboge-
nem Holz sehr zierlich gearbeitet und mittelst Erdfarben roth, grim und
blau angestrichen. Zuin Kochen der Speisen bedienen sie sich irdener, aus-
gebrannter Geschirre. Baer, titat. u. Ethn., p. 121.
99 ' Tis most probable they are divided into clans or tribes.' Dixon's
Voy., p. 67. ' They have a King, whose name was Sheenoway.' Meares' Voy.,
p. xxvii. 'They always keep together in families, and are under the direc
tion of toyons or chiefs.' Lixiansky's Voy., p. 151.
100 Female slaves are sold from one tribe to another. Sauer, Billing's
Voy., p. 175.
IDEALITY OF THE KONIAGAS. 81
the Russians, the slaves then held by the natives, think
ing to better their condition, left their barbaric masters
and placed themselves under the protection of the new
comers. The Russians accepted the trust, and set them
to work. The poor creatures, unable to perform the
imposed tasks, succumbed; and, as their numbers were
diminished by ill treatment, their places were supplied
by such of the inhabitants as had been guilty of some
misdemeanor; and singularly enough, misdemeanors
happened to be about in proportion to the demand for
slaves.101
The domestic manners of the Koniagas are of the
lowest order. In filth they out-do, if possible, their
neighbors of the north.102 Thrown together in little
bands under one roof, they have no idea of morality,
and the marriage relation sits so loosely as hardly to
excite jealousy in its abuse. Female chastity is deemed*
a thing of value only as men hold property in it. A
young unmarried woman may live uncensured in the
freest intercourse with the men; though, as soon as
she belongs to one man, it is her duty to be true
to him. Sodomy is common; the Kaviaks practice
polygamy and incest; the Kadiaks cohabit promis
cuously, brothers and sisters, parents and children.103
The Malemutes are content with one wife, but they
have no marriage ceremony, and can put her away
at pleasure. They prize boy babies, but frequently kill
the girls, taking them out into the wilderness, stuffing
grass into their mouth and abandoning them ; yet chil
dren are highly esteemed, and the barren woman is a
reproach among her people. Such persons even go so
far as to make a doll or image of the offspring which they
101 « Zugleich verschwand auch ihre Benemmng; man nannte sie ferner
Kajuren, em Wort, aus Kamtschatka hieher iibergesiedelt, welches Tage-
lohner oder Arbeiter bedeutet.' Holmberg, Ethn. tikiz., p. 79.
102 < They will not go a step out of the way for the most necessary pur
poses of nature ; and vessels are placed at their very doors for the reception
of the urinous fluid, which are resorted to alike by both sexes.' Lisiansky's
Voy., p. 214.
103 « Not only do brothers and sisters cohabit with each other, but even
parents and children.' Langsdorff's Voy,, pt. ii., p. 64.
Voi.. I. 6
82 HYPERBOREANS.
so greatly desire, and fondle it as if it were a real
child.104 Two husbands are also allowed to one wo.nan ;
one the chief or principal husband, and the other a
deputy, who acts as husband and master of the house
during the absence of the true lord ; and who, upon the
latter' s return, not only yields to him his place, but
becomes in the meantime his servant.
But the most repugnant of all their practices is that
of male concubinage. A Kadiak mother will select her
handsomest and most promising boy, and dress and rear
him as a girl, teaching him only domestic duties, keeping
him at woman's work, associating him only with women
and girls, in order to render his effeminacy complete.
Arriving at the age of ten or fifteen years, he is married
to some wealthy man, who regards such a companion as
& great acquisition. These male wives are called achnut-
schik or sckopans.105
A most cruel superstition is enforced upon maidens
,at the age of puberty ; the victim being confined for six
months in a hut built for the purpose, apart from the
others, and so small that the poor inmate cannot straight
en her back while upon her knees. During the six
months following, she is allowed a room a little, larger,
but is still permitted no intercourse with any one.
Daughters of principal men obtain the right of access to
the kashim by undergoing a ceremonial yielding up of
104 'Images dressed in different forms.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 178. 'The
most favoured of women is she who has the greatest number of children.'
Saner, Billing's Voy., p. 176.
105 < Der Vater oder die Mutter bestimmen den Sohn schon in seiner friih-
sten Kindheit zum Achmitschik, wenn er ihiien madchenhaft erscheint.'
youths are dressed like women, and taught all their domestic duties.' Sauer,
.Billing's Ex., p. 176. ' Ces peuples sont tres adonnes aux plaisirs des sens
•et meme a un vice infame.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt. vii., p. 8. 'Of all the
customs of these islanders, the most disgusting is that of men, called schoo-
pans, living with men, and supplying the place of women.' LisiausJey's Voy.,
p. 199. This shameful custom applies to the Thlinkeets as well. ' Quelqiies
personnes de 1'Equipage du Solide ont rapporte qu'il ne leur est pas possible
de douter que les Tchinkitaneens ne soient souilles de ce vice honteux que
la Theogonie immorale des Grecs avoit divinise.' Marchand, Voy. aut. da
Monde, torn, ii., p. 97.
KONIAGAN SWEAT-HOUSES 83
their virginity to the shaman.106 Marriage ceremonies
are few, and marriage engagements peculiar. The con
sent of the father of the intended bride being obtained,
the aspirant for nuptial honors brings wood and builds a
fire in the bath-room; after which, he and the father take
a bath together. The relatives meanwhile congregate,
a feast is held, presents are made, the bridegroom takes
the name of the bride's father, the couple are escorted to
a heated vapor-bath and there left together. Although
extremely filthy in their persons and habits, all Indians
attach great importance to their sweat-baths. This pecu
liar institution extends through most of the nations of our
territory, from Alaska to Mexico, with wonderful uni
formity. Frequently one of the side subterranean apart
ments which open off from the main hall, is devoted to
the purposes of a sweat-house. Into one of these
caverns a Kadiak will enter stripped. Steam is gen
erated by throwing wrater upon heated stones. After
sweltering for a time in the confined apd heated atmos
phere, and while yet in a profuse perspiration, the
bather rushes out and plunges into the nearest stream or
into the sea, frequently having to break the ice before
being able to finish his bath. Sometimes all the occu
pants of the house join in a bath. They then clear the
floor of the main room from obstructions, and build a
hot fire under the smoke-hole. When the fire is reduced
to coals, a covering is placed over the smoke-hole, and
the bathers proceed to wash themselves in a certain liquid,
which is carefully saved for this and other cleansing pur
poses, and also for tanning. The alkali of the fluid
combines with the grease upon their persons, and thus a
lather is formed which removes dirt as effectually as soap
would. They then wash in water, wrap themselves in
deer-skins, and repose upon shelves until the lassitude
occasioned by perspiration passes away.
loe « Der Scbamane hat seiner Obliegenheit gemass oder aus besonderem
Wohlwollen sie der Jnngferscbaft beraubt und sie ware unwiirdig vor der
Versammlung zu erscheinen, wenn sie ihre erste Liebe irgend einem Anderen
und nicbt dem Schainanen gezollt hatte.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 133.
84 HYPEEBOEEANS.
Festivals of various kinds are held ; as, when one vil
lage is desirous of extending hospitality to another village,
or when an individual becomes ambitious of popularity,
a feast is given. A ceremonial banquet takes place a year
after the death of a relative; or an entertainment may
be announced as a reparation for an injury done to one's
neighbor. At some of these feasts only men dance, and
at others the women join. Upon these occasions, presents
are exchanged, and the festivities sometimes continue
for several days. The men appear upon the scene nearly
or quite naked, with painted faces, and the hair fan
tastically decorated with feathers, dancing to the music of
the tambourine, sometimes accompanied by sham fights
and warlike songs. Their faces are marked or fantasti
cally painted, and they hold a knife or lance in one
hand and a rattle in the other. The women dance by
simply hopping forward and backward upon their toes.107
A visitor, upon entering a dwelling, is presented with a
cup of cold water ; -afterward, fish or flesh is set before
him. and it is expected that he will leave nothing un
eaten. The more he eats, the greater the honor to the
host ; and, if it be impossible to eat all that is given him,
he must take away with him whatever remains. After
eating, he is conducted to a hot bath and regaled with a
drink of melted fat.
Sagoskin assisted at a ceremony which is celebrated
annually about the first of January at all the villages
on the coast. It is called the festival of the immersion
of the bladders in the sea. More than a hundred blad
ders, taken only from animals which have been killed
with arrows, and decorated with fantastic paintings, are
hung upon a cord stretched horizontally along the wall
of the kashim. Four birds carved from wood, a screech-
!07 'Their dances are proper tournaments.' Sauer, Billing's Ex., p. 176.
They are much addicted to public dances, especially during winter. Whym-
per's Alaska, p. 165. 'Masks of the most hideous figures are worn.' Lisi-
ansky's Voy., p. 210. 'Use a sort of rattle composed of a number of the
beaks of the sea-parrot, strung upon a wooden cross,' — sounds like castanets.
Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 64. ' Die Ta'nzer erscheinen, eben so, mit Wurf-
spiessen oder Messern in den Ha'nden, welche sie iiber dem Kopfe schwing-
en.' Baer, Slat. u. Ethn., p. 118.
SUPERSTITIONS OF THE KONIAGAS. 85
owl with the head of a man, a sea-gull, and two
partridges, are so disposed that they can be moved by
strings artfully arranged ; the owl flutters his wings and
moves his head; the gull strikes the boards with his
beak as if he were catching fish, and the partridges com
mence to peck each other. Lastly, a stake enveloped in
straw is placed in the centre of the fire-place. Men
and women dance before these effigies in honor of Jug-
jak, the spirit of the sea. Every time the dancing
ceases, one of the assistants lights some straw, burning
it like incense before the birds and the bladders. The
principal ceremony X)f the feast consists, as its name
indicates, in the immersion of the bladders in the sea.
It was impossible to discover the origin of this custom ;
the only answer given to questions was, that their an
cestors had done so before them.
The shaman, or medicine-man of the Koniagas, is the
spiritual and temporal doctor of the tribe ; wizard, sor
cerer, priest, or physician, as necessity demands. In the
execution of his offices, the shaman has several assistants,
male and female, sages and disciples; the first in rank
being called kaseks, whose duty it is to superintend
festivals and teach the children to dance. When a person
falls sick, some evil spirit is supposed to have taken pos
session of him, and it is the business of the shaman to
exorcise that spirit, to combat and drive it out of the
man. To this end, armed with a magic tambourine, he
places himself near the patient and mutters his incan
tations. A female assistant accompanies him with groans
and growls. Should this prove ineffectual, the shaman
approaches the bed and throws himself upon the person
of the sufferer; then, seizing the demon, he struggles
with it, overpowers and casts it out, while the assistants
cry, " He is gone! he is gone!" If the patient recovers,
the physician is paid, otherwise he receives nothing.
10h
108 ' Les sorciers et chamans jouissent d'une grande faveur dans cette re
gion glacee de 1'Amerique.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 574. 'Schamane und alte
Weiber kennen verschiedene Heilmittel.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 135. ' Next
in rank to the shamans are the kaseks, or sages, whose office is to teach chil-
86 HYPEKBOREANS.
Colds, consumption, rheumatism, itch, boils, ulcers, syph
ilis, are among their most common diseases. Blood-let
ting is commonly resorted to as a curative, and except in
extreme cases the shaman is not called. The Koniagas
bleed one another by piercing the arm with a needle,
and then cutting away the flesh above the needle with a
flint or copper instrument. Beaver's oil is said to re
lieve their rheumatism.
"The Kadiak people," says Lisiansky, " seem more
attached to their dead than to their living." In token
of their grief, surviving friends cut the hair, blacken the
face with soot, and the ancient custom was to remain in
mourning for a year. No work may be done for twenty
days, but after the fifth day the mourner may bathe.
Immediately after death, the body is arrayed in its best
apparel, or wrapped with moss in seal or sea-lion skins,
and placed in the kashim, or left in the house in which
the person died, where it remains for a time in state.
The body, with the arms and implements of the de
ceased, is then buried. It was not unfrequent in former
times to sacrifice a slave upon such an occasion. The
grave is covered over with blocks of wood and large
stones.109 A mother, upon the death of a child, retires
for a time from the camp ; a husband or wife withdraws
and joins another tribe.110
The character of the Koniagas may be drawn as peace
able, industrious, serviceable to Europeans, adapted to
labor and commerce rather than to war and hunting.
They are not more superstitious than civilized nations;
and their immorality, though to a stranger most rank,
is not to them of that socially criminal sort which loves
darkness and brings down the avenger. In their own
eyes, their abhorrent practices are as sinless as the ordi-
dren the different dances, and superintend the public amusements and shows,
of which they have the supreme control.' Lisiansky1 s Voy., p. 208.
109 « The dead body of a chief is embalmed with moss, and buried.' Sauer,
Mlling's Ex., p. 177.
110 ' In one of the small buildings, or kennels, as they may very properly
be called, was a woman who had retired into it in consequence of the death
of her son.' Lisiansky1 's Voy., p. 184.
THE ALEUTS. 87
nary, openly conducted avocations of any community are
to the members thereof.
THE ALEUTS are the inhabitants of the Aleutian
Archipelago. The origin of the word is unknown;111
the original name being Kagataya Koungns, or l men
of the east,' indicating an American origin.112 The na
tion consists of two tribes speaking different dialects;
the Unalaskans, occupying the south-western portion of
the Alaskan Peninsula, the Shumagin Islands, and the
Fox Islands; and the Atkhas, inhabiting the Andrean-
ovski, Rat, and Near Islands. Migrations and intermix
tures with the Russians have, however, nearly obliterated
original distinctions.
The earliest information concerning the Aleutian Is
landers was obtained by Michael Nevodtsikoff, who
sailed from Kamchatka in 1745. Other Russian voy
agers immediately followed, attracted thither in search
of sea-animal skins, which at that time were very plen
tiful.113 Tribute was levied upon the islanders by the
Russians, and a system of cruelty commenced which
soon reduced the natives from ten thousand to but little
more than one thousand.
The Aleuts, to Langsdorff, " appear to be a sort of
middle race between the mongrel Tartars and the North
111 ' The word Aleutian seems to be derived from the interrogative parti
cle attix, which struck strangers in the language of that people.' Kotzebue's
Voy., vol. iii., p. 312. The Unalaskas and ' the people of Oomnak, call them
selves Covxjhcutngtn.' 'The natives of Alaksa and all the adjacent islands
they call KagataHakung'n.' Sauer, Sitting's Ex., p. 154. ' The inhabitants of
Unalashka are called Koyholaghi; those of Akutan, and further east to Uni-
mak, Kiyldgusi; and those of Unimak and Alaxa, Kataghayekiki. They can
not tell whence these appellations are derived; and now begin to call them
selves by the general name of Aleyut, given to them by the Russians, and
borrowed from some of the Kurile Islands.' Coxe's Russ. Dis., p. 219.
112 Yet, says D'Orbigny, Voyage, p. 577: 'Si on interroge les Aleoutiens
sur leur origine, ils disent que leurs ancetres ont habite un grand pays vers
1'ouest, et que de la ils sont avances de proche en proche sur les iles desertes
jusq'au continent americain.'
113 Trapesnikoff took from an unknown island in 1753, 1920 sea-otter
skins. Durneff returned to Kamchatka in 1754, with 3,000 skins. In 1752
one crew touched at Bering Island and took 1,222 Arctic foxes, and 2,500
sea-bears. Cholodiloff, in 1753, took from one island 1,600 otter-skins.
Tcjlstych in one voyage took 1,780 sea -otter, 720 blue foxes, and 840 sea-
bears. Coxe's Russ. Dis., pp. 43, 44, 49, 51, 53.
83 HYPEEBOEEANS.
Americans.1' John Ledyard, who visited Unalaska with
Captain Cook, saw "two different kinds of people; the
one we knew to be the aborigines of America, while
we supposed the others to have come from the opposite
coasts of Asia."114 Their features are strongly marked,
and those who saw them as they originally existed, were
impressed with the intelligent and benevolent expression
of their faces.115 They have an abundance of lank hair,
which they cut with flints — the men from the crown,
and the. women in front.116 Both sexes undergo the
usual face-painting and ornamentations. They extend
their nostrils by means of a bow-cylinder. The men
wear a bone about the size of a quill in the nose, and the
women insert pieces of bone in the under lip.117 Their
legs are bowed, from spending so much of their time in
boats ; they frequently sitting in them fifteen or twenty
hours at a time. Their figure is awkward and uncouth,
yet robust, active, capable of carrying heavy burdens and
undergoing great fatigue.118
The hat of the Aleut is the most peculiar part of his
dress. It consists of a helmet-shaped crown of wood
or leather, with an exceedingly long brim in front, so as
H4 Sparks, Life of Ledyard, p. 79.
115 A. great deal of character. Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 32.
us ' Bather low of stature, but plump and well shaped; with rather short
necks; swarthy chubby faces; black eyes; small beards, and long, straight,
black hair; which the men wear loose behind, and cut before, but the women
tie up in a bunch.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 510. 'Von Gesicht sind
sie platt und weiss, von guter Statur, durchgangig mit schwarzen Haaren.'
Neue Nadir., p. 150. 'Low in stature, broad in the visage.' Campbell's Voy.,
p. 112. Hair 'strong and wiry;' scanty beard, but thick on the upper lip.
Sauer, Billings' Ex., p. 154.
117 * Les femmes aleoutes portaient aux mains et aux pieds des chapelets
de pierres de couleur et preferablement d'ambre.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 579.
' None are so highly esteemed as a sort of long muscle, commonly called sea-
teeth, the dentalium entails of Linnaeus.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 40.
'Women have the chin punctured in fine lines rayed from' the centre of the
lip and covering the whole chin.' They wear bracelets of black seal-skin
around the wrists and ankles, and go barefoot. Sauer, Billings' Ex., p. 155.
' Im Nasen-knorpel und der TJnterlippe machen beide Geschlechter Locher
und setzen Knochen ein, welches ihr liebster Schmuck ist. Sie stechen sich
auch bunte Figuren im Gesicht aus.' Neue Nachr., p. 169. 'They bore the
upper lip of the young children of both sexes, under the nostrils, where they
hang several sorts of stones, and whitened fish-bones, or the bones of other
animals.' Staehlin's North Arch., p. 37.
118 'Leur conformation est robuste efc leur permet de supporter des tra-
vaux et des fatigues de toute sorte.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 577.
ALEUTIAN HAT AND HABITATION. 89
to protect the eyes from the sun's reflection upon the
water and snow. Upon the apex is a small carving,
down the back part hang the beards of sea-lions, while
carved strips of bone and paint ornament the whole.
This hat also serves as a shield against arrows. The
Fox Islanders have caps of bird-skin, on which are left
the bright-colored feathers, wings, and tail.119 As a rule,
the men adopt bird-skin clothing, and the women furs,
the latter highly ornamented with beads and fringes.120
The habitations of the Fox Islanders are called Ullaa,
and consist of immense holes from one to three hundred
feet in length, and from twenty to thirty feet wide.
They are covered with poles and earthed over, leaving
several openings at the top through which descent is
made by ladders. The interior is partitioned by stakes,
and three hundred people sometimes occupy one of these
places in common. They have no fire-place, since lamps
hollowed from flat stones answer every purpose for cook
ing and light.121 A boat turned bottom upward is the
summer house of the Aleut.122
iw At Shumagin Island, their caps were of sea-lion skins. Muller's Voy.,
p. 46. On the front are one or two small images of bone. Cook's Third Voy.t
vol. ii., p. 510. A wooden hat, 'which in. front comes out before the eyes
like a sort of umbrella, and is rounded off behind.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii.,
p. 38. ' Einige haben. gemeiue Miitzen von eiiieni bunten Vogelfell, woran
sie etwas von den Fliigeln uud'den Schwanz sitzen lassen; — sind vorn mit
einem Bretchen, wie ein Schirm versehn und mit Biirten von Seebareii — ge-
schmiicket.' Neae Nachr., pp. 151, 152.
120 On a feather garment, 'a person is sometimes employed a whole year.'
'The women for the most pj.rt go bare-footed." Lanysdoi'Jf's Voy., pt. ii., pp.
36, 39. ' Seams covered with thin slips of skin, very elegantly embroidered
with white deer's hair, goat's hair, and the sinews of sea animals, dyed of
different colours.' tiauer, Jjillinys' Ex., p. 153. 'Ihr Pelzkleid wird iiber deii
Kopf angezogen, und ist hinten und vomganz zu. Die Manner tragen es aus
Vogelhauten; die Weiber hingegeii von Bibern und jungen Seebareii.' Neue
Nachr., p. 152. ' Boots and breeches in one piece.' Campbell's Voy., p. 113.
121 « Hound the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several are
lodged together) have their separate apartments, where they sleep, and sit at
work; not upon benches, but in a kind of concave trench, which is dug all
around the inside of the house, and covered with mats-.' Cook's Third Voy.,
vol. ii., p. 512. 'When they have stood for sometime, they become over
grown with grass, so that a village has the appearance of an European church
yard full of graves.' Lanysdorff's Voy., p. 32. ' In den Jurten wird uiemals
Feuer angelegt und doch ist es gemeiniglich sehr warm darinnen, so dass
beide Geschlechter ganz nakkend sitzen.' Xeue JVae/jr., p. 150.
12iJ ' A bidarka or boat is turned up sideways, and at the distance of four
or five feet, two sticks, one opposite to the head and the other to the stern,
are driven into the ground, on the tops of which a cross stick is fastened.
90 HYPERBOREANS.
Raw seal and sea-otter, whale and sea-lion blubber,
fish, roots, and berries are staple articles of food among
the Aleuts. To procure vegetable food is too much
trouble. A dead, half-putrefied whale washed ashore is
always the occasion of great rejoicing. From all parts
the people congregate upon the shore, lay in their win
ter supplies, and stuff themselves until not a morsel re
mains. November is their best hunting-season. Whale-
fishing is confined to certain families, and the spirit of
the craft descends from father to son. Birds are caught
in a net attached to the end of a pole ; sea-otter are shot
with arrows; spears, bone hooks, and nets are used in
fishing.123 After the advent of the Russians, the natives
were not allowed to kill fur-animals without accounting
to them therefor.124
Their weapons are darts with single and double barbs,
which they throw from boards; barbed, bone -pointed
lances; spears, harpoons, and arrows, with bone or stone
points. At their side is carried a sharp stone knife ten
or twelve inches long, and for armor they wear a coat
of plaited rushes, which covers the whole body.125 An
The oars are then laid along from the boat to the cross stick, and covered
with seal skins, which are always at hand for the purpose.' Lisiansky's Voy.,
p. 152.
123 ' Among the greatest delicacies of Oon#,lashka are the webbed feet of a
seal, which are tied in a bladder, buried in the ground, and remain there till
they are changed into a stinking jelly.' Kotzebue's Voy., vol. ii., p. 165. Al
most everything is eaten raw. Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 520. The sea-
dog is caught with nets, killed when asleep, or enticed on shore by a false
cap made to resemble a seal's head. Lisiansky's Voy., p. 205.
124 < L'Aleoute peut tuer les phoques et les oiseaux, sans etre oblige d'en
rendre compte a la compagnie.' Chorls, Voy. Pitt., pt. vii., p. 4.
125 'Die Spitze selbst wird theils aus Obsidian oder Lavaglas, theils auch
aus Trachyt verfertigt. ' Kittlitz,^ Reise, vol. i. , p. 208. Spear-handles are feath
ered, the points of sharpened flint. Neue Nachr., p. 102. ' Arrows are thrown
from a narrow and pointed board, twenty inches long, which is held by the
thumb and three fingers. They are thrown straight from the shoulder with
astonishing velocity.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 205. 'Les armes defensives con-
sistaient en une cotte de joncs tresses qui leur couvrait tout le corps.'
D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 579. 'No such thing as an offensive, or even defens
ive weapon was seen amongst the natives of Oonalashka.' Probably they
had been disarmed by the Russians. Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 515.
' Wherever any one has fixed his habitation, nobody else dares to hunt or
lish.' Staehlin's Nor. Arch., p. 37. For birds they point their darts with three
light bones, spread and barbed. Sauer, Sittings' Ex., p. 157. 'Indeed,
there is a neatness and perfection in most of their work, that shews they
neither want ingenuity nor perseverance.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 514.
CUSTOMS OF THE ALEUTS. 91
Aleut bear-trap consists of a board two feet square and
two inches thick, planted with barbed spikes, placed in
bruin's path and covered with dust. The unsuspecting
victim steps firmly upon the smooth surface offered,
when his foot sinks into the dust. Maddened with
pain, he puts forward another foot to assist in pulling
the first away, when that too is caught. Soon all four
of the feet are firmly spiked to the board ; the beast rolls
over on his back, and his career is soon brought to an
end.
Notwithstanding their peaceful character, the occu
pants of the several islands were almost constantly at
war. Blood, the only atonement for offense, must be
washed out by blood, and the line of vengeance be
comes endless. At the time of discovery, the Unimak
Islanders held the supremacy.
The- fabrications of the Aleuts comprise household
utensils of stone, bone, and wood ; missiles of war and
the chase; mats and baskets of grass and the roots of
trees, neat and strong; bird-beak rattles, tambourines
or drums, wooden hats and carved figures. From
the wing-bone of the sea-gull, the women make their
needles; from sinews, they make thread and cord.120 To
obtain glue for mending or manufacturing purposes, they
strike the nose until it bleeds.127 To kindle a fire, they
make use of sulphur, in which their volcanic islands
abound, and the process is very curious. First they
prepare some dry grass to catch the fire; then they take
two pieces of quartz, and, holding them over the grass,
rub them wrell with native sulphur. A few feathers are
scattered over the grass to catch the particles of sulphur,
and, when all is ready, holding the stones over the grass,
126 They make ' baskets called ishcats, in which the Aleutians keep all
their valuables.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 181. ' Thread they make of the sinews
of the seal, and of all sizes, from the fineness of a hair to the strength of a
moderate cord, both twisted and plaited.' Sauer, Billings' Ex., p. 157. Of the
teeth of sea-dogs they carve little figures of men, fish, sea-otters, sea-dogs, sea-
cows, birds, and other objects. Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 46.
127 '\Vollen sie etwas an ihren Pfeilen oder sonst eine Kleinigkeit leimen,
so schlagen sie sich an die Nase und bestreichen es mit ihreni Blute.' Rene
Nachr. p. 173.
92 HYPERBOREANS.
they strike them together ; a flash is produced by the con
cussion, the sulphur ignites, and the straw blazes up.128
The Aleuts have no marriage ceremony. Every man
takes as many women to wife as he can support, or
rather as he can get to support him. Presents are made
to the relatives of the bride, and when she ceases to
possess attractions or value in the eyes of her proprietor,
she is sent back to her friends. Wives are exchanged
by the men, and rich women are permitted to indulge
in two husbands. Male concubinage obtains throughout
the Aleutian Islands, but not to the same extent as
among the Koniagas.129 Mothers plunge their crying ba
bies under water in order to quiet them. This remedy
performed in winter amid broken ice, is very effectual.130
Every island, and, in the larger islands, every village,
has its toyon, or chief, who decides differences, is ex
empt from work, is allowed a servant to row his boat,
but in other respects possesses no power. The office is
elective.131
The Aleuts are fond of dancing and given to hospitality.
The stranger guest, as he approaches the village, is met by
dancing men and dancing women, who conduct him to
the house of the host, where food is given him. After
supper, the dancing, now performed by naked men, con
tinues until all are exhausted, when the hospitalities of
128 Sauer, Billings' Ex., p. 159; Campbell's Voy., p. 59.
129 ' Comme les femrnos coutaient cher en presents de fian<jailles, la pin-
part des Aleoutes ii'en avaient qu'une ou deux.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 579. Pur
chase as many girls for wives as they can support. Sauer, '.Billings' Ex., p.
1G3. 'Objects of unnatural affection.' Id., p. 160. 'Their beards are care
fully plucked out as soon as they begin to appear, and their chins tattooed
like those of the women.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 48. 'The Russians
told us, that they never had any connections with their women, because
they were not Christians. Our people were not so scmpulous; and some of
them had reason to repent that the females of Ooiinlashka encouraged their
addresses without any reserve; for their health suffered by a distemper that
is not unknown here.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 521.
130 ' It often happens that a mother plunges her noisy child into water, even
in winter, and keeps it there till it leaves off crying.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 202.
' Schreyt das Kind, so tra'gt es die Mutter, es sey Winter oder Sommer nak-
kend nach der See, und halt es so lange im Wasser bis es still wird. ' Neue
Nachr., p. 168.
"1 'Have their own chiefs in each island.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii.,
p. 510. ' Generally is conferred on him who is the most remarkable for his
personal qualities.' Coxe's Buss. Uis., p. 219.
CHARACTEK OF THE ALEUTS. 93
the dwelling are placed at the disposal of the guest, and
all retire.132 A religious festival used to be held in De
cember, at which all the women of the village assembled
by moonlight, and danced naked with masked faces, the
men being excluded under penalty of death. The men
and women of a village bathe together, in aboriginal
innocency, unconscious of impropriety. They are fond
of pantomimic performances; of representing in dances
their myths and their legends ; of acting out a chase, one
assuming the part of hunter, another of a bird or beast
trying to escape the snare, now succeeding, now failing—
the piece ending in the transformation of a captive bird
into a lovely woman, who falls exhausted into the arms
of the hunter.
The dead are clothed and masked, and either placed
in the cleft of a rock, or swung in a boat or cradle from
a pole in the open air. They seem to guard the body
as much as possible from contact with the ground.133
In their nature and disposition, these islanders are
sluggish but strong. Their sluggishness gives to their
character a gentleness and obsequiousness often remarked
by travelers; while their inherent strength, when roused
by brutal passions, drives them on to the greatest enor
mities. They are capable of enduring great fatigue, and,
when roused to action by necessity, they will perform
an incredible amount of work, suffering the severest
cold or heat or hunger with the most stoical calmness.
They are very quiet in their demeanor; sometimes sit
ting in companies within their dens, or on their house-
132 Those of the inhabitants who have two wives give their guests one, or
a slave. Neue Nachr., p. 171. ' In the spring holidays, they wear masks,
neatly carved and fancifully ornamented.' Sauer, Billings' Ex., p. 160.
133 ' On avait soin de le disposer de maniere a ce qu'il ne touchat pas la terre. '
D'Orbiyny, Voy., p. 579. ' Embalm the bodiesof the men with dried moss and
grass.' Saner, .Billings' Ex., p. 161. Slaves sometimes slaughtered. Langsdorff's
Voy., pt. ii., p. 48. 'Bury their dead on the summits of hills.' Cook's Third
Voy., vol. ii., p. 521. ' When a man dies in the hut belonging to his wife, she
retires into a dark hole, where she remains forty days. The husband pays the
same compliment to his favorite wife upon her death.' Coxe's Kuss. Dis., p.
218. ' Die Todten werden begraben, und man giebt dem Mann seinen Kahn,
Pfeile und Kleider mit ins Grab.' ' Die Todten umwinden sie rnit Kiemen
und hangen sie in einer Art holzerner Wiege an einen auf zwey Gabelen
ruhenden Querstock in der Luft auf.' Neue Nachr., pp. 101, 154.
94 HYPERBOREANS.
tops gazing at the sea for hours, without speaking a word.
It is said that formerly they were much more gay and
cheerful, but that an acquaintance with civilization has
been productive of the usual misfortune and misery.134
It does not appear that the Russians were behind the
Spaniards in their barbarous treatment of the natives.135
Notwithstanding their interest lay in preserving life, and
holding the natives in a state of serfdom as fishers and
hunters, the poor people were soon swept away. Father
Innocentius Veniaminoff, a Russian missionary who la
bored among the islanders long and faithfully, gives them
the highest character for probity and propriety. Among
other things, he affirms that during a residence of ten
years in Unalaska, there did not occur a bingle fight
among the natives. Proselytes were made by the Rus
sians with the same facility as by the Spaniards. Trib
ute was levied by the Russians upon all the islanders,
but, for three years after their conversion, neophytes were
exempt; a cheap release from hateful servitude, thought
the poor Aleut ; and a polity which brought into the folds
of the church pagan multitudes.
THE THLINKEETS, as they call themselves, or Kolosches,
as they are designated by the Russians, inhabit the coast
and islands from Mount St Elias to the river Nass.
The name Thlinkeet signifies ' man,' or i human being.'
134 ' Naturellement silencieux.' D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 578. ' Sie verrichten
auch die Nothdurft und das Ehegeschaft ohne alle Scheu.' Neue, Nachr., p.
150. ' A stupid silence reigns among them.' ' I am persuaded that the sim
plicity of their character exceeds that of any other people.' Lisiansky's Voy.,
pp. 182, 183. 'Kind-hearted and obliging, submissive and careful; but if
roused to anger, they become rash and unthinking, even malevolent, and in
different to all danger.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 32. ' To all appearance,
they are the most peaceable, inoffensive people, I ever met with. And, as to
honesty, they might serve as a pattern to the most civilized nation upon earth. '
Cook, vol. ii., p. 509.
135 ' To hunt was their task; to be drowned, or starved, or exhausted, was
their reward.' Simpson's Jour., vol.ii., p. 229. ' They are harmless, wretched
slaves,' whose race will soon be extinct. Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 315. The
Russian hunters ' used not unfrequently to place the men close together, and
try through how many the ball of their rifle-barrelled musket would pass.'
Sauer, Billing's Ex. App., p. 56. ' Of a thousand men, who formerly lived in
this spot, scarcely more than forty remained.' Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii.,p. 235.
' La variole, la syphilis, voire meme le cholera depuis quelques annees, en em-
portent une effrayante quantiteV Laplace, Circumnav., vol u., p. 51.
THE THLINKEETS. 95
Kolosch,136 or more properly Kaluga, is the Aleutian
word for i dish,' and was given to this people by Aleut
ian seal-hunters whom the Russians employed during
their first occupation of the Island of the Sitkas. Per
ceiving a resemblance in the shape of the Thlinkeet lip-
ornament, to the wooden vessels of their own country,
they applied to this nation the name Kaluga, whence
the Kolosches of the Russians.
Holmberg carries their boundaries down to the Co
lumbia River; and Wrangell perceives a likeness, real
or imaginary, to the Aztecs.137 Indeed the differences
between the Thlinkeets and the inhabitants of New Cal
edonia, Washington, and Oregon, are so slight that the
whole might without impropriety be called one people.
The Thlinkeets have, however, some peculiarities not
found elsewhere; they are a nation distinct from the
Tinneh upon their eastern border, and I therefore treat
of them separately.
The three families of nations already considered,
namely, the Eskimos, the Koniagas, and the Aleuts, are
all designated by most writers as Eskimos. Some even
include the Thlinkeets, notwithstanding their physical
and philological differences, which, as well as their tra
ditions, are as broadly marked as those of nations that
these same ethnologists separate into distinct families.
Nomadic nations, occupying lands by a precarious tenure,
with ever-changing boundaries, engaged in perpetual hos
tilities with conterminous tribes that frequently annihi
late or absorb an entire community, so graduate into one
another that the dividing line is often with difficulty de
termined. Thus the Thlinkeets, now almost universally
held to be North American Indians proper, and distinct
from the Eskimos, possess, perhaps, as many affinities to
their neighbors on the north, as to those upon the south
and east. The conclusion is obvious. The native races of
America, by their geographical position and the climatic
136 Kaluga, Kaljush, Koljush, Kalusch, Kolush, Kolosch, Kolosh, Kolosches.
Marchand calls them Tchinkitane. Voyage aut. du Monde, torn, ii ., p. 3.
"7 See Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., pp. 15, 16.
96 HYPEKBOKEANS.
influences which govern them, are of necessity to a cer
tain degree similar; while a separation into isolated
communities which are acted upon by local causes, re
sults in national or tribal distinctions. Thus the human
race in America, like the human race throughout the
world, is uniform in its variety, and varied in its unity.
The Thlinkeet family, commencing at the north, com- •
prises the Ugalenzes™8 on the shore of the continent
between Mount St Elias and Copper River; the Ya-
Jcutats, of Bering Bay; the Chilkats, at Lynn Canal; the
Hoodnids, at Cross Sound; the Uoodsinoos, of Chatham
Strait; and, following down the coast and islands, the
Taboos, the Auks, the Kakas, the Siikas™ the Stfldnes™
and the Tangass. The Sitkas on Baranoff Island141 are
the dominant tribe.
Descending from the north into more genial climes, the
physical type changes, and the form assumes more grace
ful proportions. With the expansion of nature and a
freer play of physical powers, the mind expands, native
character becomes intensified, instinct keener, savage
nature more savage, the nobler qualities become more
noble; cruelty is more cruel, torture is elevated into an
art, stoicism is cultivated,142 human sacrifice and human
slavery begin, and the oppression and degradation of
woman is systematized. "If an original American race
is accepted," says Holmberg, " the Thlinkeets must be
classed with them." They claim to have migrated from
the interior of the continent, opposite Queen Charlotte
Island.
The Ugalenzes spend their winters at a small bay east
138 Ugalachmiuti, Ugaljachmjuten, Ugalyachmutzi, Ugalukmutes, Ugalenzi,
Ugalenzen, Ugalenzes.
139 They ' call themselves G-tinkit, or S-chinkit, or also S-chitcha-chon,
that is, inhabitants of Sitki or Sitcha.' Langsdorff's Foy., pt. ii., 128.
140 The orthographic varieties of this word are endless. Stickeen, Slekin,
Stakhin, Stachin, Stikin, Stachine, Stikeen, Stikine, Stychine, are among those
before me at the moment.
141 At the end of this chapter, under Tribal Boundaries, the location of
these tribes is given definitely.
142 A. Thlinkeet boy, ' when under the whip, continued his derision, with
out once exhibiting the slightest appearance of suffering.' Lisiansky's Voy.,
p. 242.
THLINKEET PECULIAEITIES. 97
from Kadiak, and their summers near the mouth of
Copper River, where they take fish in great quantities.
Their country also abounds in beaver. The Chilkats
make two annual trading excursions into the interior.
The Tacully tribes, the Sicannis and Nehannes, with
whom the Chilkats exchange European goods for furs,
will allow no white man to ascend their streams.
Naturally, the Thlinkeets are a fine race ; the men bet
ter formed than the boatmen of the north ;143 the women
modest, fair, and handsome;144 but the latter have gone
far out of their wray to spoil the handiwork of nature.
Not content with daubing the head and body with filthy
coloring mixtures; with adorning the neck with copper-
wire collars, and the face with grotesque wooden masks;
with scarring their limbs and breast with keen-edged
instruments; with piercing the nose and ears, and filling
the apertures with bones, shells, sticks, pieces of copper,
nails, or attaching thereto heavy pendants, which drag
down the organs and pull the features out of place ;
115
143 'Leur corps est ramasse, mais assez bien proportioning' Marcliand',
Voy., torn, ii., p. 46. ' Very fierce.' Portlock's Voy., p. 201. ' Limbs straight
and well shaped.' Uixon's Voy., p. ^71. ' Stolze gerade Haltung.' Hohnberg,
Ethn. tikiz., p. 16. ' Active and clever.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 237. 'Bigote a
manera de los Chinos.' Perez, Nav., MS. p. 14. 'Limbs ill-proportioned.'
Kotzeljue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 49. ' Tres superieurs en courage et en intelli
gence.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 54.
144 The women ' are pleasing and their carriage modest.' Portlock's Voy.,
6, 291. When washed, white and fresh. Dixon's Voy., p. 171. ' Dunkle
autfarbe.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 16. ' Eran de color bianco y habia
muchos con ojos azules.' Perez, Nai\, MS. p. 14. As fair as many Euro
peans. LangsdorfTs Voy., pt. ii.. p. 112. 'Muchos de ellos de un bianco
regular.' Bodega y Quadra, Ifav., MS. p. 43.
14i 'Leur chevelure, dure, epaisse, melee, couverte d'ocre, de duvet d'oi-
seaux, et de toutes les ordures que la negligence et le temps y ont accumulees,
contribue encore a rendre leur aspect hideux.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p.
46. 'A more hideous set of beings, in the form of men and women, I had
never before seen.' Cleveland's Voy., p. 91 . The men painted ' a black circle
extending from the forehead to the mouth, and a red chin, which gave the
face altogether the appearance of a mask.' Lisianksy's Voy., p. 146. ' Pour-
raient meme passer pour jolies, sans 1'horrible habitude qu'elles ont adoptee.'
Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87. ' That person seems to be reckoned the
greatest beau amongst them, whose face is one entire piece of smut and grease. '
Dixon's Voy., p. 68. ' Us se font des cicatrices sur les bras et sur la poitrine .'
La Perouse, Voy., torn. ii.. p. 220. ' Um aus dem Gesichte diese fette Farben-
masse abzuwaschen, gebrauchen sie ihren eignen Urin, und dieser verursacht
bei ihnen den widerlichen Geruch, der den sich ihm nahenden Fremdling fast
zum Erbrechen bringt.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 20.
VOL. I. 7
98 HYPEKB02EANS.
they appear to have taxed their inventive powers to the
utmost, and with a success unsurpassed by any nation
in the world , to produce a model of hideous beauty.
This success is achieved in their wooden lip-ornament,
the crowning glory of the Thlinkeet matron, described
by a multitude of eye-witnesses; and the ceremony of
its introduction may be not inappropriately termed, the
baptism of the block. At the age of puberty, — some say
during infancy or childhood, — in the under lip of all free-
born female Thlinkeets,146 a slit is made parallel with the
mouth, and about half an inch below it.147 If the incision
is made during infancy, it is only a small hole, into which
:a needle of copper, a bone, or a stick is inserted, the
.size being increased as the child grows. If the baptism
is deferred until the period when the maiden merges
into womanhood, the operation is necessarily upon a
larger scale, and consequently more painful.148 When
us Meares, Voyages, p. xxxi., states that at Prince William Sound, 'the
men have universally a slit in their under lip, between the projecting part of
the lip and the chin, which is cut parallel with their mouths, and has the ap
pearance of another mouth.' Worn only by women. Dixon's Voy., p. 172.
147 'About three tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under lip.'
Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. ' In the centre of the under-lip.' Lanys-
dorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. 'Fendue au ras des gencives.' La Perouse, Voy.,
torn, ii., p. 224. ' In the thick part near the mouth.' Dixon's Voy., p. 187.
' When the first person having this incision was seen by one of the seamen,
who called out, that the man had two mouths.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p.
369. ' In their early infancy, a small incision is made in the center of the
under lip, and a piece of brass or copper wire is placed in, and left in the
wound. This corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh grad
ually increases the orifice, until it is sufficiently large to admit the wooden
appendage.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 408. 'Les femmes de Tchinki-
tane ont cm devoir aj outer a leur beaute naturelle, par 1'emploi d'un orne-
aussitot qu'elles sont nees.' Id., torn. iv.. p. 54. 'At first a thick wire.'
Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. When almost marriageable. Kotzebue's New
Voy., vol. ii., p. 51. ' The children have them bored at about two years of
:age, when a piece of copper-wire is put through the hole; this they wear till
the age of aboiit thirteen or fourteen years, when it is taken out, and the
wooden ornament introduced.' Portlock's Voy., p. 289. ' Said to denote ma
turity.' Wliymper's Alaska, p. 100. ' Se percer la levre inferieure des 1'en-
fance.' 'D'agrandir peu a pen cette ouverture au point de pouvoir jeune
fille y introduire une coquille, et fernme mariee une enorine tasse de bois.'
Laplace, Circunmav., torn, vi., p. 87. ' Never takes place during their in
fancy.' Dixon's Voy., p. 187. 'When the event takes place that implies
womanhood.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 243. ' Wenn zum ersten Mai beim Mad-
THLINKEET LIP-ORNAMENT. 99
the incision is made, a copper wire, or a piece of shell
or wood, is introduced, which keeps the wound open and
the aperture extended ; and by enlarging the object and
keeping up a continuous but painful strain, an artificial
opening in the face is made of the required dimensions.
On attaining the age of maturity, this wire or other
incumbrance is removed and a block of wood inserted.
This block is oval or elliptical in shape, concaved or
hollowed dish-like on the sides, and grooved like the
wheel of a pulley on the edge in order to keep it in
place.149 The dimensions of the block are from two to six
inches in length, from one to four inches in width, and
about half an inch thick round the edge, and highly pol
ished.150 Old age has little terror in the eyes of a Thlin-
keet belle, for larger lip-blocks are introduced as years
advance, and each enlargement adds to the lady's social
status, if not to her facial charms. When the block is
withdrawn, the lip drops down upon the chin like a piece
of leather, displaying the teeth, and presenting altogether
chen sich Spuren der Mannbarkeit zeigen, wird ihre Unterlippe durch-
stochen und in diese Oefl'nung eine Knochenspitze, gegenwartig dock hau-
figer ein Silberstift gelegt.' Hohnberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 21. ' Pues les parecio
que solo lo tenian los casados.' Perez, Rav., MS. p. 15.
i*9 ' Concave on both sides.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. ' So lange
sie unverheirathet ist, tragt sie diesen; erha'lt sie aber eiiien Maun, so presst
man eiiien grosseren Schmuck von Holz oder Knochen in die Oeffnung, welcher
nack innen, d. h. zur Zahuseite etwas trogformig ausgehohlt ist.' Hobiiberg,
Eihn. tikiz., p. 21. ' Une espece d'ecuelle de bois sans anses qui appuie con-
tre les gencives.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 224. Pieces of shell resem
bling teeth. J/eares' Voy., p. xxxi.
1M ' As large as a large saucer.' Portlock's Voy., p. 289. 'From one cor
ner of the mouth to the other.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 280. ' Frequently
increased to thi-ee, or even four inches in length, and nearly as wide.' Nixon's
Voy., p. 187. 'A comniunement un demi-pouce d'epaisseur, deux de dia-
metre, et trois pouces de long.' La Perouse, Voy. torn, iv., p. 54. 'At
least seven inches in circumference.' Meares' Voy., p. xxxviii. 'Mit den
Jahren wird der Schmuck vergrossert, so dass er bei einem alten Weibe iiber
2 Zoll breit angetroffen wird. ' Holniberg, Ethn. tSkiz., p. 21. From two to five
inches long, and from one and a half to three inches broad. Ladies of dis
tinction increase the size. ' I have even seen ladies of very high rank with
this ornament, full five inches long and three broad.' Mr Dwolf affirms that
he saw ' an old woman, the wife of a chief, whose lip ornament was so large,
that by a peculiar motion of her under-lip she could almost conceal her whole
face with it.' ' Horrible in its appearance to us Europeans.' Langsdorff's
Voy., pt. ii., p. 115. ' Es una abertura como de media pulgada debaxo del
labio inferior, que representa segunda boca, donde colocan una especie de
roldana elfptica de pino, cuyo diametro mayor es de dos pulgadas, quatro
lineas, y el menor de una pulgada.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 126.
100 HYPEKBOKEANS.
a ghastly spectacle.151 This custom is evidently associated
in their minds with womanly modesty, for when La
Perouse asked them to remove their block, some refused ;
those who complied manifesting the same embarrassment
shown by a European woman who uncovers her bosom.
The Yakutats alone of all the Thlinkeet nation have
never adopted this fashion.
Their dress, which is made from wolf, deer, bear, or
other skin, extends from the shoulder to the knee, and
consists of a mantle, or cape, with sleeves, which reaches
down to the waist, and to which the women attach a
skirt, or gown, and the men a belt and apron. A white
blanket is made from the wool of the wild sheep, em
broidered with figures, and fringed with furs, all of native
work. This garment is most highly prized by the men.
They wear it thrown over the shoulder so as to cover the
whole body.
Vancouver thus describes the dress of a chief at Lynn
Canal. His " external robe was a very fine large gar-
!5i « Une enorme tasse de bois, destinee a recevoir la salive qui s'en echappe
constamment.' Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87. ' L'effet de cet ornement
est de rabattre, par le poids de sa partie saillante la levre inferieure sur le
meiiton, de developper les charmes d'nne graiide bouche beante, qui prend
la forme de celle d'un four, et de mettre a decouvert line rangee de dents
jaunes et sales.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 49. ' She is obliged to be con
stantly on the watch, lest it should fall out, which would cover her with con
fusion.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 244. ' The weight of this trencher or ornament
weighs the lip down so as to cover the whole of the chin, leaving all the
lower teeth and gum quite naked.' Portlock's Voy., p. 289. ' L 'usage le plus
revoltaiit qui existe peut-etre sur la terre.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p.
226. 'Always in proportion to a person's wealth.' 'Distorts every feature
in the lower part of the face.' Dixon's Voy., p. 68, 172. 'In running
the lip flaps up and down so as to knock sometimes against the chin and
sometimes against the nose. Upon the continent the kaluga is worn still
larger; and the female who can cover her whole face with her under-lip
passes for the most perfect beauty/ ' The lips of the women held out like a
trough, and always filled with saliva stained with tobacco-juice, of which
they are immoderately fond, is the most abominably revolting part of the
spectacle.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 52. 'Dadnrch ensteht eine im
selbigen Maasse ausgedehnte Lippe, die hoehst widerlich aussieht, um so
mehr, da sich nun mehr der Mtind iiicht schliessen kann, sondern unauf-
horlich einen bnmnen Tabaksspeichel voii sich gibt.' Holiuberg, Ethn. tikiz.,
p. 21. ' So distorts the face as to take from it almost the resemblance to the
human; yet the privilege of wearing this ornament is not extended to the
female slaves, who are prisoners taken in war.' Cleveland's Voy., p. 91. ' Look
as if they had large flat wooden spoons growing in the flesh.' Langsdorff's
Voy., pt. ii. p. 115. * The sight is hideous. Our men used jocosely to say,
this lower lip would make a good slab to lay their trousers on to be scrubbed.'
DKESS OF THE THLINKEETS. 101
ment, that reached from his neck down to his heels,
made of wool from the mountain sheep, neatly varie
gated with several colors, and edged and otherwise dec
orated with little tufts or frogs of woolen yarn, dyed of
various colors. His head-dress was made of wood, much
resembling in its shape a crown, adorned with bright
copper and brass plates, from whence hung a number of
tails or streamers, composed of wool and fur, wrought
together, dyed of various colors, and each terminating
in a whole ermine skin. The whole exhibited a mag
nificent appearance, and indicated a taste for dress and
ornament that we had not supposed the natives of these
regions to possess."
The men make a wooden mask, which rests on a neck
piece, very ingeniously carved, and painted in colors, so
as to represent the head of some bird or beast or myth
ological being. This was formerly worn in battle, prob
ably, as La Pe rouse suggests, in order to strike terror into
the hearts of enemies, but is now used only on festive
occasions.152
A small hat of roots and bark, woven in the shape of
a truncated cone, ornamented with painted figures and
pictures of animals, is worn by both sexes.153 Ordinarily,
however, the men wear nothing on the head ; their thick
hair, greased and covered with ochre and birds' down,
forming a sufficient covering. The hat is designed espe
cially for rainy weather, as a protection to the elaborately
Dunn's Oregon, p. 277. ' On ne connait point d'explication plausible de cette
mutilation, qui, chez les Indiens, passe pour un sigiie de noblesse.' Mofras,
Explor., torn, ii., p. 336.
152 'Die Maunertracht unterscheidet sich in Nichts von der der Weiber; sie
besteht uamlich aus eiuem bis zu den Kuieen gehenden Hemde.' Ilolmberg,
Ethn. Skiz., p. 18. Some of their blankets ' are so curiously worked on one
side with the fur of the sea-otter, that they appear as if lined with it.' ' Some
dress themselves in short pantaloons.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 238. 'Las mu-
geres visten houestameute uua especie de tunica interior de piel sobada.' Sutil
y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvii. ' Se vestian las mugeres tunicas de pieles ajusta-
das al cuerpo con brazaletes de cobre o hierro. ' Perez, Nav., MS. p. 15. ' Usual
clothing consists of a little apron. ' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 49. ' Their
feet are always bare.' Lanysdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 114.
li3 ' Usan sombreros de la cbrteza interior del pino en forma de cono trun-
cado.' Siitil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvii. Their wooden masks ' are so thick,
that a musket-ball, fired at a moderate distance, can hardly penetrate them.'
Jjisiansky's Voy., p. 150.
102 HYPERBOKEANS.
dressed hair.154 Besides their every-day dress, they have
a fantastic costume for tribal holidays.
For their winter habitations, a little back from the
ocean, the Thlinkeets build substantial houses of plank
or logs, sometimes of sufficient strength to serve as a
fortress. They are six or eight feet in height, the base
in the form of a square or parallelogram, the roof of
poles placed at an angle of forty-five degrees and cov
ered with bark. The entrance is by a small side door.
The fire, which is usually kept burning night and day,
occupies the centre of the room; over it is a smoke-
hole of unusual size, and round the sides of the room
are apartments or dens which are used as store-houses,
sweat-houses, and private family rooms. The main room
is very public and very filthy.155 Summer huts are light
portable buildings, thrown up during hunting excursions
in the interior, or on the sea-beach in the fishing-season.
A frame is made of stakes driven into the ground, sup
porting a roof, and the whole covered with bark, or with
green or dry branches, and skins or bark over all. The
door is closed by bark or a curtain of skins. Each hut
154 Pluck out their beard. Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 112. 'Us ont de
la barbe, nioius a la verite que les Europeens, niais assez cependant pour qu'il
soit impossible d'en douter.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 229. ' The women
in general are hair-dressers for their husbands.' Portlock's Voy., p. 290.
155 ' Der Eingang, ziemlich hoch von der Erde, besteht aus einem kleinen.
nmden Loche.' Jlolmbery, Ethn. Skiz., p. 25. ' Us se construisent des maisons
de bois ou de terre pour 1'hiver.' Laplace, Circiunnav., vol. vi., p. 87. ' The
barabaras of the Sitcan people are of a square form, and spacious. The sides
are of planks; and the roof resembles that of a Eussian house.' Lisiansky's
Voy., p. 239. ' Habitan estos Indies en chozas 6 raiicherias de tablas muy
desabrigadas.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxvi. At Sitka the roof 'rests upon
ten or twelve thick posts driven into the ground, and the sides of the house are
composed of broad thick planks fastened to the same posts. ' Lanysdorff's Voy.,
boards, which they take away with them when they go to their winter quarters.
It is very surprising to see how well they will shape their boards with the
shocking tools they employ; some of them being full 10 feet long, 2% feet
broad, and not more than an inch thick.' Portlock's Voy., p. 292. ' High, large,
and roomy, built of wood, with the hearth in the middle, and the sides divided
into as many compartments as there are families living under the roof. ' Rich
ardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 410. ' Lebt in Schoppen aus Balken gebaut, wo
an den Seiten fur jede Familie besondere Platze abgetheilt sind, in der Mitte
aber Feuer fiir alle zusammen angemacht wird. So pflegen gemeiniglich 2
bis 6 Familien eine einzige Scheune einzunehmen.' £aer's Ethn. u. Stat., p. 97.
FOOD OF THE THLINKEETS. 103
is the rendezvous for a small colony, frequently cover
ing twenty or thirty persons, all under the direction of
one chief.156
The food of the Thlinkeets is derived principally from
the ocean, and consists of fish, mussels, sea-weeds, and
in fact whatever is left upon the beach by the ebbing
tide — which at Sitka rises and falls eighteen feet twice
a day — or can be caught by artificial means. Holmberg
says that all but the Yakutats hate whale as the Jews
hate pork. Roots, grasses, berries, and snails are among
their summer luxuries. They chew a certain plant as
some chew tobacco, mixing with it lime to give it a
stronger effect,157 and drink whale-oil as a European
drinks beer. Preferring their food cooked, they put it
in a tight wicker basket, pouring in water, and throw
ing in heated stones, until the food is boiled.158 For
156 « Vingt-cinq pieds cle long sur quinze a vingt pieds de large. ' La Perouse,
Voy., torn, ii., p. 220. ' Roof in the whole with the bark of trees. ' Kotzebue's New
Voy., vol. ii., p. 53. 'Las casas en que estos habitaii en las playas son de
poca consideraciou y niuguua subsistencia.' Bodeya y Quadra, Nav., MS. p.
49. ' A few poles stuck in the ground, without order or regularity.' JJixon's
Voy., p. 172. ' Gebaude besteht aus langeii, sorgfaltig behauenen Brettern,
die kartenhausartig iiber eiiiander gestellt, an zahlreicheu in die Erde ge-
steckten Stangen befestigt, recht eigentlich ein holzernes Zelt bilden. Es
hat die Form einer langlichen Barake init zwei Giebeln.' Kittlltz, Reise, vol. i.,
pp. 220, 221.
157 All kinds of fish; ' such as salmon, mussels, and various other shell-fish,
sea-otters, seals and porpoises; the blubber of the porpoise, they are remark
ably fond of, and indeed the flesh of any animal that comes in their way.'
Portlocfc's Voy. , p. 290. ' Vom Meere, an dessen Ufern sie sich stets ansiedeln,
erhalten sie ihre hauptsachlichste Nahrung; einige Wurzeln, Graser u. Beer-
en gehoren nur zu den Leckerbissen des Somraers.' Holmbtn/, Ethn. tikiz., p.
22. Cakes made of bark of spruce-fir, mixed with roots, berries, and train-
oil. For salt they use sea-water. Never eat whale-fat. Lanqsdorff's Voy.,
§t. ii., p. 131. At Sitka, summer food consists of berries, fresh fish, and
esh of amphibious animals. Winter food, of dried salmon, train-oil, and
the spawn of fish, especially herrings. Lisiansky's Voy., p. 239. ' Sus ali-
mentos se reducen a pescado cocido 6 asado ya fresco 6 ya seco, varias hier-
bas y raizes.' Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 50. They chew 'a plant which
appears to be a species of tobacco.' Dixon's Voy., p. 175. ' Sont converts
de vermine ; ils font une chasse assidue a ces animaux devorans, mais pour les
devorer eux-memes.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 52. 'Tagliche Nahrung
der Einwohner — sind haupsachtlich Fische, doch ha'ufig auch Mollusken und
Echinodermen.' Kittlitz, Reise, vol. i., p. 222.
158 'Le poisson frais ou fume, les ceufs seches de poisson.' Marchand,
Voy., torn, ii., p. 62. ' Is sometimes cooked upon red-hot stones, but more
commonly eaten raw.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 53. ' Not so expert
in hunting as the Aleutians. Their principal mode is that of shooting the
sea animals as they lie asleep.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 242. They boil their
Victuals in wooden vessels, by constantly putting red-hot stones into the
104 HYPEKBOKEANS.
winter, they dry large quantities of herring, roes, and
the liesh of animals.
For catching fish, they stake the rivers, and also use
a hook and line ; one fisherman casting from his canoe
ten or fifteen lines, with bladders for floats. For herring,
they fasten to the end of a pole four or five pointed bones,
and with this instrument strike into a shoal, spearing a
fish on every point. They sometimes make the same in
strument in the shape of a rake, and transfix the fish with
the teeth. The Sitkas catch halibut with large, wooden,
bone-pointed hooks.159
The arms of the Thlinkeets denote a more warlike
people than any we have hitherto encountered. Bows
and arrows ; hatchets of flint, and of a hard green stone
which cuts wood so smoothly that no marks of notches
are left; great lances, six or eight varas in length, if
Bodega y Quadra may be trusted, hardened in the fire or
pointed with copper, or later with iron; a large, broad,
double-ended dagger, or knife, — are their principal weap
ons. The knife is their chief implement and constant
companion. The handle is nearer one end than the
other, so that it has a long blade and a short blade, the
latter being one quarter the length of the former. The
handle is covered with leather, and a strap fastens it
to the hand when fighting. Both blades have leathern
sheaths, one of which is suspended from the neck by a
strap.160
water. Portlock's Voy., p. 291. ' Das Kochen geschieht jetzt in eisernen Kes-
seln, vor der Bekanntschaft mit den Kussen aber wurden dazu aus Wurzeln
geflochtene Kiirbe angewandt. Holmbery, Ethn, tikiz., p. 23.
159 To their fishing lines, bladders are fastened, 'which float upon the surf ace
of the water, so that one person can attend to fourteen or fifteen lines. ' Langs-
dorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 134. ' Us pechent, comine nous, en barrant les rivieres,
on a la ligne.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 232. ' For taking the spawn, they
use the branches of the pine-tree, to which it easily adheres, and on which
it is afterwards dried. It is then put into baskets, or holes purposely dug in
the ground, till wanted.' Lisiansky's Voy,, p. 239. ' Su comun alimento es
el salmon, yes ingenioso el metodo que tienen de pescarle.' Sutily Mexicana,
Vuige, p. cxvii. 'Their lines are very strong, being made of the sinews or
intestines of animals.' Dixon's Voy., p. 174. ' Die Kiesenbutte, die in Sitcha
bisweilen ein Gewicht von 10 bis 12 Pud erreicht, wird aus der Tiefe mit gros-
sen holzernen Angeln, die mit Widerhaken aus Eisen oder Knochen versehen
sind, herausgezogen. Die Angelschnur besteht aus an einander geknupften
Fucusstangeln.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 32.
leo < Bows and arrows were formerly their only weapons; now, besides their
THE THLINKEETS IN WAR. 105
They also encase almost the entire body in a wooden
and leathern armor. Their helmets have curiously
carved vizors, with grotesque representations of beings
natural or supernatural, which, when brilliantly or dis
mally painted, and presented with proper yells, and
brand ishings of their ever-glittering knives, are supposed
to strike terror into the heart of their enemies. They
make a breast- plate of wood, and an arrow-proof coat of
thin flexible strips, bound with strings like a woman's
stays.161
When a Thlinkeet arms for war, he paints his face
and powders his hair a brilliant red. He then .orna
ments his head with W7hite eagle-feathers, a token of
stern, vindictive determination. During war they pitch
their camp in strong positions, and place the women on
guard. Trial by combat is frequently resorted to, not
only to determine private disputes, but to settle quar
rels between petty tribes. In the latter case, each side
chooses a champion, the warriors place themselves in
muskets, they have daggers, and knives half a yard long.' Kotzebue's New
Voy., vol. ii., p. 55. Their weapons were bows, arrows, and spears. Dixon's
Voy., p. 67. ' Leur lances dont 1'ancieune forme n'est pas connue, est a
present coinposee de deux pieces: de la hampe, loiigue de quinze on dix-
huit pieds, et du fer qui lie le cede en rien a celui de la hallebarde de parade
dont etoit arme un Suisse de paroisse.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 68.
Knives, some two feet long, shaped almost like a dagger, with a ridge in the
middle. Worn in skin sheaths hung by a thoug to the neck under their
robe, probably used only as weapons. Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 373.
' Las armas of eiisivas que generalmente usan son las flechas, lanzas de seis y
ocho varas de largo con lenguetas de fierro.' Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p.
46. ' The daggers used in battle are made to stab with either end, having
three, four or five inches above the hand tapered to a sharp point; but the
upper part of those used in the Sound and River is excurvated.' Port-
lock's Voy., p. 261. ' Principally bows and arrows.' Lanysdorff' s Voy., pt. ii.,
p. 131. ' Sus armas se reducen al arco, la flecha y el punal que traeu siempre
consigo.' tiutil y Mexicana, Viaye, p. cxvii. 'Comme nous examinioiis tres-
dttentivenient tous ces poigiiards, ils nous firent signe qu'ils n'en faisaient
usage que coiitre les ours et les autres betes des forets.' La Perouse, Voy.,
torn, ii., p. 172. ' Der Dolch ist sehr breit uiid hat zwei geschliffeiie Blatter
auf jeder Seite des Griffes, das obere jedoch nur ein Viertel von der La'nge
des untereii.' ' Beide Blatter oder Klingen sind mit ledernen Scheiden ver-
sehen.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 28.
161 ' A kind of jacket, or coat of mail, made of thin laths, bound together
with sinews, which makes it quite flexible, though so close as not to admit
an arrow or dart.' Cook's Third Voy., vol. ii., p. 372. ' Fiir den Krieg be-
sitzen die Kaloschenauchvon Holz gearbeitete Schutzwaffen : Brustharnische,
Sturmhaubeii und seltsam geschnitzte Visire, mit grellen Farben bemalte
Fratzengesichter darstellen.' Kittlitz, Eeise, vol. i., p. 216.
106 HYPEBBOBEANS.
battle array, the combatants armed with their favorite
weapon, the dagger, and well armored, step forth and
engage in fight; while the people on either side engage
in song and dance during the combat. Wrangell and
Laplace assert that brave warriors killed in battle are
devoured by the conquerors, in the belief that the brav
ery of the victim thereby enters into the nature of the
partaker.102
Coming from the north, the Thiinkeets are the first
people of the coast who use wooden boats. They are
made from a single trunk ; the smaller ones about fifteen
feet long, to carry from ten to twelve persons; and the
larger ones, or war canoes, from fifty to seventy feet
long; these will carry forty or fifty persons. They have
from two and a half to three feet beam ; are sharp fore
and aft, and have the bow and stern raised, the former
rather more than the latter. Being very light and well
modeled, they can be handled with ease and celerity.
Their paddles are about four feet in length, with crutch-
like handles and wide, shovel-shaped blades. Boats as
well as paddles are ornamented with painted figures,
and the family coat-of-arms. Bodega y Quadra, in con
tradiction to all other authorities,- describes these canoes
as being built in three parts; with one hollowed piece,
which forms the bottom and reaches well up the sides,
and with two side planks. Having hollowed the trunk
of a tree to the required depth, the Thlinkeet builders
fill it with water, which they heat with hot stones to
soften the wood, and in this state bend it to the desired
shape. When they land, they draw their boats up on
the beach, out of reach of the tide, and take great care
in preserving them.103
162 "They never attack their enemies openly.' Kotzebue's New'Voy., vol.
ii., p. 55. ' Les guerriers tues on faits prisonniers a la gnerre, passent egale-
ment sous la dent de leurs vainqnenrs qui, en devorant une proie aussi dis-
tinguee, croient y puiser de nouvelles forces, une nouvelle energie.' Laplace,
Circiimnav., torn, vi., p. 155.
163 < Bien hechas de una pieza con su falca sobre las bordas.' Perez, JVau.,
MS. p. 17. 'On n'est pas moins etonne de leur stabilite: malgre la legerete
et le pen de largeur de la coque, elles n'ont pas besoin d'etre soutenues par
des talanciers, et jamais on ne les accouple.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 72.
INDUSTRIES OF THE THLINKEETS. 107
The Thlinkeets manifest no less ingenuity in the man
ufacture of domestic and other implements than in their
arms. Rope they make from sea- weed, water-tight bask
ets and mats from withes and grass; and pipes, bowls,
and figures from a dark clay. They excel in the work
ing of stone and copper, making necklaces, bracelets, and
rings ; they can also forge iron. They spin thread, use the
needle, and make blankets from the white native wool.
They exhibit considerable skill in carving and painting,
ornamenting the fronts of their houses with heraldic
symbols, and allegorical and historical figures; while in
front of the principal dwellings, and on their canoes, are
carved parts representing the human face, the heads of
crows, eagles, sea-lions, and bears.104 La Perouse asserts
that, except in agriculture, which was not entirely un
known to them, the Thlinkeets were farther advanced in
industry than the South Sea Islanders.
Trade is carried on between Europeans and the in
terior Indians, in which no little skill is manifested.
' Las regulares canoas de que se sirven son de pino, y no tienen mas capaci-
dad que la que basta para contener una familia, sin embargo que las hay su-
mamente grandes. ' .Bode/jay Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 48. ' Rudely excavated and
reduced to no particular shape, but each end has the resemblance of a butcher's
tray.' Dixon's Voy., p. 173. ' Their canoes are much inferior to those of the
lower coast, while their skin " baidarkes " (kyacks) are not equal to those
of Norton Sound and the northern coast.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 101. At
Cook's Inlet, ' their canoes are sheathed with the bark of trees.' Llsiansky's
Voy., p. 188. These canoes ' were made from a solid tree, and many of them
appeared to be from 50 to 70 feet in length, but very narrow, being no
broader than the tree itself.' Meares1 Voy., p. xxxviii. ' Their boat was the
body of a large pine tree, neatly excavated, and tapered away towards the
ends, until they came to a point, and the fore-part somewhat higher than the
after-part; indeed, the whole was finished in a neat and very exact manner.'
Portlock's Voy., p. 259.
164 ' Qnt fait beaucoup plus de progres dans les arts que dans la morale.'
La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 233. Thlinkeet women make baskets of bark of
trees, and grass, that will hold water. langsdorff's Voy., p. ii., p. 132. They
have tolerable ideas of carving, most utensils having sculptures, representing
some animal. Portlock's Voy., p. 294. 'Ces peintures, ces sculptures, telles
qu'elles sont, on en voit sur tous leurs meubles.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii.,
p. 71. ' De la vivacidad de su genio y del afecto al canibio se debe inferir
son bastantemente laboriosos.' Bodega y Quadra, Nav., MS. p. 48. * Tienen
lana blanca cuya especie ignoraron.' Perez, Nav., MS. p. 16. 'Masks very
ingeniously cut in wood, and painted with different colors.' A rattle, ' very
well finished, both as to sculpture and painting.' ' One might suppose these
productions the work of a people greatly advanced in civilization.' Lisiansky's
Voy., pp. 150, 241. 'Found some square patches of ground in a state of
cultivation, producing a plant that appeared to be a species of tobacco.' Van
couver's Voy., vol. iii., p. 256.
108 HYPERBOREANS.
Every article which they purchase undergoes the closest
scrutiny, and every slight defect, which they are sure to
discover, sends down the price. In their commercial
intercourse they exhibit the utmost decorum, and con
duct their negotiations with the most becoming dignity.
Nevertheless, for iron and beads they willingly part with
anything in their possession, even their children. In
the voyage of Bodega y Quadra, several young Thlin-
keets thus became the property of the Spaniards, as the
author piously remarks, for purposes of conversion. Sea-
otter skins circulate in place of money.165
The office of chief is elective, and the extent of power
wielded depends upon the ability of the ruler. In some
this authority is nominal ; others become great despots.166
Slavery was practiced to a considerable extent ; and not
only all prisoners of war were slaves, but a regular slave-
trade was carried on with the south. When first known
to the Russians, according to Holmberg, most of their
slaves were Flatheads from Oregon. Slaves are not
allowed to hold property or to marry, and when old and
worthless they are killed. Kotzebue says that a rich
man a purchases male and female slaves, who must
labor and fish for him, and strengthen his force when he
is engaged in warfare. The slaves are prisoners of war,
and their descendants; the master's power over them is
unlimited, and he even puts them to death without
scruple. When the master dies, two slaves are mur
dered on his grave that he may not want attendance in
the other world ; these are chosen long before the event
165 ' The skins of the sea-otters form their principal wealth, and are a sub
stitute for money.' Kotzebue' 's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 54. ' In one place they
discovered a considerable hoard of woolen cloth, and as much dried fish as
would have loaded 150 bidarkas.' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 160.
iG6 ' Le Gouvernement des Tchinkitaneens paroitroit done se rapprocher
da Gouvernement patriarchal.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 83. ' De su
gobierno pensamos cuando mas, oiendo el modo de someterse a algunos vie-
jos, seria oligarhico.' Bodega y Quadra, Nau., MS. p. 50. ' Though the toyons
have power over their subjects, it is a very limited power, unless when an
individual of extraordinary abilities starts up, who is sure to rule despotically.'
Lisiansky's Voi/., p. 243. ' Chaque famille semble vivre d'une maniere isolee
et avoir un regime pavticulier. ' L i 'I'eroiise, Voy., torn, iv., p. 61. ' Ces Con-
seils composes des vieillards.' Laplace, Circunmao., torn, vi., p. 155.
CASTE AND CLANSHIP. 109
occurs, but meet the destiny that awaits them very phil
osophically." Simpson estimates the slaves to be one third
of the entire population. Interior tribes enslave their
prisoners of war, but, unlike the coast tribes, they have
no hereditary slavery, nor systematic traffic in slaves.
With the superior activity and intelligence of the Thlin-
keets, social castes begin to appear. Besides an hered
itary nobility, from which class all chiefs are chosen, the
whole nation is separated into two great divisions or
clans, one of which is called the Wolf, and the other the
Raven. Upon their houses, boats, robes, shields, and
wherever else they can find a place for it, they paint or
carve their crest, an heraldic device of the beast or the
bird designating the clan to which the owner belongs. The
Raven trunk is again divided into sub-clans, called the
Frog, the Goose, the Sea-Lion, the Owl, and the Salmon.
The Wolf family comprises the Bear, Eagle, Dolphin,
Shark, and Alca. In this clanship some singular social
features present themselves. People are at once thrust
widely apart, and yet drawn together. Tribes of the same
clan may not war on each other, but at the same time
members of the same clan may not marry with each other.
Thus the young Wolf warrior must seek his mate among
the Ravens, and, while celebrating his nuptials one day,
he may be called upon the next to fight his father-in-
law over some hereditary feud. Obviously this singular
social fancy tends greatly to keep the various tribes of
the nation at peace.167
Although the Thlinkeet women impose upon them
selves the most painful and rigorous social laws, there
are few savage nations in which the sex have greater
influence or command greater respect. Whether it be
the superiority of their intellects, their success in ren
dering their hideous charms available, or the cruel pen-
iC7 Tribes are distinguished by the color and character of their paint. Kot-
zebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 51. They ' are divided into tribes ; the principal of
which assume to themselves titles of distinction, from the names of the ani
mals they prefer; as the tribe of the bear, of the eagle, etc. The tribe of the
wolf are called Coquontans, and have many privileges over the other tribes.'
Lisiamky' 's Voy., pp. 238, 242.
110 HYPERBOKEANS.
ances imposed upon womanhood, the truth is that not
only old men, but old women, are respected. In fact, a
remarkably old and ugly crone is accounted almost above
nature — a sorceress. One cause of this is that they are
much more modest and chaste than their northern sis
ters.168 As a rule, a man has but one wife ; more, how
ever, being allowable. A chief of the Nass tribe is said
to have had forty.
A young girl arrived at the age of maturity is deemed
unclean; and everything she comes in contact with, or
looks upon, even the clear sky or pure water, is thereby
rendered unpropitious to man. She is therefore thrust
from the society of her fellows, and confined in a dark
den as a being unfit for the sun to shine upon. There
she is kept sometimes for a whole year. Langsdorff
suggests that it may be during this period of confine
ment that the foundation of her influence is laid ; that
in modest reserve, and meditation, her character is
strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind as
well as body. This infamous ordeal, coming at a most
critical period, and in connection with the baptism of the
block, cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon her
character.
It is a singular idea that they have of uncleanness.
During all this time, according to Holmberg, only the
girl's mother approaches her, and that only to place food
within her reach. There she lies, wallowing in her
filth, scarcely able to move. It is almost incredible that
human beings can bring themselves so to distort nature.
To this singular custom, as well as to that of the block,
female slaves do not conform. After the girl's immure-
168 < The women posses a predominant influence, and acknowledged supe
riority over the other sex.' MearesJ Voy., p. 323. 'Parmi eux les femmes
jouisseiit d'une certaine consideration.' Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 87.
They treat their wives and children with much affection and tenderness, and
the women keep the treasures. Portlock's Voy., p. 290. The Kalush ' finds
his filthy countrywomen, with their lip-troughs, so charming, that they often
awaken in him the most vehement passion.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii.,
p. 56. ' It is certain that industry, reserve, modesty, and conjugal fidelity,
are the general characteristics of the female sex among these people.' Langs-
dorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 133. ' Quoiqu'elles vivent sous la domination d'hom-
THLINKEET SOCIAL CUSTOMS. Ill
ment is over, if her parents are wealthy, her old clothing
is destroyed, she is washed and dressed anew, and a grand
feast given in honor of the occasion. 1GD The natural suf
ferings of mothers during confinement are also aggra
vated by custom. At this time they too are considered
unclean, and must withdraw into the forest or fields, away
from all others, and take care of themselves and their oft-
spring. After the birth of a child, the mother is locked
up in a shed for ten days.
A marriage ceremony consists in the assembling of
friends and distribution of presents. A newly married
pair must fast for two days thereafter, in order to insure
domestic felicity. After the expiration of that time they
are permitted to partake of a little food, when a second
two days' fast is added, after which they are allowed to
come together for the first time; but the mysteries of
wedlock are not fully unfolded to them until four weeks
after marriage.
Very little is said by travelers regarding the bath
houses of the Thlinkeets, but I do not infer that they
used them less than their neighbors. In fact, notwith
standing their filth, purgations and purifications are
commenced at an early age. As soon as an infant is
born, and before it has tasted food, whatever is in the
stomach must be squeezed out. Mothers nurse their
children from one to two and a half years. When the
child is able to leave its cradle, it is bathed in the ocean
every day without regard to season, and this custom is
kept up by both sexes through life. Those that survive
the first year of filth, and the succeeding years of applied
ice water and exposure, are very justly held to be well
toughened.
The Thlinkeet child is frequently given two names, one
from the father's side and one from the mother's; and
when a son becomes more famous than his father, the
ines tres-fe'roces, je n'ai pas vu qu'elles en fussent traite'es d'une maniere
aussi barbare que le preteudent la plupartdes voyageurs.' La Perouse, Voy.,
torn, iv., p. 61.
169 « Weddings are celebrated merely by a feast, given to the relatives of
the bride.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 57.
112 HYPERBOREANS.
latter drops his own name, and is known only as the
father of his son. Their habits of life are regular. In
summer, at early dawn they put out to sea in their boats,
or seek for food upon the beach, returning before noon
for their first meal. A second one is taken just before
night. The work is not unequally divided between the
sexes, and the division is based upon the economical
principles of civilized communities. The men rarely
conclude a bargain without consulting their wives.
Marchand draws a revolting picture of their treatment
of infants. The little bodies are so excoriated by fer
mented filth, and so scarred by their cradle, that they
carry the marks to the grave. No wonder that when
they grow up they are insensible to pain. JSFor are the
mothers especially given to personal cleanliness and de
corum.170
Music, as well as the arts, is cultivated by the Thlin-
keets, and, if we may believe Marchand, ranks with
them as a social institution. " At fixed times," he says,
''evening and morning, they sing in chorus, every one
takes part in the concert, and from the pensive air which
they assume while singing, one would imagine that the
song has some deep interest for them." The men do the
dancing, while the women, who are rather given to fat
ness and flaccidity, accompany them with song and tam
bourine.171
Their principal gambling game is played with thirty
small sticks, of various colors, and called by divers
names, as the crab, the whale, and the duck. The
player shuffles together all the sticks, then counting out
seven, he hides them under a bunch of moss, keeping
170 'Us ne s'ecartent jamais de deux pas pour aucun besoin; ils ne cher-
chent dans ces occasions ni 1'ombre ni le mystere; ils continuent la conver
sation qii'ils out commencee, comme s'ils n'avaient pas un instant a perdve;
et lorsque c'est pendant le repas, ils reprennent leur place, dont ils ii'ont
jamais ete eloignes d'une toise.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 2'.1.
171 ' Out un gout decide pour le chant.' Marchand, Voy., torn, ii., p. 75.
1 The women sit upon the ground at a distance of some paces from the dancers,
and sing a not inharmonious melody, which supplies the place of music.'
Langsdorff's Voy., pt. ii., p. 114. 'They dance and sing continually.' Lisi-
ansky's Voy., p. 240. Besides the tambourine, Captain Belcher saw a casta-
net and ' a new musical instrument, composed of three hoops, with a cross
THLIXKEET CHAKACTEB. 113
the remainder covered at the same time. The game is
to guess in which pile is the whale, and the crab, and
the duck. During the progress of the game, they pre
sent a perfect picture of melancholic stoicism.172
The Thlinkeets burn their dead. An exception is
made when the deceased is a shaman or a slave; the
body of the former is preserved, after having been
wrapped in furs, in a large wooden sarcophagus ; and the
latter is thrown out into the ocean or anywhere, like a
beast. The ashes of the burned Thlinkeet are carefully
collected in a box covered with hieroglyphic figures, and
placed upon four posts. The head of a warrior killed in
battle is cut off before the body is burned, and placed
in a box supported by two poles over the box that holds
his ashes.173 Some tribes preserve the bodies of those
who die during the winter, until forced to get rid of
them by the warmer weather of spring. Their grandest
feasts are for the dead. Besides the funeral ceremony,
which is the occasion of a festival, they hold an annual
'elevation of the dead,' at which times they erect mon
uments to the memory of their departed.
The shamans possess some knowledge of the medicinal
properties of herbs, but the healing of the body does
not constitute so important a part of their vocation as
do their dealings with supernatural powers.
To sum up the character of the Thlinkeets, they may
be called bold, brave, shrewd, intelligent, industrious, lov-
in the centre, the circumference being closely strung with the beaks of the
Alca arctica.' Voy., vol. i., p. 103.
172 They lose at this game all their possessions, and even their wives and
children, who then become the property of the winner.' Kotzebue's New Voy.,
vol. ii., p. 62. ' Ce jeu les rend tristes et serieux.' La Perouse, Voy., torn.,
ii., p. 235.
173 Upon one tomb, ' f ormaba una figura grande y horrorosa que teuia
entre sus garras una caxa.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage., p. cxviii. 'The box is
freqiiently decorated with two or three rows of small shells.' Dixon's Voy.,
p. 176. ' The dead are burned, and their ashes preserved in small wood
en boxes, in buildings appropriated to that purpose.' Kotzebue's New Voy.,
vol. ii., p. 57. ' Nos voyageurs rencontrerent aussi un morai qui leur
prouva que ces Indiens etaient dans 1'usage de bruler les morts et d'en con-
server la tete.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 205. ' On the death of a toyon,
or other distinguished person, one of his slaves is deprived of life, and
burned with him. ' Lisiansky's Voy., p. 241.
VOL. I. 8
114: HYPERBOREANS.
ers of art and music, respectful to women and the aged ;
yet extremely cruel, scalping and maiming their prisoners
out of pure wantonness, thievish, lying, and inveterate
gamblers. In short they possess most of the virtues and
vices incident to savagism.
THE TINNEH, the fifth and last division of our Hyper
borean group, occupy the ' Great Lone Land,' between
Hudson Bay and the conterminous nations already de
scribed- a land greater than the whole of the United
.States, and more 'lone,' excepting absolute deserts, than
;any part of America. White men there are scarcely
.any; wild men and wild beasts there are few; few
-dense forests, and little vegetation, although the grassy
.savannahs sustain droves of deer, buffalo, and other
animals. The Tinneh are, next to the Eskimos, the most
northern people of the continent. They inhabit the un
explored regions of Central Alaska, and thence extend
^eastward, their area widening towards the south to the
.shores of Hudson Bay. Within their domain, from the
north-west to the south-east, may be drawn a straight
line measuring over four thousand miles in length.
The Tiiineh,m may be divided into four great families
=of nations ; namely, the Chepewyans, or Athabascas, living
between Hudson Bay and the Hocky Mountains ; the Ta-
-.cutties, or Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western
British America; the Kutcliins, occupying both banks of
the upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth
to the Mackenzie River; and the Kenai, inhabiting the
interior from the lower Yukon to Copper River.
The Chepewyan family is composed of the Northern
Indians, so called by the fur-hunters at Fort Churchill
as lying along the shores of Hudson Bay, directly to their
north; the Copper Indians, on Coppermine River; the
Born Mountain and Beaver Indians, farther to the west ;
the Strong-bows, Dog-ribs, Hares, Red-knives, Sheep,
174 Called by G-allatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 17, Atha-
pasca, the name 'first given to the central part of the country they inhabit.'
Sir John Richardson, Jour., vol. ii., p. 1, calls them "Tinne, or 'Dtinne, Ath-
THE TINNEH. 115
Sarsis, Brush-wood, Nagailer, and Rocky-Mountain In
dians, of the Mackenzie River and Rocky Mountains.175
The Tacully176 nation is divided into a multitude of
petty tribes, to which different travelers give different
names according to fancy. Among them the most im
portant are the Talkotins and Chilkotins, Nateotetains
and Sicannis, of the upper branches of Fraser River and
vicinity. It is sufficient for our purpose, however, to
treat them as one nation.
The Kutchins,177 a large and powerful nation, are com
posed of the following tribes. Commencing at the Mac
kenzie River, near its mouth, and extending westward
across the mountains to and down the Yukon ; the Lou-
cheux or Quarrellers, of the Mackenzie River ; the Y ante
Kutchin, JSatche Kutchin, and Yukuth Kutchin, of Por
cupine River and neighborhood ; the Tutchone Kutchin,
Han Kutchin, Kutcha Kutchin, Gens de Bouleau, Gens
de Milieu, Tenan Kutchin, Nuclukayettes, and Newi-
carguts, of the Yukon River. Their strip of territory is
from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles in
width, lying immediately south of the Eskimos, and
extending westward from the Mackenzie River about
eight hundred miles.178
abascans or Chepewyans. ' ' They style themselves generally Dinneh men, or
Indians.' Franklin's Nar., vol. i., p. 241.
175 Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., pp. 1-33.
!76 « Les Indiens de la cote ou de la Nouvelle Caledonie, les Tokalis, les
Chargeurs (Gamers) les Schouchouaps, les Atnas, appartiennent tous a la
nation des Chipeoiia'ians dont la langue est en usage dans le iiord dn Conti
nent jusqu'il la baie d'Hudson et a la Mer Polaire.' Mqfras, Explor., torn, ii.,
p. 337.
177 Are 'known under the names of Loucheux, Digothi, and Kutshin.' La
tham's Nat. Races, p. 292. 'They are called Deguthee Dinees, or the Quar
rellers.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. 51. 'On Peel's River they name themselves
Kutchin, the final n being nasal and faintly pronounced.' Richardson's Jour.,
vol. i., p. 378. They are also called Tykothee-dinneh, Loucheux or Quarrellers.
Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 83. ' The Loucheux proper is spoken by the In
dians of Peel's River. All the tribes inhabiting the valley of the Youkon un
derstand one another.' Hardisty, in Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p. 311.
178 Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact. , vol. ii., p. 17, erroneously ruled
the Loucheux out of his Athabasca nation. ' Im aussersten Nordosten hat
uns Gallatin aufmerksam gemacht auf das Volk der Loucheux, Zanker-India-
ner oder Digothi: an der Miindung des Mackenzie -Flusses, nach Einigen zu
dessen beiden Seiten (westliche und 6'stliche) ; dessen Sprache er nach den
Reisenden fiir fremd den athapaskischen hielt: woriiber sich die neuen Nach-
richten noch widersprechen.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 713.
Franklin, Nar., vol. ii., p. 83, allies the Loucheux to the Eskimos.
116 HYPEKBOKEANS.
The Kenai179 nation includes the Ingaliks, of the Lower
Yukon; the Koltchanes, of the Kuskoquim River; and
to the south-eastward, the Kenais, of the Kenai Penin
sula, and the Atnas, of Copper River.180
Thus we see that the Tinneh are essentially an inland
people, barred out from the frozen ocean by a thin strip
of Eskimo land, and barely touching the Pacific at Cook
Inlet. Philologists, however, find dialectic resemblances,
imaginary or real, between them and the Umpquas181 and
Apaches.182
The name Chepewyan signifies L pointed coat,' and de
rives its origin from the parka, coat, or outer garment, so
universally common throughout this region. It is made
of several skins differently dressed and ornamented in
different localities, but always cut with the skirt pointed
before and behind. The Chepewyans believe that their
ancestors migrated from the east, and therefore those of
them who are born nearest their eastern boundary, are
held in the greatest estimation. The Dog-ribs alone refer
their origin to the west.
The Chepewyans are physically characterized by a long
full faoe,183 tall slim figure ;184 in complexion they are darker
than coast tribes,185 and have small piercing black eyes,186
179 Tnai, 'man;' Tnaina Ttynai, Thnaina, Kinai, Kenai, Kenaize.
wo See notes on Boundaries at the end of this chapter.
181 Besides the ' Umkwa, ' being outlying members of the Athabaskan
stock,' there are the 'Navahoe, the Jecorilla, the Panalero, along with the
Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To these add the Hoopah
of California, which is also Athabaskan.' Latham's Comp. Phil., p. 393.
182 William W. Turner was the first to assert positively that the Apaches
spoke a language which belongs to the Athabascan family. Buschtuann, Spu-
ren der Aztelc. Spradic, p. 316.
IS:} Face 'oval.' Fran/din's Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. 'Broad faces, projecting
cheek-bones, and wide nostrils. ' Id., vol. i., p. 242. Foreheads low, chin long.
Martin's Brit. CoL, vol. iii., p. 524. An exact compound between the Usque-
mows and Western Indians. Barrow's Geoy. Hudson Bay, p. 33.
is* Generally more than medium size. Hearne's Tray., p. 305. 'Well pro
portioned, and about the middle size.' Martin's Brit. CoL, vol. iii., p. 524.
'Long-bodied, with short, stout limbs.' Boss, in Smithsonian Bept., 1866,
p. 304.
185 'Dingy copper.' Martin's Brit. Col, vol. iii., p. 526. 'Swarthy.' Mac
kenzie's Voy., p. cxix. Dingy brown, copper cast. Uearne's Trav., p. 305.
y fresh and red.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. 'Dirty yellowish
'Very
' Small, fine eyes and teeth." Franklin's Nar., p. vol. i., 242.
.
ochre tinge.' Boss, in Smithsonian Bept., 1866, p. 304.
's Nar., p.
THE CHEPEWYANS. 117
flowing hair,187 and tattooed cheeks and forehead.188 Al
together they are pronounced an inferior race.189 Into
the composition of their garments enter beaver, moose,
and deer- skin, dressed with and without the hair, sewed
with sinews and ornamented with claws, horns, teeth, and
feathers.190
The Northern Indian man is master of his household.191
He marries without ceremony, and divorces his wife at
his pleasure.192 A man of forty buys or fights for a spouse
of twelve,193 and when tired of her whips her and sends
her away. Girls on arriving at the age of womanhood
187 ' Hair lank, but not always of a dingy black. Men in general extract
their beard, though some of them are seen to prefer a bushy, black beard, to
a smooth chin.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxix. Beard in the aged 'between two
and three inches long, and perfectly white.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii , p. 180.
' Black, strait, and coarse.' Martin's Brit. Col., vol. iii., p. 524. ' Neither sex
have any hair under their armpits, and very little on any other part of the
body, particularly the women; but on the place where Nature plants the
hair, I never knew them attempt to eradicate it.' Hearne's Trav., p. 306.
183 Tattooing appears to be universal among the Kutchins. Kirby, in Smith
sonian Kept., ]864, p. 419. The Chepewyans tattooed 'by entering an awl
or needle under the skin, and, on drawing it out again, immediately rubbing
powdered charcoal into the wound.' Hearne's Trav., p. 306. 'Both sexes
have blue or black b:irs, or from one to four straight lines on their cheeks or
forehead, to distinguish the tribe to which they belong.' Mackenzie's Voy.,
p. cxx.
189 Women 'destitute of real beauty.' ITearne's Trav., p. 89. 'Very infe
rior aspect.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 8. Women nasty. Mackenzie's
Voy., p. 126. ' Positively hideous.' 7?oss, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 304.
190 A. Deer-Horn Mountaineer's dress * consisted of a shirt, or jacket with
a hood, wide breeches, reaching only to the knee, and tight leggins sewed to
the shoes, all of deer's skins.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. The cap con
sists of the skin of a deer's head. Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxii.
191 As witness this speech of a noble chief: ' Women were made for labor;
one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do. They also pitch
our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and, in fact,
there is no such thing as traveling any considerable distance, in this country
without their assistance.' Jlearne's Trav., p. 55.
192 An Indian desiring another one's wife, fights with her husband, princi
pally by pulling hair. If victorious, he pays a number of skins to the hus
band. Hooper's Tuski, p. 303.
193 'Continence in an unmarried female is scarcely considered a virtue.'
' Their dispositions are not amatory. ' ' I have heard among them of two sons
keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his daughter,
and of several married to their sisters. Ross, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p.
310. Women carry their children on the back next the skin, and suckle
them until another is born. They do not suspend their ordinary occupa
tions for child-birth. Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxii. ' A temporary interchange
of wives is not uncommon; and the offer of their persons is considered as
a necessary part of the hospitality due to strangers.' Id., p. xcvi. Women
are 'rather the slaves than the companions of the men.' Sell's Geog., vol.
v., p. 293.
118 HYPEKBOREANS.
must retire from the village and live for a time apart.194
The Chepewyans inhabit huts of brush and portable skin
tents. They derive their origin from a dog. At one time
they were so strongly imbued with respect for their ca
nine ancestry that they entirely ceased to employ dogs
in drawing their sledges, greatly to the hardship of the
women upon whom this laborious task fell.
Their food consists mostly of fish and reindeer, the
latter being easily taken in snares. Much of their land
is barren, but with sufficient vegetation to support nu
merous herds of reinder, and fish abound in their lakes
and streams. Their hunting grounds are held by clans,
and descend by inheritance from one generation to an
other, which has a salutary effect upon the preservation
of game. Indian law requires the successful hunter to
share the spoils of the chase with all present. When
game is abundant, their tent-fires never die, but are sur
rounded during all hours of the day and night by young
and old cooking their food.195
Superabundance of food, merchandise, or anything
which they wish to preserve without the trouble of car
rying it about with them while on hunting or foraging
expeditions, is cached, as they term it; from the French,
cacher. to conceal. Canadian fur-hunters often resorted
to this artifice, but the practice was common among the
natives before the advent of Europeans. A sudden ne
cessity often arises in Indian countries for the traveler
194 They are harsh towards their wives, except when enceinte. They are
accused of abandoning the aged and sick, but only one case came to his
knowledge. Franklin's Nar., vol. i., pp 250, 251.
19:5 Beeatee, prepared irom deer only, ' is a kind of haggis, made with the
blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest of the flesh,
together with the heart and lungs cut, or more commonly cut into small shiv
ers; all ot which is put into the stomach, and roasted.' IJearne's Tray., p. 144.
' Not remarkable for their activity as hunters, owing to the ease with which
they snare deer and spear fish.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxiii. The Deer-Horn
Mountaineers 'repair to the sea in spring and kill seals; as the season ad
vances, they hunt deer and musk oxen at some distance from the coast.
They approach the deer either by crawling, or by leading these animals by
ranges of turf towards the spot where the archer can conceal himself.' Do
not use nets, but the hook and line. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 181. 'Nets
made of lines of twisted willow-bark, or thin strips of deer-hide.' Richard
son's Jour., vol. ii., p. 25. Curdled blood, a favorite dish. Simpson's Nar.,
p. 324.
THE NOETHEKN INDIANS. 119
to relieve himself from burdens. This is done by dig
ging a hole in the earth and depositing the load therein,
so artfully covering it as to escape detection by the wily
savages. Goods may be cached in a cave, or in the
branches of a tree, or in the hollow of a log. The camp-
fire is frequently built over the spot where stores have
been deposited, in order that the disturbance of the sur
face may not be detected.
Their weapons196 and their utensils197 are of the most
primitive kind — stone and bone being used in place of
metal.
Their dances, which are always performed in the
night, are not original, but are borrowed from the South
ern and Dog-rib Indians. They consist in raising the
feet alternately in quick succession, as high as possible
without moving the body, to the sound of a drum or
rattle.198
They never bury their dead, but leave the bodies
where they fall, to be devoured by the birds and beasts
of prey.198 Their religion consists chiefly in songs and
speeches to these birds and beasts and to imaginary be-
196 The weapons of the Chepewyans are bows and arrows; stone and bone
axes and knives. Harmon's Jour., p. 183. The bows of the Deer-Horns 'are
formed of three pieces of fir, the centre piece alone bent, the other two lying
in the same strait line with the bowstring; the pieces are neatly tied together
with sinew. Fran/din's Nar., vol. ii., p. 180. In preparing for an attack,
each Coppermine Indian paints his shield with figures of Sun, Moon, or
some animal or imaginary beings, each portraying whatever character he
most relies upon. Hearne's Trav., p. 148. In some parts hunting grounds
descend by inheritance, and the right of property is rigidly enforced. Simp
son's Nar., p. 75.
197 ' Their cooking utensils are made of pot-stone, and they form very
neat dishes of fir.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 181. Make fishing-lines and
nets of green deer-thongs. Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxvi.
198 < They are great mimics.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 13. Men dance
naked; women dressed. A crowd stand in a straight line, and shuffle from
right to left without moving the feet from the ground. Nearness Trav., p. 335.
'The men occasionally howl in imitation of some animal.' Mackenzie's Voy.,
p. 35
1 ' They manifest no common respect to the memory of their departed
friends, by a long period of mourning, cutting off their hair, and never
making use of the property of the deceased.' Mackenzie's Voy.^ p. cxxviii.
The death of leading men is attributed to conjuring. They never bury the
dead, but leave them, where they die, for wild beasts to devour. Ife<trne'n
Trav., p. 341. The Chepewyans bury their dead. When mourning for rel
atives they gash their bodies with knives. IlichurJson's Jour., vol. ii., pp.
120 HYPEKBOKEANS.
ings, for assistance in performing cures of the sick.200
Old age is treated with disrespect and neglect, one half
of both sexes dying before their time for want of care.
The Northern Indians are frequently at war with the
Eskimos and Southern Indians, for whom they at all
times entertain the most inveterate hatred. The Copper
Indians, bordering on the southern boundary of the Es
kimos at the Coppermine River, were originally the
occupants of the territory south of Great Slave Lake.
The Dog-ribs, or Slaves as they are called by neighbor-
ring nations, are indolent, fond of amusement, but mild
and hospitable. They are so debased, as savages, that
the men do the laborious work, while the women employ
themselves in household affairs and ornamental needle
work. Young married men have been known to exhibit
specimens of their wives1 needle-work with pride. From
their further advancement in civilization, and the tra
dition which they hold of having migrated from the
westward, were it not that their language differs from
that of contiguous tribes only in accent, they might nat
urally be considered of different origin. Bands of Dog-
ribs meeting after a long absence greet each other with a
dance, which frequently continues for two or three days.
First clearing a spot of ground, they take an arrow in
the right hand and a bow in the left, and turning their
backs each band to the other, they approach dancing, and
when close together they feign to perceive each other's
presence for the first time; the bow and arrow are in
stantly transferred from one hand to the other, in token
of their non-intention to use them against friends. They
are very improvident, and frequently are driven to can
nibalism and suicide.201
200 « The Northern Indians seldom attain a great age, though they have few
diseases.' Martin's Brit. Col, vol. in., p. 525. For inward complaints, the
doctors blow zealously into the rectum, or adjacent parts. Hearm's Trav.,
p. 189. The conjurer shuts himself up for days with the patient, without
food, and sings over him. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 41. Medicine-men or
conjurers are at the same time doctors. Hooper's Tuski, pp. 317, 318. 'The
Kutchins practice blood-letting ad libitum.' Jones, Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p.
325. ' Their principal maladies are rheumatic pains, the flux, and consump
tion.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxiv.
201 According to the report of the Dog-ribs, the Mountain Indians are
HAEES, DOG-KIBS, AND TACULLIES. 121
The Hare Indians, who speak a dialect of the Tinneh
scarcely to be distinguished from that of the Dog-ribs,
are looked upon by their neighbors as great conjurers.
The Hare and Sheep Indians look upon their women
as inferior beings. From childhood they are inured to
every description of drudgery, and though not treated
with special cruelty, they are placed at the lowest point
in the scale of humanity. The characteristic stoicism
of the red race is not manifested by these tribes. Social
ism is practiced to a considerable extent. The hunter is
allowed only the tongue and ribs of the animal he kills,
the remainder being divided among the members of the
tribe.
The Hares and Dog-ribs do not cut the finger-nails of
female children until four years of age, in order that
they may not prove lazy; the infant is not allowed food
until four days after birth, in order to accustom it to
fasting in the next world.
The Sheep Indians are reported as being cannibals.
The Red-knives formerly hunted reindeer and musk-
oxen at the northern end of Great Bear Lake, but they
were finally driven eastward by the Dog-ribs. Laws
and government are unknown to the Chepewyans.202
The Tacullies, or, as they were denominated by the
fur-traders, l Carriers,' are the chief tribe of New Cale
donia, or North-western British America. They call
themselves Tacullies, or 'men who go upon water,' as
their travels from one village to another are mostly ac
complished in canoes. This, with their sobriquet of
cannibals, casting lots for victims in time of scarcity. Simpson1 it Nar., p.
188. ' Instances of suicide, by hanging, frequently occur among the women.'
Harmon's Jour.,]). 198. During times of starvation, which occur quite frequent,
the Slave Indians eat their families. Hooper's Tuski, p. 303. ' These people
take their names, in the first instance, from their dogs. A young man is the
father of a certain dog, but when he is married, and has a son, he styles him
self the father of the boy. The women have a habit of reproving the dogs
very tenderly when they observe them fighting. "Are you not ashamed,"
say they, "to quarrel with your little brother?"' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii.,
pp. 85, 86. ' Whether circumcision be practiced among them, I cannot pretend
to say, but the appearance of it was general among those whom I saw.' Mac-
kenzie's Voy., p. 36. Dog-rib Indians, sometimes also called Slaves, 'a name
properly meaning 'strangers.' Gallatin,inAm. Arch.Soc. Trans., vol. ii., p. 19.
202 'Order is maintained in the tribe solely by public opinion.' Richard
son's Jour., vol. ii., p. 26. The chiefs are now totally without power. Frank-
122 HYPEKBOREANS.
' Carriers/ clearly indicates their ruling habitudes. The
men are more finely formed than the women, the latter
being short, thick, and disproportionately large in their
lower limbs. In their persons they are slovenly; in
their dispositions, lively and contented. As they are
able to procure food203 with but little labor, they are
naturally indolent, but appear to be able and willing to
work when occasion requires it. Their relations with
white people have been for the most part amicable ; they
are seldom quarrelsome, though not lacking bravery.
The people are called after the name of the village in
which they dwell. Their primitive costume consists of
hare, musk-rat, badger, and beaver skins, sometimes cut
into strips an inch broad, and woven or interlaced. The
nose is perforated by both sexes, the men suspending
therefrom a brass, copper, or shell ornament, the women
a wooden one, tipped with a bead at either end.204 Their
avarice lies in the direction of hiaqua shells, which find
their way up from the sea-coast through other tribes.
In 1810, these beads were the circulating medium of the
country, and twenty of them would buy a good beaver-
skin. Their paint is made of vermilion obtained from
the traders, or of a pulverized red stone mixpfl with
grease. They are greatly addicted to gambling, and do
not appear at all dejected by ill fortune, spending days
and nights in the winter season at their games, frequently
gambling away every rag of clothing and every trinket
in their possession. They also stake parts of a garment
or other article, and if losers, cut off a piece of coat-
sleeve or a foot of gun-barrel. Native cooking vessels
lin's Nar., vol. i., p. 247. 'They are influenced, more or less, by certain
principles which conduce to their general benefit.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. cxxv.
203 < Many consider a broth, made by means of the dung of the cariboo
and the hare, to be a dainty dish.' Harmon's Jour., p. 324. They ' are lazy,
dirty, and sensual,' and extremely uncivilized. 'Their habits and persons
are equally disgusting.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62. 'They are a tall,
well formed, good-looking race.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 154. 'An utter con
tempt of cleanliness prevailed on all hands, and it was revolting to witness
their voracious endeavors to surpass each other in the gluttonous contest.'
Ind. Life, p. 156.
204 The women ' run a wooden pin through their noses.' Harmon's Jour.,
p. 287. At their burial ceremonies they smear the face 'with a composition
THE TACULLIES, OE CAKKIEKS. 123
are made of bark, or of the roots or fibres of trees, woven
so as to hold water, in which are placed heated stones
for the purpose of cooking food.205 Polygamy is prac
ticed, but not generally. The Tacullies are fond of their
wives, performing the most of the household drudgery
in order to relieve them, and consequently they are very
jealous of them. But to their unmarried daughters,
strange as it may seem, they allow every liberty without
censure or shame. The reason which they give for this
strange custom is, that the purity of their wives is there
by better preserved.206
During a portion of every year the Tacullies dwell in
villages, conveniently situated for catching and drying
salmon. In April they visit the lakes and take small
fish; and after these fail, they return to their villages
and subsist upon the fish they have dried, and upon
herbs and berries. From August to October, salmon are
plentiful again. Beaver are caught in nets made from
strips of cariboo-skins, and also in cypress and steel
traps. They are also sometimes shot with guns or with
bows and arrows. Smaller game they take in various
kinds of traps.
The civil polity of the Tacullies is of a very primitive
character. Any person may become a miuty or chief
who will occasionally provide a village feast. A malefac
tor may find protection from the avenger in the dwell
ing of a chief, so long as he is permitted to remain there,
or even afterwards if he has upon his back any one of the
chief's garments. Disputes are usually adjusted by some
old man of the tribe. The boundaries of the territories
belonging to the different villages are designated by
of fish-oil and charcoal.' When conjuring, the chief and his companions
'wore a kind of coronet formed of the inverted claws of the grizzly bear.'
Ind. Life, pp. 127, 158.
205 The Tacullies have ' wooden dishes, and other vessels of the rind of
the birch and pine trees.' 'Have also other vessels made of small roots or
fibres of the cedar or pine tree, closely laced together, which serve them as
buckets to put water in.' Harmon's Jour., p. 292.
200 « in the summer season both sexes bathe often; and this is the only
time, when the married people wash themselves. ' The Tacullies are very fond
and very jealous of their wives, 'but to their daughters, they allow every lib-
124 HYPEKBOBEANS.
mountains, rivers, or other natural objects, and the
rights of towns, as well as of individuals, are most gen
erally respected; but broils are constantly being occa
sioned by murders, abduction of women, and other
causes, between these separate societies.207
When seriously ill, the Carriers deem it an indis
pensable condition to their recovery that every secret
crime should be confessed to the magician. Murder, of
any but a member of the same village, is not consid
ered a heinous offense. They at first believed read
ing and writing to be the exercise of magic art. The
Carriers know little of medicinal herbs. Their priest or
magician is also the doctor, but before commencing his
operations in the sick room, he must receive a fee, which,
if his efforts prove unsuccessful, he is obliged to restore.
The curative process consists in singing a melancholy
strain over the invalid, in which all around join. This
mitigates pain, and often restores health. Their winter
tenements are frequently made by opening a spot of
earth to the depth of two feet, across which a ridge-pole
is placed, supported at either end by posts; poles are
then laid from the sides of the excavation to the ridge
pole and covered with hay. A hole is left in the top for
purposes of entrance and exit, and also in order to allow
the escape of smoke.208
Slavery is common with them ; all who can afford it
keeping slaves. They use them as beasts of burden, and
crty, for the purpose, as they say, of keeping the young men from intercourse
with the married women.' Harmon'* Jour., pp. 289, '292, 293. A father, whose
daughter had dishonored him, killed her and himself. 2nd. Life, 184.
207 ' The people of every village have a certain extent of country, which
they consider their own, and in which they may hunt and fish; but they may
not transcend these bounds, without purchasing the privilege of those who
claim the land. Mountains and rivers serve them as boundaries.' Harmon's
Jour., p. 298.
208 Mackenzie, Voy., p. 238, found on Fraser River, about latitude 55°, a
deserted house, 30 by 20, with three doors, 3 by 3% feet; three fire-places,
and beds on either side; behind the beds was a narrow space, like a manger,
somewhat elevated, for keeping fish. ' Their houses are well formed of logs
of small trees, buttressed up internally, frequently above seventy feet long
and fifteen high, but, unlike those of the coast, the roof is of bark: their
winter habitations are smaller, and often covered over with grass and earth ;
some even dwell in excavations of the ground, which have only an aper
ture at the top, and serves alike for door and chimney.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter.,
p. 154.
NEHANNES AND TALKOTINS. 125
treat them most inhumanly. The country of the Sican-
nis in the Rocky Mountains is sterile, yielding the occu
pants a scanty supply of food and clothing. They are
nevertheless devotedly attached to their bleak land, and
will fight for their rude homes with the most patriotic
ardor.
The Nehannes usually pass the summer in the vicin
ity of the sea-coast, and scour the interior during the
winter for furs, which they obtain from inland tribes
by barter or plunder, and dispose of to the European
traders. It is not a little remarkable that this war
like and turbulent horde was at one time governed by a
woman. Fame gives her a fair complexion, with regular
features, and great intelligence. Her influence over her
fiery people, it is said, was perfect; while her warriors, the
terror and scourge of the surrounding country, quailed
before her eye. Her word was law, and was obeyed with
marvelous alacrity. Through her influence the condi
tion of the women of her tribe was greatly raised.
Great ceremonies, cruelty, and superstition attend
burning the dead, which custom obtains throughout this
region,209 and, as usual in savagism, woman is the suf
ferer. When the father of a household dies, the entire
family, or. if a chief, the tribe, are summoned to present
themselves.210 Time must be given to those most distant
to reach the village before the ceremony begins.211 The
Talkotin wife, when all is ready, is compelled to ascend the
funeral pile, throw herself upon her husband's body and
there remain until nearly suffocated, when she is permitted
to descend. Still she must keep her place near the burn
ing corpse, keep it in a proper position, tend the fire, and
209 < Quelques peuplades du nord, telles que les Sikanis, enterrent leurs
morts.' Mo f ran, Explor., torn, ii., p. 339. 'The Sicaunies bury, while the Ta-
cullies, burn their dead.' Harmon's Jour., p. 196. They ' and the Chiimnesy-
aiis on the coast, and other tribes speaking their language, burn the dead. '
Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 236. See also Dunn's Oregon, pp. 79, 80; Ind. Life,
pp. 128, 136; Domenfch's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 362, 363.
210 They fire guns as a warning to their friends not to invade their sorrow.
Mackenzie's Voy., p. 139.
211 ' In the winter season, the Camel's often keep their dead in their huts
during five or six months, before they will allow them to be burned. ' Har
mon's Jour., p. 249.
126 HYPEKBOREANS.
if through pain or faintness she fails in the performance
of her duties, she is held up and pressed forward by
others; her cries meanwhile are drowned in wild songs,
accompanied by the beating of drums.212
When the funeral pile of a Tacully is fired, the wives
of the deceased, if there are more than one, are placed
at the head and foot of the body. Their duty there is
to publicly demonstrate their affection for the departed ;
which they do by resting their head upon the dead bosom,
by striking in frenzied love the body, nursing and bat
tling the fire meanwhile. And there they remain until
the hair is burned from their head, until, suffocated and
almost senseless, they stagger off to a little distance; then
recovering, attack the corpse with new vigor, striking it
first with one hand and then with the other, until the
form of the beloved is reduced to ashes. Finally these
ashes are gathered up, placed in sacks, and distributed
one sack to each wife, whose duty it is to carry upon her
person the remains of the departed for the space of two
years. During this period of mourning the women are
clothed in rags, kept in a kind of slavery, and not al
lowed to marry. Not unfrequently these poor creatures
avoid their term of servitude by suicide. At the expir
ation of the time, a feast is given them, and they are
again free. Structures are erected as repositories for the
ashes of their dead,213 in which the bag or box contain
ing the remains is placed. These grave-houses are of
split boards about one inch in thickness, six feet high,
and decorated with painted representations of various
heavenly and earthly objects.
The Indians of the Rocky Mountains burn with the
deceased all his effects, and even those of his nearest
relatives, so that it not unfrequently happens that a
family is reduced to absolute starvation in the dead of
212 ' She must frequently put her hands through the flames and lay them
upon his bosom, to show her continued devotion.' Parker's E'xplor. Tow, p.
239. They have a custom of mourning over the grave of the dead; their
expressions of grief are generally exceedingly vociferous. Jnd. Life, pp.
185, 186.
5:13 On the end of a pole stuck in front of the lodge.' Lord's Nat , vol. ii.,
p. 237.
KUTCHIN CHARACTERISTICS. 127
winter, when it is impossible to procure food. The mo
tive assigned to this custom is, that there may be nothing
left to bring the dead to remembrance.
A singular custom prevails among the Nateotetain
women, which is to cut off one joint of a finger upon*
the death of a near relative. In consequence of this
practice some old women may be seen with two joints
off every finger on both hands. The men bear their
sorrows more stoically, being content in such cases with
•/ 7 O
shaving the head and cutting their flesh with flints.214
The Kutchins are the flower of the Tinneh family.
They are very numerous, numbering about twenty-two
tribes. They are a more noble and manly people than
either the Eskimos upon the north or the contiguous
Tinneh tribes upon their own southern boundary. The
finest specimens dwell on the Yukon River. The women
tattoo the chin with a black pigment, and the men draw
a black stripe down the forehead and nose, frequently
crossing the forehead and cheeks with red lines, and
streaking the chin alternately with red and black. Their
features are more regular than those of their neighbors,
more expressive of boldness, frankness, and candor ; their
foreheads higher, and their complexions lighter. The
Tenan Kutchin of the Tananah River, one of the largest
tribes of the Yukon Valley, are somewhat wilder and
more ferocious in their appearance. The boys are pre
cocious, and the girls marry at fifteen.215 The Kutchins
of Peel River, as observed by Mr Isbister, " are an ath
letic and fine-looking race; considerable above the av-
214 Women cut off a joint of one of their fingers. Men only cut off their
hair close to their heads, but also frequently cut and scratch their faces and
arms. Harmon's Jour., p. 182. With some sharp instrument they 'force back
the flesh beyond the first joint, which they immediately amputate.' Macken
zie's Voy., p. 148.
215 ' The men are completely destitute of beard, and both men and women,
are intensely ugly.' Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 320. 'They re
minded me of the ideal North American Indian I had read of but never
seen.' Whympers Alaska, p. 239. Distinguished from all other tribes for
the frankness and candor of their demeanor, and bold countenances. Simp
son's Nar., p. 100. « Males are of the average hight of Europeans, and well-
formed, with regular features, high foreheads, and lighter complexions than
those of the other red Indians. The women resemble the men.' Richardson's
Jour.j vol. i., p. 379.
123 HYPERBOREANS.
erage stature, most of them being upwards of six feet in
height and remarkably well proportioned."
Their clothing is made from the skins of reindeer,
dressed with the hair on ; their coat cut after the fashion
of the Eskimos, with skirts peaked before and behind,
and elaborately trimmed with beads and dyed porcupine-
quills. The Kutchins, in common with the Eskimos,
are distinguished by a similarity in the costume of the
sexes. Men and women wear the same description of
breeches. Some of the men have a long flap attached to
their deer-skin shirts, shaped like a beaver's tail, and
reaching nearly to the ground.216 Of the coat, Mr
Whymper says: u If the reader will imagine a man
dressed in two swallow-tailed coats, one of them worn
as usual, the other covering his stomach and buttoned
behind, he will get some idea of this garment," Across
the shoulders and breast they wear a broad band of
beads, with narrower bands round the forehead and
ankles, and along the seams of their leggins. They are
great traders ; beads are their wealth, used in the place
of money, and the rich among them literally load them
selves with necklaces and strings of various patterns.217
The nose and ears are adorned with shells.'18 The hair
is worn in a long cue, ornamented with feathers, and
bound with strings of beads and shells at the head, with
flowing ends, and so saturated with grease and birds'
down as to swell it sometimes to the thickness of the
neck. They pay considerable attention to personal clean-
216 < Tunic or shirt reaching to the knees, and very much ornamented with
beads, and Hyaqua shells from the Columbia.' Kirby, in Smithsonian JRept.,
1864, p. 418. The Tenan Kutchins are 'gay with painted faces, feathers in
their long hair, patches of red clay at the back of their head.' Whymper's
Alaska, p. 239. Jackets like the Eskimos. Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 221.
' Both sexes wear breeches.' Simpson's Nar., p. 103.
217 ' The Kutch-a-Kutchin, are essentially traders.' Kirby, in Smithsonian
Eept., 1864, p. 418. Appear to care more for useful than ornamental articles.
Whymper's Alaska, p. 213. 'Dentalium and arenicola shells are transmitted
from the west coast in traffic, and are greatly valued.' Richardson's Jour.,
vol. i., p. 391.
218 Some wear ' wampum (a kind of long, hollow shell) through the sep
tum of the nose.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 270. They pierce the nose and insert
shells, which are obtained from the Eskimos at a high price. Franklin's Nar.,
vol. ii., p. 84.
FOOD OF THE KUTCHINS. 129
liness. The Kutchins construct both permanent under
ground dwellings and the temporary summer-hut or
tent.219
On the Yukon, the greatest scarcity of food is in the
spring. The winter's stores are exhausted, and the bright
rays of the sun upon the melting snow almost blind the
eyes of the deer-hunter. The most plentiful supply of
game is in August, September, and October, after which
the forming of ice on the rivers prevents fishing until
December, when the winter traps are set. The reindeer
are in good condition in August, and geese are plentiful.
Salmon ascend the river in June, and are taken in great
quantities until about the first of September; fish are
dried or smoked without salt, for winter use. Fur-
hunting begins in October; and in December, trade
opens with the Eskimos, with whom furs are exchanged
for oil and seal-skins.
The Kutchin of the Yukon are unacquainted with
nets, but catch their fish by means of weirs or stakes
planted across rivers and narrow lakes, having openings
for wicker baskets, by which they intercept the fish.
They hunt reindeer in the mountains and take moose-
deer in snares.220
Both Kutchins and Eskimos are very jealous regard
ing their boundaries ; but the incessant warfare which is
maintained between the littoral and interior people of the
219 The Loucheux live in huts ' formed of green branches. In winter their
dwellings are partly under ground. The spoils of the moose and reindeer
furnish them with meat, clothing, and tents.' Simpson's Nar., pp. 103, 191.
The Co- Yukon winter dwellings are made under ground, and roofed over with
earth, having a hole for the smoke to escape by, in the same manner as those
of the Malemutes and Ingaliks. Why-taper' s Alaska, pp. 175, 205. Their mov
able huts are constructed of deer-skin, ' dressed with the hair on, and sewed
together, forming two large rolls, which are stretched over a frame of bent
poles,' with a side door and smoke-hole at the top. Jones, in Smithsonian
• Eept., 1866, 321.
220 The Loucheux are ' great gormandizers, and will devour solid fat, or
even drink grease, to surfeiting.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 271. 'The bears are not
often eaten in summer, as their flesh is not good at that time.' Jones, in Smith
sonian Re.pt., 1866, p. 321. Some of their reindeer-pounds are over one hun
dred years old and are hereditary in the family. Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p.
394. ' The mode of fishing through the ice practiced by the Russians is
much in vogue with them.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 211.
VOL. I. 9
130 HYPERBOREANS.
northern coast near the Mackenzie river, is not main
tained by the north-western tribes. One of either peo
ple, however, if found hunting out of his own territory,
is very liable to be shot. Some Kutchin tribes permit
the Eskimos to take the meat of the game which they kill,
provided they leave the skin at the nearest village.221
The Kutchins of the Yukon River manufacture cups
and pots from clay, and ornament them with crosses,
dots, and lines; moulding them by hand after various
patterns, first drying them in the sun and then baking
them. The Eskimo lamp is also sometimes made of clay.
The Tinneh make paint of pulverized colored stones or of
earth, mixed with glue. The glue is made from buffalo
feet and applied by a moose-hair brush.
In the manufacture of their boats the Kutchins of the
Yukon use bark as a substitute for the seal-skins of the
coast. They first make a light frame of willow or birch,
from eight to sixteen feet in length. Then with fine
spruce-fir roots they sew together strips of birch bark,
cover the frame, and calk the seams with spruce gum.
They are propelled by single paddles or poles. Those of
the Mackenzie River are after the same pattern.222
In absence of law, murder and all other crimes are com
pounded for.223 A man to be well married must be either
221 The Kutchins 'have no knowledge of scalping.' 'When a man kills
his enemy, he cuts all his joints.' Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, 327. The
Loucheux of Peel River and the Eskimos are constantly at war. Hooper's
Tusld, p. 273.
222 ' At Peace River the bark is taken off the tree the whole length of the in
tended canoe, which is commonly about eighteen feet, and is sewed with watupe
.at both ends.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. 207. When the Kutchins discover a leak,
' they go ashore, light a small fire, warm the gum, of which they always
•carry a supply, turn the canoe bottom upward, and rub the healing bairn 'in
a semi-fluid state into the seam until it is again water-tight.' V/hympers
Alaska, p. 225. The Tacullies 'make canoes which are clumsily wrought, of
the aspin tree, as well as of the bark of the spruce fir.' Harmon's Jour., p.
291. Rafts are employed on the Mackenzie. Simpson's Nar., p. 185. 'In
shape the Northern Indian canoe bears some resemblance to a weaver's
^shuttle; covered over with birch bark.' Hearne's Jour., pp. 97, 98. ' Kanots
:aus Birkenrinde, auf denen sie die Flusse u. Seen befahren.' Baer, Stat. u.
Ethn., p. 112. The Kutchin canoe 'is flat-bottomed, is about nine feet long
and one broad, and the sides nearly straight up and down like a wall.' Jones,
in Smithsonian Kept., 1866, p. 323.
2-'3 As for instance for a life, the fine is forty beaver-skins, and may be
paid in guns at twenty skins each; blankets, equal to ten skins each; powder,
one skin a measure; bullets, eighteen for a skin; worsted belts, two skins
THE TENAN KUTCHIN. 131
rich or strong. A good hunter, who can accumulate
beads, and a good wrestler, who can win brides by force,
may have from two to five wives. The women perform
all domestic duties, and eat after the husband is satisfied,
but the men paddle the boats, and have even been known
to carry their wives ashore so that they might not wet
their feet. The women carry their infants in a sort of
bark saddle, fastened to their back ; they bandage their
feet in order to keep them small.221 Kutchin amusements
are wrestling, leaping, dancing, and singing. They are
great talkers, and etiquette forbids any interruption to
the narrative of a new comer.225
The Tenan Kutchin, 'people of the mountains/ in
habiting the country south of Fort Yukon which is
drained by the river Tananah, are a wild, ungovernable
horde, their territory never yet having been invaded by
white people. The river upon which they dwell is sup
posed to take its rise near the upper Yukon. They allow
no women in their deer-hunting expeditions. They
smear their legging and hair with red ochre and grease.
The men part their hair in the middle and separate it
into locks, which, when properly dressed, look like rolls
of red mud about the size of a finger; one bunch of
locks is secured in a mass which falls down the neck, by
a band of dentalium shells, and two smaller rolls hang
down either side of the face. After being soaked in
each. Hooper's Tuski, p. 272. « For theft, little or no punishment is inflicted;
for adultery, the woman only is punished ' — sometimes by beating, sometimes
by death. Jones, in Smithsonian Kept., 18C6, p. 325.
224 Kutchin 'female chastity is prized, but is nearly unknown.' Jones, in
Smithsonian Rept., 1866, p. 325. Loucheux mothers had originally a custom of
casting away their female children, but now it is only done by the Mountain
Indians. Simpson's Nar., p. 187. The Kutchin ' women are much fewer in
number and live a much shorter time than the men.' Kirby, in Smithsonian
Kept., 1864, p. 418. The old people 'are not ill-used, but simply neglected.'
Whymper's Alaska, p. 229. The children are carried in small chairs ma.de of
birch bark. Id., p. 232. ' In a seat of birch bark.' Richardson's Jour., vol. i.,
p. 384.
225 The Loucheux dances ' abound in extravagant gestures, and demand
violent exertion.' Simpson's Nar., p. 100. See Hardisty, in Smithsonian Kept.,
1866, p. 313. ' Singing is much practiced, but it is, though varied, of a very
hum-drum nature.' Hooper's Tuski, p. 318. 'At the festivals held on the
meeting of friendly tribes, leaping and wrestling are practised.' Richardson's
Jour., vol. i., p. 395.
132 HYPERBOREANS.
grease and tied, the head is powdered with finely cut
swan's down, which adheres to the greasy hair. The
women wear few ornaments, perform more than the or
dinary amount of drudgery, and are treated more like
dogs than human heings. Chastity is scarcely known
among them. The Kutcha Kutchin, 'people of the low
land,' are cleaner and better mannered.
The Kutchins have a singular system of totems. The
whole nation is divided into three castes, called re
spectively Chitcheah, Tengmtsey, and Natsahi, each occu
pying a distinct territory. Two persons of the same
caste are not allowed to marry ; but a man of one caste
must marry a woman of another. The mother gives
caste to the children, so that as the fathers die off the
caste of the country constantly changes. This system
operates strongly against war between tribes ; as in war,
it is caste against caste, and not tribe against tribe. As
the father is never of the same caste as the son, who re
ceives caste from his mother, there can never be inter
tribal war without ranging fathers and sons against each
other. When a child is named, the father drops his
former name and substitutes that of the child, so that
the father receives his name from the child, and not the
child from the father.
They have scarcely any government; their chiefs are
elected on account of wealth or ability, and their au
thority is very limited.226 Their custom is to burn the
dead, and enclose the ashes in a box placed upon posts;
some tribes enclose the body in an elevated box without
burning.227
The Kenai are a fine, manly race, in which Baer dis
tinguishes characteristics decidedly American, and clearly
226 ' Irrespective of tribe, they are divided into three classes, termed re
spectively, Chit-sa, Nate-sa, and Tanges-at-sa, faintly representing the aris
tocracy, the middle classes, and the poorer orders of civilized nations, the
former being the most wealthy and the latter the poorest. ' Kirby, in Smith
sonian Kept., 1864, p. 418.
227 On Peel River ' they bury their dead on stages. ' On the Yukon they
burn and suspend the ashes in bags from the top of a painted pole. Kirby, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1864, p. 419. They of the Yukon ' do not inter the dead,
but put them in oblong boxes, raised on posts.' Whymper's Alaska, pp.
207, 211.
THE KENAI. 133,
distinct from the Asiatic Eskimos. One of the most pow-1
erf ul Kenai tribes is the Unakatanas, who dwell upon the
Koyukuk River, and plant their villages along the banks
of the lower Yukon for a distance of one hundred and
fifty miles. They are bold and ferocious, dominative
even to the giving of fashion in dress.
That part of the Yukon which runs through their ter
ritory abounds with moose, which during the summer
frequent the water in order to avoid the mosquitos, and
as the animals are clumsy swimmers, the Indians easily
capture them. Their women occupy a very inferior po
sition, being obliged to do more drudgery and embellish
their dress with fewer ornaments than those of the upper
tribes. The men wear a heavy fringe of beads or shells
upon their dress, equal sometimes to two hundred mar
ten-skins in value.
At Nuklukahyet, where the Tananah River joins the
Yukon, is a neutral trading-ground to which all the sur
rounding tribes resort in the spring for traffic. Skins
are their moneyed currency, the beaver-skin being the
standard ; one * made ' beaver-skin represents two marten-
skins.
The Ingaliks inhabiting the Yukon near its mouth call
themselves Kaeijah Khatana. Their dialect is totally
distinct from the Malemutes, their neighbors on the
west, but shows an affinity with that of the Unakatanas
to their east. Tobacco they both smoke and snuff. The
smoke they swallow; snuff is drawn into the nostrils
through a wooden tube. They manufacture snuff from
leaf tobacco by means of a wooden mortar and pestle,
and carry bone or wooden snuff-boxes. They are de
scribed by travelers as a timid, sensitive people, and
remarkably honest. Ingalik women are delivered kneel
ing, and without pain, being seldom detained from their
household duties for more than an hour. The infant
is washed, greased, and fed, and is seldom weaned under
two or three years. The women live longer than the
men ; some of them reaching sixty, while the men rarely
attain more than forty-five years.
134 HYPERBOREANS.
The Koltschanes, whose name in the dialect of the
Kenai signifies i guest/ and in that of the Atnas of Cop
per River, 'stranger/ have been charged with great cru-
eltv, and even cannibalism, but without special founda
tion. Wrangell believes the Koltschanes, Atnas, and
Kolosches to be one people.
The Kenai, of the Kenaian peninsula, upon recovery
from dangerous illness, give a feast to those who ex
pressed sympathy during the affliction. If a bounteous
provision is made upon these occasions, a chieftainship
may be obtained thereby; and although the power thus
acquired does not descend to one's heir, he may be con
ditionally recognized as chief. Injuries are avenged by
the nearest relative, but if a murder is committed by a
member of another clan, all the allied families rise to
avenge the wrong. When a person dies, the whole com
munity assemble and mourn. The nearest kinsman, ar
rayed in his best apparel, with blackened face, his nose
and head decked with eagle's feathers, leads the cere
mony. All sit round a fire and howl, while the master
of the lamentation recounts the notable deeds of the
departed, amidst the ringing of bells, and violent stamp
ings, and contortions of his body. The clothing is then
distributed to the relatives, the body is burned, the bones
collected and interred, and at the expiration of a year a
feast is held to the memory of the deceased, after which
it is not lawful for a relative to mention his name.
The lover, if his suit is accepted, must perform a
year's service for his bride. The wooing is in this wise:
early some morning he enters the abode of the fair one's
father, and without speaking a word proceeds to bring
water, prepare food, and to heat the bath-room. In re
ply to the question why he performs these services, he
answers that he desires the daughter for a wife. At the
expiration of the year, without further ceremony, he
takes her home, with a gift ; but if she is not well treated
by her husband, she may return to her father, and take
with her the dowry. The wealthy may have several
wives, but the property of each wife is distinct. They
TINNEH CHARACTER. 135
are nomadic in their inclinations and traverse the in
terior to a considerable distance in pursuit of game.
The Atnas are a small tribe inhabiting the Atna or
Copper River. They understand the art of working
copper, and have commercial relations with surrounding
tribes. In the spring, before the breaking up of ice upon
the lakes and rivers, they hunt reindeer, driving them
into angle-shaped wicker-work corrals, where they are
killed. In the autumn another general hunt takes place,
when deer are driven into lakes, and pursued and killed
in boats. Their food and clothing depend entirely upon
their success in these forays, as they are unable to obtain
fish in sufficient quantities for their sustenance ; and when
unsuccessful in the chase, whole families die of starva
tion. Those who can afford it, keep slaves, buying them
from the Koltschanes. They burn their dead, then care
fully collect the ashes in a new reindeer-skin, enclose the
skin in a box, and place the box on posts or in a tree.
Every year they celebrate a feast in commemoration of
their dead. Baer asserts that the Atnas divide the year
into fifteen months, which are designated only by their
numbers ; ten of them belong to autumn and winter, and
five to spring and summer.
The Tinneh character, if we may accept the assertions
of various travelers, visiting different parts under widely
different circumstances, presents a multitude of phases.
Thus it is said of the Chipewyans by Mackenzie, that
they are " sober, timorous, and vagrant, with a selfish
disposition which has sometimes created suspicions of
their integrity. They are also of a quarrelous disposi
tion, and are continually making complaints which they
express by a constant repetition of the word edmy, 4t is
hard,' in a wliiny and plaintive tone of voice. So indo
lent that numbers perish every year from famine. Sui
cide is not uncommon among them." Hearne asserts
that they are morose arid covetous; that they have no
gratitude; are great beggars; are insolent, if any respect
is shown them ; that they cheat on all opportunities ; yet
they are mild, rarely get drunk, and "never proceed to
136 HYPEKBOEEANS.
violence beyond bad language;" that they steal on every
opportunity from the whites, but very rarely from each
other; and although regarding all property, including
wives, as belonging to the strongest, yet they only wres
tle, and rarely murder. Of the same people Sir John
Franklin says, that they are naturally indolent, selfish,
and great beggars. " I never saw men," he writes, " who
either received or bestowed a gift with such bad grace."
The Dog-ribs are " of a mild, hospitable, but rather in
dolent disposition," fond of dancing and singing. Ac
cording to the same traveler the Copper Indians are su
perior, in personal character, to any other Chipewyans.
"Their delicate and humane attentions to us," he re
marks, uin a period of great distress, are indelibly en
graven on our memories." Simpson says that it is a
general rule among the traders not to believe the first
story of an Indian . Although sometimes bearing suffering
with fortitude, the least sickness makes them say, "I am
going to die," and the improvidence of the Indian char
acter is greatly aggravated by the custom of destroying
all the property of deceased relatives. Sir John Rich
ardson accuses the Hare Indians of timidity, standing in
great fear of the Eskimos, and being always in want
of food. They are practical socialists, 'great liars/ but
* strictly honest.' Hospitality is not a virtue with them.
According to Richardson, neither the Eskimos, Dog-ribs,
nor Hare Indians, feel the least shame in being detected
in falsehood, and invariably practice it if they think
that they can thereby gain any of their petty ends.
Even in their familiar intercourse with each other, the
Indians seldom tell the truth in the first instance, and if
they succeed in exciting admiration or astonishment,
their invention runs on without check. From the man
ner of the speaker, rather than by his words, is his truth
or falsehood inferred, and often a very long interrogation
is necessary to elicit the real fact. The comfort, and
not uiifrequently even the lives of parties of the timid
Hare Indians are sacrificed by this miserable propen
sity. The Hare and Dog-rib women are certainly at the
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 137
bottom of the scale of humanity in North America.
Ross thinks that they are "tolerably honest; not blood
thirsty, nor cruel;" "confirmed liars, far from being
chaste."
According to Harmon, one of the earliest and most
observing travelers among them, the Tacullies "are a
quiet, inoffensive people," and "perhaps the most honest
on the face of the earth." They "are unusually talka
tive," and "take great delight in singing or humming
or whistling a dull air." "Murder is not considered as
a crime of great magnitude." He considers the Sican-
nis the bravest of the Tacully tribes.
But the Kutchins bear off the palm for honesty. Says
Whymper: "Finding the loads too great for our dogs, we
raised an erection of poles, and deposited some bags
thereon. I may here say, once for all, that our men
often left goods, consisting of tea, flour, molasses, bacon,
and all kinds of miscellaneous articles, scattered in this
way over the country, and that they remained un
touched by the Indians, who frequently traveled past
them." Simpson testifies of the Loucheux that " a
bloody intent with them lurks not under a smile."
Murray reports the Kutchins treacherous; Richardson
did not find them so. Jones declares that "they differ
entirely from the Tinneh tribes of the Mackenzie, being
generous, honest, hospitable, proud, high-spirited, and
quick to revenge an injury."
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Accurately to draw partition lines between primitive nations is impossible.
Migrating with the seasons, constantly at war, driving and being driven far
past the limits of hereditary boundaries, extirpating and being extirpated,
overwhelming, intermingling ; like a human sea, swelling and surging in its
wild struggle with the winds of fate, they come and go, here to-day, yonder
to-morrow. A traveler passing over the country finds it inhabited by certain
tribes; another coming after finds all changed. One writer gives certain
names to certain nations; another changes the name, or gives to the nation
a totally different locality. An approximation, however, can be made suffi
ciently correct for practical purposes; and to arrive at this, I will give at
the end of each chapter all the authorities at my command; that from the
138 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
statements of all, whether conflicting or otherwise, the truth may be very
nearly arrived at. All nations, north of the fifty-fifth parallel, as before
mentioned, I call Hyperboreans.
To THE ESKIMOS, I give the Arctic sea-board from the Coppermine Rivei
to Kotzebue Sound. Late travelers make a distinction between the Male-
mutes and Kaveaks of Norton Sound and the Eskimos. Whymper calls the
former ' a race of tall and stout people, but in other respect, much resem
bling the Esquimaux.' Alaska, p. 159. Sir John Richardson, in his Journal,
vol. i., p. 341, places them on the ' western coast, by Cook's Sound and Tchu-
gatz Bay, nearly to Mount St. Elias;' but in his Polar Regions, p. 299, he
terminates them at Kotzebue Sound. Early writers give them the widest
scope. ' Die siidlichsten sind in Amerika, auf der Kiiste Labrador, wo nach
Charlevoix dieser Volkerstamm den Nahmen Esquimaux bey den in der Nahe
wohnenden Abenaki fiihrte, und auch an der benachbarten Ostseite von Neu-
Fundland, ferner westlich noch unter der Halbinsel Alaska.' Valer, Mithri-
daies, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 425. Dr Latham, in his Varieties of Man, treats
the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands as Eskimos, and in Native Races
of the Russian Empire, p. 289, he gives them ' the whole of the coast of the
Arctic Ocean, and the coast from Behriug Strait to Cook Inlet. ' Prichard,
Researches, vol. v., p. 371, requires more complete evidence before he can
conclude that the Aleuts are not Eskimos. Being entirely unacquainted
with the great Kutchin family in the Yukon Valley, he makes the Carriers of
New Caledonia conterminous with the Eskimos. The boundary lines be
tween the Eskimos and the interior Indian tribes ' are generally formed by
the summit of the watershed between the small rivers which empty into the
sea and those which fall into the Yukon.' DalVs Alaska, p. 144. Malte-Brun,
Precis dela Geographie, vol. v., p. 317, goes to the other extreme. ' Les Esqui
maux, ' he declares, ' habitent depuis le golfe Welcome jusqu'au fleuve Macken
zie, et probablement jusqu'au detroit de Bering ; ils s'etendent au sud jusqu'au
lac de 1'Esclave. ' Ludewig, Aboriginal Languages, p. 69, divides them into * Es
kimo proper, on the shores of Labrador, and the Western Eskimos. ' Gallatin
sweepingly asserts that ' they are the sole native inhabitants of the shores of
all the seas, bays, inlets, and islands of America, north of the sixtieth de
gree of north latitude.' Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 9. The Western
Eskimos, says Beechey, ' inhabit the north-west coast of America, from 60° 34'
N. to 71° 24' N.' Voy., vol. ii., p. 299. 'Along the entire coast of America.'
Armstrong's JVar., p. 191.
The tribal subdivisions of the Eskimos are as follows:— At Coppermine
River they are known by the name of Naggeuktoomutes, ' deer-horns.' At the
eastern outlet of the Mackenzie they are called Kittear. Between the Mac
kenzie River and Barter Reef they call themselves Kangmali-Innuin. The
tribal name at Point Barrow is Nuwangmeun. ' The Nuna-tangmc-un inhabit
the country traversed by the Nunatok, a river which falls into Kotzebue
Sound.' Richardson's Pol. Reg. p. 300. From Cape Lisburn to Icy Cape the
tribal appellation is Kitegues. ' Deutsche Kartell zeigen uns noch irn Nord-
west-Ende des russischen Nordamerika's, in dieser so anders gewandten
Kiistenlinie, nordlich vom Kotzebue-Sund : im westlichen Theile des Kusten-
ESKIMOS AND KONIAGAS. 139
landes, das sie West-Georgien nennen, vomCap Lisburnbis iiber das Eiscap;
hinlaufend das Volk der Kiteguen.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache,
p. 713. ' The tribes appear to be separated from each other by a neutral
ground, across which small parties venture in the summer for barter.' The
Tusld, Tschuktschi, or Tchutski, of the easternmost point of Asia, have also
been referred to the opposite coast of America for their habitation. The
Tschuktchi ' occupy the north-western coast of Russian Asia, and the oppo
site shores of north-western America.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 191.
THE KONIAGAN nation occupies the shores of Bering Sea, from Kotzebue
Sound to the Island of Kadiak, including a part of the Alaskan Penin
sula, and the Koiiiagan and Chugatschen Islands. The Koniagas proper in
habit Kadiak, and the contiguous islands. Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek.
Sprache, p. 676. ' The Konaegi are inhabitants of the Isle of Kodiak.' Prich-
ard's Researches, vol. v., p. 371. ' Die eigentlichen Konjagen oder Bewohner
der Insel Kadjak.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. 'Zu den letztern rechnet
man die Aleuten von Kadjack, deren Sprache von alien Kiistenbewohnern
von der Tschugatschen-Bay, bis an die Berings-Strasse und selbst weiter
noch die herschende ist.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 58. 'From Iliamna Lake
to the 159th degree of west longitude.' DalVs Alaska, p. 401. 'La cote qui
s'etend depuis le golfe Kamischezkaja jusqu'au Nouveau-Cornouaille, est
habitee par cinq peuplades qui formeiit autant de grandes divisions territori-
ales dans les colonies de la Kussie Americaine. Leurs noms sont: Koniagi,
Kenayzi, Tschugatschi, Ugalachmiuti et Koliugi.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn.
i., p. 347.
The Chugaisches inhabit the islands and shores of Prince William Sound.
' Die Tchugatschen bewohnen die grossten Inseln der Bai Tschugatsk, wie
Zukli, Chtagaluk u. a. und ziehen sich an der Siidkiiste der Halbinsel Kenai
nach Westen bis zur Einfahrt in den Kenaischen Meerbusen.' Holmberg,
Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. 'Die Tschugatschen sind Ankommlinge von der Insel
Kadjack, die wahrend innerer Zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben, sich zu
ihren jetzigen Wohnsitzen an den Ufern von Prince William's Sound und
gegen Westen bis zum Eingange von Cook's Inlet hingewendet haben.' Baer,
Stat. u. Ethn., p. 116. ' Les Tschugatschi occupent le pays qui s'etend depuis
1'extremite septentrionale de 1'entree de Cook jusqu'a Test de la baie du
prince Guillaume (golfe Tschugatskaja.)' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p.
348. According to Latham, Native Races, p. 290, they are the most south
ern members of the family. The Tschugazzi 'live between the Ugalyach-
mutzi and the Kenaizi.' Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 371. ' Occupy the
shores and islands of Chugach Gulf, and the southwest coasts of the penin
sula of Kenai.' DaWs Alaska, p. 401. Tschugatschi, ' Prince William Sound,
and Cook's Inlet.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 191. Tchugatchih, 'claim as their
hereditary possessions the coast lying between Bristol Bay and Beering's
Straits.' Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 364.
The Aglegmutes occupy the shores of Bristol Bay from the river Nushagak
along the western coast of the Alaskan Peninsula, to latitude 56°. 'Die Ag-
legmjuten, von der Miindung des Flusses Nuschagakh bis zum 57° oder 56°
an der Westkiiste der Halbinsel Aljaska; haben also die Ufer der Bristol-Bai
140 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
inne.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. Dall calls them Oglemutes, and says
that they inhabit ' the north coast of Aliaska from the 159th degree of west
longitude to the head of Bristol Bay, and along the north shore of that Bay
to Point Etolin.' Alaska, p. 405. Die Agolegmiiten, an den Ausmundungen
der Flusse Nuschagack und Nackneck, ungefahr 500 an der Zahl.' Baer, Stat.
u. Ethn., p. 121.
The Kijataigmutes dwell upon the banks of the river Nushagak and along
the coast westward to Cape Newenham. 'Die Kijataigmjuten wohnen an
den Ufern des Flusses Nuschagakh, sowie seines Nebenflusses Iligajakh.'
Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. Dall says that they call themselves Nushergag-
mut, and 'inhabit the coast near the mouth of the Nushergak River, and
westward to Cape Newenham.' Alaska, p. 405. 'Die Kijaten order Kijataig-
miiten an den Fliissen Nuschagack und Ilgajack.' J3aer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 121.
'Am Fl. Nuschagak.' Buschmann, Spurender Aztek. Sprache, p. 760.
The Agulmutes inhabit the coast between the rivers Kuskoquim and Kish-
unak. 'Die Aguljmjuten habeii sowohl den Kiistenstrich als das Innere
des Landes zwischen den Miindungen des Kuskokwim und des Kishunakh
inne.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. ' This tribe extends from near Cape Avi-
noff nearly to Cape Romanzoff.' Dall's Alaska, p. 406. 'Den Agulmiiten,
am Flusse Kwichliiwack. ' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. 'An der Kwickpak-
Miind.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 719.
The Kuskoquigmutes occupy the banks of Kuskoquim River and Bay.
' Die Kuskokwigmjuten bewohnen die Ufer des Flusses Kuskokwim von
seiner Miiiidung bis zur Ansiedelung Kwygyschpainagmjut in der Nahe der
Odiiiotschka Kalmakow.' Holmberg, Eihn. Skiz., p. 5. The Kuskwogmuts
' inhabit both shores of Kuskoquim Bay, and some little distance up that
river.' Dallas Alaska, p. 405. 'Die Kuskokwimer an dem Flusse Kuskokwim
und andern kleinen Zufllussen desselben und an den Ufern der siidlich von
diesem Flusse gelegenen Seen.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. 'Between the
rivers Nushagak, Ilgajak, Chulitna, and Kuskokwina, on the sea-shore.'
Ludgewig, Ab. Lang., p. 98.
The Magemutes live between the rivers Kishunak and Kipunaiak. ' Die
Magmjuten oder Magagmjuten, zwischen den Fliissen Kiskunakh und Ki-
punajakh.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 5. 'These inhabit the vicinity of Cape
Romanzoff and reach nearly to the Yukon-mouth.' DalVs Alaska, p. 407.
' Magimuten, am Flusse Kyschunack.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 322. ' Im S des
Norton Busens.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 766.
The Kwichpagmules, or inhabitants of the large river, dwell upon the Kwich-
pak River, from the coast range to the Uallik. ' Die Kwichpagmjuten, haben
ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwickpakh vom Kiistengebirge an bis zum Neben-
flusse Uallik.' Holmberg, Ethn: Skiz., p. 5. ' Kuwichpackmliten, am Flusse
Kuwichpack.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. 'Tlagga Silla, or little dogs,
nearer to the mouth of the Yukon, and probably conterminous with the Es
kimo Kwichpak-meut. ' Latham's Nat. Paces, p. 293. On Whymper's map
are the Primoski, near the delta of the Yukon.
The Kwichluagmutes dwell upon the banks of the Kwichluak or Crooked
River, an arm of the Kwichpak. ' Die Kwichljuagmjuten an den Ufern eines
THE ALEUTS. 141
Miindungsarmes des Kwichpakh, der Kwichljuakh.' Iloltnberg, Ethn. Skiz.,
p. 5. 'Inhabit the Kwikhpak Slough.' Ball's Alaska, p. 407.
The Pashtoliks dwell upon the river Pashtolik. ' Die Paschtoligmjuten,
an den TJfern des Pastolflusses. ' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. ' Paschtolig-
mttten, am Flusse Paschtol.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. Whymper places
them immediately north of the delta of the Yukon.
The Chnagmutes occupy the coast and islands south of the Unalaklik
Kiver to Pashtolik Bay. ' Die Tschnagmjuteii, an den Ufern der Meerbuseu
Pastol imd Schachtolik zwischen den Fliissen Pastol an Unalaklik.' Holm-
berg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 0. 'Den Tschnagmiiten, gegen Norden von den Pasch-
tuligmuten und gegen Westen bis zum Kap Eodney.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p.
122. ' Am. sdl. Norton-Busen.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 805.
The Anlygrtiutes inhabit the shores of Golovnin Bay and the southern
coast of the Kaviak peninsula. 'Die Anlygmjuten, an den Ufern der Bai
Golownin uordlich vom Nortonsunde.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6. 'An-
lygmuten, an der Golownin'schen Bai.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 122. 'Ndl.
vom Norton-Sund.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sjirache, p. 722.
The Kaviaks inhabit the western portion of the Kaviak peninsula. 'Ad
jacent to Port Clarence and Behring Strait.' Whymper' s Alaska, p. 167.
' Between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds.' DalVs Alaska, p. 137.
The Malemutes inhabit the coast at the mouth of the Unalaklik River,
and northward along the shores of Norton Sound across the neck of the
Kaviak Peninsula at Kotzebue Sound. ' Die Maleigmjuteu bewohnen die
Kiiste des Nortousundes vom Flusse Unalaklik an und gehen durch das In*
iiere des Landes hinauf bis zum Kotzebuesunde.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p.
6. ' From Norton Sound and Bay north of Shaktolik, and the neck of the
Kaviak Peninsula to Selawik Lake.' DalVs Alaska, p. 407. 'Den Maliniiiten,
nahe an den Ufern des Golfes Schaktulack oder Schaktol.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn.,
p. 122. The Malemutes 'extend from the island of St. Michael to Golovin
Sound.' Wliymper's Alaska, p. 167. 'Ndl. am Norton-Busen bis zum Kotze
bue Sund.' Buwhmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 766.
THE ALEUTS inhabit the islands of the Aleutian archipelago, and part
of the peninsula of Alaska and the Island of Kadiak. They are divided into
the Atkahs, who inhabit the western islands, and the Unalaskans or east
ern division. The tribal divisions inhabiting the various islands are as fol
lows ; namely, on the Alaskan peninsula, three tribes to which the Russians
have given names — Morshewskojv, Bjeljkowskoje, and Pawlowskoje; on the
island of Unga, the Uynasiks; on the island of Uiiimak, the Sesaguks; the
Tigaldas on Tigalda Island; the Avatanaks on Avatanak Island; on the Island
of Akun, three tribes, which the Russians call Arleljnowskoje, JRjatscheschnoje,
and Seredkinskoje; the Akutans on the Akutaii Island; the Unalgas on the
Unalga Island; the Sidanaks on Spirkin Island; 011 the island of Unalashka,
the Uillulluk, the Nguyuk, and seven tribes called by the Russians Natykin-
skoje, Pestnjakow-sicoje, Wesselowskoje, Makuschinskoja, Koschiginskoje, Tscher-
now-skoje, and Kalechinskoje; and on the island of Umnak the Tuliks. La
tham, Nat. Races, p. 291, assigns them to the Aleutian Isles. 'Die Una-
laschkaer oder Fuchs-Aleuten bewohnen die Gruppe der Fuchsinseln, den
142 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
siidwestliclien Theil der Halbinsel Aljaska, und die Inselgruppe Schttmaginsk.
Die Atchaer oder Andrejanowscheu Aleuten bewohnen die Andrejanowschen,
die Ratten, und die Nahen-Inseln der Aleuten-Kette.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz.,
pp. 7, 8. Inhabit ' the islands between Alyaska and Kamschatka.' Ludewig,
Ab. Lang., p. 4.
THE THLINKEETS, or Kolosches, occupy the islands and shores between
Copper River and the river Nass. ' Die eigentlichen Thlinkithen (Bewohner
des Archipels von den Parallelen des Flusses Nass bis zum St. Elias-berge).'
Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 4. ' The Kalosh Indians seen at Sitka inhabit the
coast between the Stekine and Chilcat Rivers.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 100.
' Kaloches et Kiganis. Cotes et lies de 1'Amerique Russe.' Mofras, Explor.,
torn, ii., p.. 335. The 'Koloshians live upon the islands and coast from the
latitude 50° 40' to the mouth of the Atna or Copper River.' Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1869, p. 562. 'From about 60° to 45° N. Lat.. reaching therefore across the
Russian frontier as far as the Columbia River.' Mutter's Chips, vol. L, p. 334.
'At Sitka Bay and Norfolk Sound.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 96. 'Between
Jacootat or Behring's Bay, to the 57th degree of north latitude.' Lisiansky's
Voy., p. 242. 'Die Volker eines grossen Theils der Nordwest-Kiiste vom
America.' Vater, Mithridates, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. 218. ' Les Koliugi habitent le
pays montueux du Nouveau-Norfolk, et la partie septentrionale du Nouveau-
Cornouaille.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 349.
The Ugalenzes or Ugalukmutes, the northernmost Thlinkeet tribe, inhabit
the coast from both banks of the mouth of Copper River, nearly to Mount
St Elias. 'About Mount Elias.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 292. Adjacent to
Behring Bay. Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 370. 'Die Ugalenzen, die
im Winter eine Bucht des Festlandes, der kleinen Insel Kajak gegeniiber,
bewohnen, zum Sommer aber ihre Wohnungsplatze an dem rechten Ufer des
Kupferflusses bei dessen Miindung aufschlagen.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p.
4. 'Das Vorgebirge St. Elias, kann als die Granzscheide der Wohnsitze
der See-Koloschen gegen Nordwest angesehn werden.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn.,
p. 96. 'Les Ugalachmiuti s'etendent depuis le golfe du Prince Guillaume,
jusqua la baie de Jakutat.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 348. ' Ugalenzen
oder Ugaljachmjuten. An der russ. Kiiste ndwstl. vom St. Elias Berg. ' Busch-
mann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 807. ' West of Cape St. Elias and near
the island of Kadjak.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 194.
The Yakutats ' occupy the coast from Mount Fairweather to Mount St.
Elias.' DalVs Alaska, p. 428. At ' Behring Bay.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 575.
The Chilkat corne next, and live on Lynn Canal and the Chilkat River.
'At Chilkaht Inlet.' 'At the head of Chatham Straits.' Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1869, pp. 535, 575. 'Am Lynn's-Canal, in russ. Nordamerika. Buschmann,
Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 736. ' On Lynn's Canal.' Schoolcraff s Archives,
vol. v., p. 489. A little to the northward of the Stakine-Koan. Dunn's Ore
gon, p. 288.
The Hoonids inhabit the eastern banks of Cross Sound. ' For a distance
of sixty miles.' 'At Cross Sound reside the Whinegas. ' 'The Hunnas or
Hooneaks, who are scattered along the main land from Lynn Canal to Cape
Spencer.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, pp. 535, 562, 575. The Huna Cow tribe
is situated on Cross Sound. SchoolcrafVs Archives, vol. v., p. 489.
THE THLINKEETS. 143
The Hoodsinoos 'live near the head of Chatham Strait.' ' On Admiralty
Island.' 'Rat tribes on Kyro and Kespriano Islands.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869,
pp. 335, 562, 575. ' Hootsinoo at Hoodsinoo or Hood Bay.' Schoolcraft*s Arch
ives, vol. v., p. 489. 'Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay.' Gallatln, in Am. Antiq.
Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 302. ' Hoodsunhoo at Hood Bay.' ' Eclikimo in
Chatham's Strait.' Ludexig, Ab. Lang., p. 175.
The Takoos dwell ' at the head of Takoo Inlet on the Takoo River.
The Sundowns and Takos who live on the mainland from Port Houghton to
the Tako River.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp. 536, 562. Tako and Samdan, Tako
River. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 489.
The Auks Indians are at the mouth of the Takoo River and on Admiralty
Island. 'North of entrance Tako River.' Schoolcraft's Arch., p. 489. 'The
Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick's Sound.' Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol.
ii., p. 302.
. The Kakas inhabit the shores of Frederick Sound and Kuprianoff Island.
4 The Kakus, or Kakes, who live on Kuprinoff Island, having their principal
settlement near the northwestern side.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. 'The
Ark and Kake on Prince Frederick's Sound.' Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol.
ii., p. 302.
The Sitkas occupy Baranoff Island. ' They are divided into tribes or
clans, of which one is called Coquontans.' Buschmann, Pima Spr. u. d. Spr.
der Koloschen, p. 377. 'The tribe of the Wolf are called Coquontans.' Lisi-
ansky's Voy., p. 242. 'The Sitka-Koan,' or the people of Sitka. 'This in
cludes the inhabitants of Sitka Bay, near New Archangel, and the neighbor
ing islands.' Dall's Alaska, p. 412. Simpson calls the people of Sitka ' Sitka-
guouays.' Overland Jour., vol. i., p. 226. 'The Sitkas or Indians on Baronoff
Island.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp. 535, 562.
The Stikeen Indians inhabit the country drained by the Stikeen River.
'Do not penetrate far into the interior.' DalVs Alaska, p. 411. The Stikein
tribe 'live at the top of Clarence's Straits, which run upwards of a hundred
miles inland.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 288. 'At Stephens Passage.' 'The Stik-
eens who live on the Stackine River and the islands near its mouth.' Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 562. 'Stikeen Indians, Stikeen River, Sicknaahutty,
Taeeteetan, Kaaskquatee, Kookatee, Naaneeaaghee, Talquatee, Kicksatee,
Kaadgettee.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 489. The Secatquonays occupy
the main land about the mouths of the Stikeen River, and also the neighboring
islands. Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i , p. 210.
The Tungass, ' live on Tongas Island, and on the north side of Portland
Channel.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. Southern entrance Clarence Strait.
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 489. The Tongarses or Tun Ghaase 'are a
small tribe, inhabiting the S.E. corner of Prince of Wales's Archipelago.'
Scouler, in Lond. Geo. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. ' Tungass, an der sdlst. russ.
Kiiste.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache, p. 806. 'Tunghase Indians
of the south-eastern part of Prince of Wales's Archipelago.' Ludewig, Ab.
Lang., p. 192. Tongas Indians, lat. 54° 46' N. and long. 130° 35' W. Dall's
Alaska, p. 251.
THE TINNEH occupy the vast interior north of the fifty-fifth parallel, and
west from Hudson Bay, approaching the Arctic and Pacific Coasts to within
144 TKIBAL BOUNDAKIES.
from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles: at Prince William Sound, they
even touch the seashore. Mackenzie, Voy., p. cxvii., gives boundaries upon
the basis of which Gallatin, Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 9, draws a
line from the Mississippi to within one hundred miles of the Pacific at 52J
30', and allots them the northern interior to Eskimos lands. ' Extend across
the continent.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 2. 'Von der nordlichen Hud-
sonsbai aus fast die ganze Breite des Continents durchlauft— im Norden und
Nordwesten den 65ten Gradu. beinahe die Gestade des Polarmeers erreicht.'
Buschmann, Athapask. Sprachst., p. 313. ' The Athabascan area touches Hud
son's Bay on the one side, the Pacific on the other.' Latham's Comp. Phil.,
p. 388. ' Occupies the whole of the northern limits of North America, to
gether with the Eskimos.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 14.
The Chepeicyans, or Athabascas proper, Mackenzie, Voy., p. cxvi., places be
tween N. latitude 60 J and 65J, and W. longitude 100 J and 110J. ' Between the
Athabasca and Great Slave Lakes and Churchill River.' Franklin's Nar., vol.
i., p. 241. ' Frequent the Elk and Slave Rivers, and the country westward to
Hay River.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii. p. 5. The Northern Indians occupy
the territory immediately north of Fort Churchill, on the Western shore of
Hudson Bay. ' From the fifty-ninth to the sixty-eighth degree of North lat
itude, and from East to West is upward of five hundred miles wide. Hearne's
Jour., p. 326; Martin's Brit. Col., vol. iii., p. 524.
The Copper Indians occupy the territory on both sides of the Coppermine
River south of the Eskimo lands, which border on the ocean at the mouth of
the river. They are called by the Athabascas Tantsawhot-Dinneh. Franklin's
Nar., vol. ii., 76; Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19.
The Horn Mountain Indians 'inhabit the country betwixt Great Bear Lake
and the v/est end of Great Slave Lake.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 82.
The Reaver Indians 'inhabit the lower part of Peace River.' Harmon's
Jour., p. 309. On Mackenzie's map they are situated between Slave and
Martin Lakes. ' Between the Peace River and the West branch of the Mac
kenzie.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 6. Edchawtawhoot-dinneh, Strong-
bow, Beaver or Thick-wood Indians, who frequent the Riviere aux Liards, or
south branch of the Mackenzie River. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 85.
The Thlingcha-dinnehi or Dog-ribs, ' inhabit the country to the westward
of the Copper Indians, as far as Mackenzie's River.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii.,
p. 80. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. 'East from Mar
tin Lake to the Coppermine River.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 3. At Fort
Confidence, north of Great Bear Lake.' Simpson's Nar., p. 200. 'Between
Martin's Lake and the Coppermine River.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 66.
The Kawcho-dinneh, or Hare Indians, are 'immediately to the northward
of the Dog-ribs on the north side of Bear Lake River.' Franklin's Nar., vol.
ii., p. 83. They 'inhabit the banks of the Mackenzie, from Slave Lake
downwards.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 3. Between Bear Lake and
Fort Good Hope. Simpson's Nar., p. 98. On Mackenzie River, below Great
Slave Lake, extending towards the Great Bear Lake. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq.
Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19.
' To the eastward of the Dog-ribs are the Red-knives, named by their south
ern neighbors, the Tantsaut-'dtinne (Birch-rind people). They inhabit a
THE TINNEH. 145
stripe of country running northwards from Great Slave Lake, and in breadth
from the Great Fish River to the Coppermine.' Richardson's Jour., vol.ii. p. 4.
The Ambawtawhoot Tinneh, or Sheep Indians, ' inhabit the Rocky Mount
ains near the sources of the Dawhoot-dinneh River which flows into Mac
kenzie's.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 84. Further down the Mackenzie,
near the 65° parallel. Richardson's -Jour., vol. ii., p. 7.
The Sarsis, Circees, dries, Sarsi, Sorsi, Sussees, Sursees, or Surds, 'live
near the Rocky Mountains between the sources of the Athabasca and Sas
katchewan Rivers; are said to be likewise of the Tinne stock.' Richardson's
Jour., vol. ii., p. 6. 'Near the sources of one of the branches of the Saska-
chawan. Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19.
The Tsillawdawhoot Tinneh, or Brush-wood Indians, inhabit the upper
branches of the Riviere aux Liards. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 87. On the
River aux Liards (Poplar River). Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol.
ii., p. 19
The Nac/ailer, or Chin Indians, on Mackenzie's map, latitude 52° 30' longi
tude 122 J to 125 J, ' inhabit the country about 52° 30' N. L. to the southward
of the Takalli, and thence extend south along Fraser's River towards the
Straits of Fuca.' Prichard's Researches, vol. v.. p. 427.
The Slouacuss Tinneh on Mackenzie's are next north-west from the Na-
gailer. "Vater places them at 52 J 4'. 'Noch naher der Kuste um den 52° 4'
wohnten die Slua-cuss-dinais d. i. Rothfisch-Manuer. ' Vater, Mithridates, vol.
iii., pt. iii., p. 421. On the upper part of Frazers River Cox's Adven., p. 323.
The Rocky Mountain Indians are a small tribe situated to the south-west
of the Sheep Indians. Franklin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 85. 'On the Unjigah or
Peace River.' Gallatin, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 19. On the
upper tributaries of Peace River. Mackenzie's Voy., p, 163.
The Tacullies, or Carriers, inhabit New Caledonia from latitude 52° 30' to
latitude 56 J. ' A general name given to the native tribes of New-Caledonia.'
Morse's Report, p. 371. 'All the natives of the Upper Fraser are called by
the Hudson Bay Company, and indeed generally, "Porteurs," or Carriers.1
Mayne's B. C., p. 298. ' Tokalis, Le Nord de la Nouvelle Caledonie.' Mofras,
Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 'Northern part of New Caledonia.' Pickering's
Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 33. ' On the sources of Fraser's River.'
Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 178. ' Unter den Volkern des Tinne Stammes, welche
das Land westlich von den Rocky Mountains bewohnen, nehmen die Ta-
kuli (Wasservolk) oder Carriers den grossten Theil von Neu-Caledonien
em.' Jluschmann, Athapask. Sprachst., p. 152. ' Greater part of New Caledo
nia. Richardson's Jour., vol. ii., p. 31. 'Latitude of Queen Charlotte's
Island.' Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 427. ' From latitude 52° 30', where
it borders on the country of the Shoushaps, to latitude 56°, including Simp
son's River.' Hole's Ethnog.t in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. ' South of the
Sicannis and Straits Lake.' Harmon's Jour., p. 196. They 'are divided into
eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose names are — beginning at the south — as
follows: the Tautin, or Talkotin; the Tsilkotin or Chilcotin; the Naskotin;
the Thetliotin; the Tsatsnotin; the Nulaautin; the Ntshaautin; the Natliau-
tin; the Nikozliautin; the Tatshiautin; and the Babine Indians.' Hale's Eth-
VOL. i. 10
146 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
nog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. ' The principal tribes in the country
north of the Columbia regions, are the Chilcotins and the Talcotins.' Green-
how's Hist. Ogn. , p. 30 . The Talcotins ' occupy the territory above Fort Alexan
dria on Frazer River.' Hazlitt's B. C., p. 79. ' Spend much of their time at
Bellhoula. in the Bentinck Inlet.' Mayne's B. (7., p. 299. The Calkobins 'in
habit New Caledonia, west of the mountains.' De Smet's Letters and Sketches,
p. 157. The Nateotetains inhabit the country lying directly west from Stuart
Lake on either bank of the Nateotetain River. Harmon's Jour., p. 218. The
Naskootains lie along Frazer River from Frazer Lake. Id., p. 245.
The Sicannis dwell in the Rocky Mountains between the Beaver Indians
on the east, and the Tacullies and Atnas on the west and south. Id., p. 190.
They live- east of the Tacullies in the Rocky Mountain. Hale's Ethnog. in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 202. ' On the Rocky Mountains near the Rapid
Indians and West of them.' Morse's Report, p. 371.
The Kutchins are a large nation, extending from the Mackenzie River
westward along the Yukon Valley to near the mouth of the river, with the
Eskimos on one side and the Koltshanes on the other. Buschmann, Spuren
der Aztek. Sprache, p. 713, places them on the sixty-fifth parallel of latitude,
.and from 130° to 150 J of longitude west from Greenwich. ' Das Volk wohnt
am Flusse Yukon oder Kwichpak und iiber ihm; es dehnt sich nach Rich
ardson's Karte auf dem 65ten Parallelkreise aus vom 1 30-150 J W. L. v. Gr.,
und gehort daher zur Halfte dem britischen und zur Halfte dem russischen
Nordamerika an.' They are located 'immediately to the northward of the
Hare Indians on both banks of Mackenzie's River.' Franklin's Nar., vol. ii.,
p. 83. Gallatin, Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 83, places their north
ern boundary in latitude 67° 27'. To the west of the Mackenzie the Lou
cheux interpose between the Esquimaux 'and the Tinne, and spread west
ward until they come into the neighborhood of the coast tribes of Beering's
Sea.' Richardson's Jour., vol. i., p. 377. 'The Kutchin may be said to in
habit the territory extending from the Mackenzie, at the mouth of Peel's
River, lat. 68°, long. 134°, to Norton's sound, living principally upon the
banks of the Youcon and Porcupine Rivers, though several of the tribes are
situated far inland, many days' journey from either river.' Jones, in Smithson
ian Kept., 1866, p. 320. ' They commence somewhere about the 65th degree of
north latitude, and stretch westward from the Mackenzie to Behring's straits.'
' They are divided into many petty tribes, each having its own chief, as the Tatlit-
Kutchin (Peel River Indians), Ta-Kuth-Kutchin (Lapiene's House Indians),
Kutch-a-Kutchin (Youcan Indians), Touchon-ta-Kutchin (Wooded-country
Indians), and many others.' JCirby, in Smithsonian Kept., 1864, pp. 417, 418.
The Degothi-Kutchin, or Loucheux, Quarrellers, inhabit the west bank of
the Mackenzie between the Hare Indians and Eskimos. The Loucheux are
• on the Mackenzie between the Arctic circle and the sea. Simpson's Nar.,
p. 103.
The Vanta-Kutchin occupy ' the banks of the Porcupine, and the country
to the north of it.' ' Vanta-kutshi (people of the lakes), I only find that
they belong to the Porcupine River.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 294. They
'inhabit the territory north of the head- waters of the Porcupine, somewhat
below Lapierre's House.' Doll's Alaska, p. 430.
THE TINNEH. 147
The Natche-Kutchin, or Gens de Large, dwell to the ' north of the Porcu
pine River. ' ' These extend on the north bank to the mouth of the Porcupine. '
DalVs Alaska, pp. 109, 430.
' Neyetse-Kutshi, (people of the open country), I only find that they be
long to the Porcupine river.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 294. Whymper's map
calls them Eat Indians.
' The Na-tsik-Kut-chin inhabit the high ridge of land between the Yukon
and the A'rctic Sea.' Hardisty, in DalVs Alaska, p. 197.
The Kukuth-Kutchin ' occupy the country south of the head-waters of the
Porcupine.' DalVs Alaska, p. 430.
The Tutchone Kutchin, Gens de Foux, or crow people, dwell upon both
sides of the Yukon about Fort Selkirk, above the Han Kutchin. Id., pp.
109, 429.
' Tathzey-Kutshi, or people of the ramparts, the Gens du Fou of the French
Canadians, are spread from the upper parts of the Peel and Porcupine llivers,
within the British territory, to the river of the Mountain-men, in the Russian.
The upper Yukon is therefore their occupancy. They fall into four bands :
«, the Tratse-kutshi, or people of the fork of the river; b, the Kutsha-kutshi ;
c., the Zeka-thaka (Ziunka-kutshi), people on this side, (or middle people;;
and, d., the Tanna-kutshi, or people of the bluffs.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 293.
The Han-Kutchin, An-Kutchin Gens de Bois, or wood people, inhabit the
Yukon above Porcupine River. Whymper's Alaska, p. 254. They are found
on the Yukon next below the Crows, and above Fort Yukon. DalVs Alaska,
p. 109. 'Han-Kutchi residing at the sources of the Yukon.' Richardson's
Jour., vol. i., p. 336.
' The Artez-Kutshi, or the tough (hard) people. The sixty-second parallel
cuts through their country; so that they lie between the head- waters of the
Yukon and the Pacific.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 293. See also Richardson's
Jour., vol. i., p. 397.
The Kutcha-Kutchins, or Kot-a-Kutchin, ' are found in the country near
the junction of the Porcupine and the Yukon.' DalVs Alaska, p. 431.
The Tenan- Kutchin, or Tananahs, Gens de Buttes, or people of the mount
ains, occupy an unexplored domain south-west of Fort Yukon. Their country
is drained by the Tananah River. DalVs Alaska, p. 108. They are placed on
Whymper's map about twenty miles south of the Yukon, in longitude 151°
west from Greenwich. On Whymper's map are placed: the Birch Indians,
or Gens de Bouleau on the south bank of the Yukon at its junction with
Porcupine River; the Gens de Milieu, on the north bank of the Yukon, in
longitude 150 y; the Nuclukayettes on both banks in longitude 152°; and the
Newicarguts, on the south bank between longitude 153° and 155°.
The Kenais occupy the peninsula of Kenai and the surrounding country.
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 562. ' An den Uf em und den Umgebungen von Cook's
Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna und Kisshick. Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 103.
The Unakatana Yunakakhotanas, live ' on the Yukon between Koyukuk
and Nuklukahyet. ' DalVs Alaska, p. 53.
' Junakachotana, ein Stamm, welcher auf dem Flusse Jun-a-ka wohnt.'
Sagoskin, in Denkschr. der russ. geo. Gesell., p. 324. 'Die Junnakachotana,
am Flusse Jukchana oder Junna (so wird der obere Lauf des Kwichpakh
148 TBIBAL BOUNDABIES.
genannt) zwischen den Nebenfiiissen Nulato und Junnaka, so wie am untern
Laufe des letztgenannten Flusses.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6.
' Die Junnachotana bewohnen den obern Lauf des Jukchana oder Junna
von der Miindung des Junnaka.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 6.
' Die Jugelnuten haben ihre Ansiedelungen am Kwichpakh, am Tschagel-
juk und an der Miindung des Innoka. Die Iiikalichljuaten, am obern Laufe
des Innoka. Die Thljegonchotana am Flusse Thljegon, der nach der Ver-
inigung mit dem Tatschegno den Innoka bildet. Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., pp.
6, 7. 'They extend virtually from the confluence of the Co-Yukuk River to
Nuchukayette at the junction of the Tanana with the Yukon.' 'They also
inhabit the banks of the Co-yukuk and other interior rivers.' Whymper's
Alaska, p. 204.
The Ingaliks inhabit the Yukon from Nulato south to below the Anvic
Biver. See Whymper's Map. ' The tribe extends from the edge of the wooded
district near the sea to and across the Yukon below Nulato, on the Yukon
and its affluents to the head of the delta, and across the portage to the Kus-
koquim Biver and its branches.' Ball's Alaska, p. 28. 'Die Inkiliken, am
untern Laufe des Junna sudlich von Nulato.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz,, p. 6.
' An dem ganzen Ittege wohnt der Stamm der Inkiliken, welcher zu dem
Volk der Ttynai gehort.' Sagoskin, in Denkschr. der russ. geo. GeselL, p.
341. 'An den Fliissen Kwichpack, Kuskokwim und anderen ihnen zu-
stromenden Fliissen.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 120. 'The Ingaliks living on
the north side of the Yukon between it and the Kaiyuh Mountains (known
as Takaitsky to the Bussians), bear the name of Kaiyuhkatana or "lowland
people," and the other branches of Ingaliks have similar names, while pre
serving their general tribal name.' Dall's Alaska, p. 53. On "VVhymper's map
they are called T'kitskes and are situated east of the Yukon in latitude 64°
north.
The KoltscJianes occupy the territory inland between the sources of the
Kuskoquim and Copper Bivers. ' They extend as far inland as the water
shed between the Copper-river and the Yukon.' Latham's Nat. Races, p.
292. ' Die Galzanen oder Koltschanen (d. h. Fremdlinge, in der Sprache
der Athnaer) bewohnen das Innere des Landes zwischen den Quellfliissen
des Kuskokwim bis zu den nordlichen Zufliissen des Athna oder Kupfer-
stromes.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7. 'Diejenigen Stamme, welche die
nordlichen und ostlichen, dem Atna zustromenden Flusse und Fliisschen be
wohnen, eben so^die noch weiter, jenseits der Gebirge lebenden, werden von
den Atnaern Koltschanen, d. h. Fremdlinge, genannt.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn.,
p. 101. 'North of the river Atna.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 96.
The Nehannes occupy the territory midway between Mount St. Elias and
the Mackenzie Biver, from Fort Selkirk and the Stakine Biver. ' According
to Mr. Isbister, range the country between the Bussian settlements on the
Stikine Biver and the Bocky Mountains.' Latham's Nat. Races, p. 295. The
Nohhannies live ' upon the upper branches of the Biviere aux Liards.' Frank
lin's Nar., vol. ii., p. 87. They 'inhabit the angle between that branch and
the great bend of the trunk of the river, and are neighbours of the Beaver
Indians.' Richardson's Jour., vol. ii. p. 6. The region which includes the
Lewis, or Tahco, and Pelly Bivers, with the valley of the Chilkaht Biver, is
THE TINNEH. 149
occupied by tribes known to the Hudson Bay voyageurs as Nehannees.
Those on the Pelly and Macmillan rivers call themselves Affats-tena. Some
of them near Liard's River call themselves Daho-tena or Acheto-tena, and
others are called Sicannees by the voyageurs. Those near Francis Lake
are known as Mauvais Monde, or Slave Indians. About Fort Selkirk they
have been called Gens des Foux.
The Kenai proper, or Kenai-tena, or Thnaina, inhabit the peninsula of
Kenai, the shores of Cook Inlet, and thence westerly across the Chigmit
Mountains, nearly to the Kuskoquim River. They 'inhabit the country near
Cook's Inlet, and both shores of the Inlet as far south as Chugachik Bay.'
DaU's Alaska, p. 430. ' Die eigentlichen Thnaina bewohnen die Halbinsel
Kenai und ziehen sich von da westlich uber das Tschigmit-Gebirge zum Man-
taschtano oder Tchalchukh, einem sudlichen Nebenflusse des Kuskokwim.'
Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7. 'Dieses — an den Ufern und den Umgebungen
von Cook's Inlet und um die Seen Iliamna und Kisshick lebende Volk gehort
zu dem selben Stamme wie die Galzanen oder Koltschanen, Atnaer, und Ko-
loschen.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethn., p. 103. 'Les Kenayzi habitent la cote occiden-
tale de 1'entree de Cook ou du golfe Kenayskaja.' Humboldt, EssaiPoL, torn.
i.. p. 348. ' The Indians of Cook's Inlet and adjacent waters are called "Ka-
nisky." They are settled along the shore of the inlet and on the east shore
of the peninsula.' 'East of Cook's Inlet, in Prince William's Sound, there
are but few Indians, they are called "Nuchusk." ' Ind. Aff. Kept, 1869,
p. 575.
The Atnas occupy the Atna or Copper Eiver from near its mouth to near it*
source. 'At the mouth of the Copper River.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii.,
p. 392. ' Die Athnaer, am Athnaoder Kupferflusse.' Holmberg, Ethn. Skiz., p. 7.
' On the upper part of the Atna or Copper River are a little-known tribe of
the above name [viz., Ah-tena]. They have been called Atnaer and Kolshina
by the Russians, and Yellow Knife or Nehaunee by the English. ' Ball's Alaska,
p. 429. ' Diese kleine, jetzt ungefahr aus 60 Familien bestehende, Volker-
schaft wohnt an den Ufern des Flusses Atna und iiennt sich Atnaer.' JBaer,
Stat. u. Ethn., p. 97.
CHAPTER III.
COLUMBIANS.
HABITAT OF THE COLUMBIAN GEOUP — PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHT — SOURCES OF
FOOD-SUPPLY — INFLUENCE OF FOOD AND CLIMATE — FOUB EXTREME CLASSES
— HAIDAHS — THEIR HOME — PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES — CLOTHING — SHEL
TER — SUSTENANCE — IMPLEMENTS — MANUFACTURES — ARTS — PROPERTY —
LAWS— SLAVERY — WOMEN — CUSTOMS— MEDICINE — DEATH — THE NOOTKAS
— THE SOUND NATIONS — THE CHINOOKS— THE SHUSHWAPS— THE SALISH —
THE SAHAPTINS — TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The term COLUMBIANS, or, as Scouler1 and others have
called them, Nootka- Columbians, is, in the absence of a
native word, sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the
aboriginal nations of north-western America between the
forty-third and fifty-fifth parallels, from those of the other
great divisions of this work. The Columbia River, which
suggests the name of this group, and Nootka Sound on
the western shore of Vancouver Island, were originally
the chief centres of European settlement on the North
west Coast; and at an early period these names were
compounded to designate the natives of the Anglo-Amer
ican possessions on the Pacific, which lay between the
discoveries of the Russians on the north and those of
the Spaniards on the south. As a simple name is al
ways preferable to a complex one, and as no more perti
nent name suggests itself than that of the great river
which, with its tributaries, drains a large portion of this
1 The Nootka-ColumUans comprehend 'the tribes inhabiting Quadra and
Vancouver's Island, and the adjacent inlets of the mainland, down to the
Columbia Kiver, and perhaps as far S. as Umpqua River and the northern
part of New California.' Scoukr, in Lond. Geog. tioc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221.
COLUMBIAN FAMILIES. 151
territory, I drop i Nootka ' and retain only the word
'Columbian.'2 These nations have also been broadly
denominated Flatheads, from a custom practiced more or
less by many of their tribes, of compressing the cranium
during infancy;3 although the only Indians in the whole
area, tribally known as Flatheads, are those of the Salish
family, who do not flatten the head at all.
In describing the Columbian nations it is necessary,
as in the other divisions, to subdivide the group; arbi
trarily this may have been done in some instances, but
as naturally as possible in all. Thus the people of Queen
Charlotte Islands, and the adjacent coast for about a
hundred miles inland, extending from 55° to 52° of north
latitude, are called Haidahs from the predominant tribe
of the islands. The occupants of Vancouver Island and
the opposite main, with its labyrinth of inlets from 52°
to 49°, I term Nootkas. The Sound Indians inhabit the
region drained by streams flowing into Puget Sound, and
the adjacent shores of the strait and ocean ; the ChinooJcs
occupy the banks of the Columbia from the Dalles to the
sea, extending along the coast northward to Gray Har
bor, and southward nearly to the Californian line. The
interior of British Columbia, between the Cascade and
Kocky Mountains, and south of the territory occupied by
the Hyperborean Carriers, is peopled by the Shushwaps,
the Kootenais, and the 0/canagans. Between 49° and 47°,
2 Gilbert Malcolm Sproat, a close observer and clear writer, thinks ' this
word Nootkali — no word at all — together with an imaginary word, Columbian,
denoting a supposed original North American race — is absurdly used to de
note all the tribes which inhabit the Rocky Mountains and the western coast
of North America, from California inclusively to the regions inhabited by the
Esquimaux. In this great tract there are more tribes, differing totally in lan
guage and customs, than in any other portion of the American continent;
and surely a better general name for them could be found than this meaning
less and misapplied term Nootkah Columbian.' Sproat' s Scenes, p. 315. Yet
Mr Sproat suggests no other name. It is quite possible that Cook, Voy. to
the Pacific, vol. ii., p. 288, misunderstood the native name of Nootka Sound.
It is easy to criticise any name which might be adopted, and even if it were
practicable or desirable to change all meaningless and misapplied geograph
ical names, the same or greater objections might be raised against others,
which necessity would require a writer to invent.
3 Kane's Wand., p. 173; Macfie's Vane. Isl., p. 441; Catlin's N. Am. Ind.,
vol. ii., p. 108; the name being given to the people between the region of the
Columbia and 53 J 30'.
152 COLUMBIANS.
extending west from the Cascade to the Rocky Mountains,
chiefly on the Columbia and Clarke Fork, is the Salish or
Flathead family. The nations dwelling south of 47° and
east of the Cascade range, on the Columbia, the lower Snake,
and their tributary streams, may be called Sahaptins, from
the name of the Nez Perce tribes/ The great Shoshone
family, extending south-east from the upper waters of the
Columbia, and spreading out over nearly the whole of the
Great Basin, although partially included in the Colum
bian limits, will be omitted in this, and included in the
Californian Group, which follows. These divisions, as
before stated, are geographic rather than ethnographic.5
Many attempts have been made by practical ethnologists,
to draw partition lines between these peoples according
to race, all of which have proved signal failures, the best
approximation to a scientific division being that of phil
ologists, the results of whose researches are given in the
third volume of this series; but neither the latter divis
ion, nor that into coast and inland tribes — in many re
spects the most natural and clearly defined of all6 — is
adapted to my present purpose. In treating of the Co
lumbians, I will first take up the coast families, going
from north to south, and afterward follow the same order
with those east of the mountains.
No little partiality was displayed by the Great Spirit
of the Columbians in the apportionment of their dwell
ing-place. The Cascade Mountains, running from north
to south throughout their whole territory, make of it two
distinct climatic divisions, both highly but unequally
favored by nature. On the coast side — a strip which
4 The name Nez Perces, ' pierced noses, ' is usually pronounced as if En
glish, Nez Per-ces.
5 For particulars and authorities see TKIBAL BOUNDAEIES at end of this
chapter.
6 ' The Indian tribes of the North-western Coast may be divided into two
groups, the Insular and the Inland, or those who inhabit the islands and
adjacent shores of the mainland, and subsist almost entirely by fishing; and
those who live in the interior and are partly hunters. This division is per
haps arbitrary, or at least imperfect, as there are several tribes whose affini
ties with either group are obscure.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol.
xi., p. 217. See Stevens, in Pac. 7?. R. Ji'epf., vol. i., pp. 147-8, and Mayne's
B. C., p. 242. ' The best division is into coast and inland tribes.' Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., p. 226.
HOME OF THE COLUMBIANS. 153
may be called one hundred and fifty miles wide and one
thousand miles long — excessive cold is unknown, and
the earth, warmed by Asiatic currents and watered by
numerous mountain streams, is thickly wooded; noble
forests are well stocked with game ; a fertile soil yields a
great variety of succulent roots and edible berries, which
latter means of subsistence were lightly appreciated by the
indolent inhabitants, by reason of the still more abund
ant and accessible food-supply afforded by the. fish of
ocean, channel, and stream. The sources of material for
clothing were also bountiful far beyond the needs of the
people.
Passing the Cascade barrier, the climate and the face
of the country change. Here we have a succession of
plains or table-lands, rarely degenerating into deserts,
with a good supply of grass and roots ; though generally
without timber, except along the streams, until the
heavily wooded western spurs of the Rocky Mountains
are reached. The air having lost much of its moisture,
affords but a scanty supply of rain, the warming and
equalizing influence of the ocean stream is no longer felt,
and the extremes of heat and cold are undergone accord
ing to latitude and season. Yet are the dwellers in this
land blessed above many other aboriginal peoples, in that
game is plenty, and roots and insects are at hand in case
the season's hunt prove unsuccessful.
Ethnologically, no well-defined line can be drawn to
divide the people occupying these two widely different
regions. Diverse as they certainly are in form, charac
ter, and customs, their environment, the climate, and their
methods of seeking food may well be supposed to have
made them so. Not only do the pursuit of game in the
interior and the taking of fish on the coast, develop
clearly marked general peculiarities of character and life
in the two divisions, but the same causes produce grades
more or less distinct in each division. West of the Cas
cade range, the highest position is held by the tribes who
in their canoes pursue the whale upon the ocean, and in
the effort to capture Leviathan become themselves great
154 COLUMBIANS.
and daring as compared with the lowest order who live
upon shell-fish and whatever nutritious substances may
be cast by the tide upon the beach. Likewise in the in
terior, the extremes are found in the deer, bear, elk, and
buffalo hunters, especially when horses are employed, and
in the root and insect eaters of the plains. Between these
four extreme classes may be traced many intermediate
grades of physical and intellectual development, due to
necessity and the abilities exercised in the pursuit of game.
The Columbians hitherto have been brought in much
closer contact with the whites than the Hyperboreans,
and the results of the association are known to all. The
cruel treacheries and massacres by which nations have
been thinned, and flickering remnants of once powerful
tribes gathered on government reservations or reduced
to a handful of beggars, dependent for a livelihood on
charity, theft, or the wages of prostitution, form an un
written chapter in the history of this region. That this
process of duplicity was unnecessary as well as infa
mous, I shall not attempt to show, as the discussion of
Indian policy forms no part of my present purpose.
Whatever the cause, whether from an inhuman civilized
policy, or the decrees of fate, it is evident that the Co
lumbians, in common with all the aborigines of America,
are doomed to extermination. Civilization and savagism
will not coalesce, any more than light and darkness ; and
although it may be necessary that these things come, yet
are those by whom they are unrighteously accomplished
none the less culpable.
Once more let it be understood that the time of which
this volume speaks, was when the respective peoples were
first known to Europeans. It was when, throughout
this region of the Columbia, nature's wild magnificence
was yet fresh; primeval forests unprofaned; lakes, and
rivers, and rolling plains unswept; it was when count
less villages dotted the luxuriant valleys; when from
the warrior's camp-fire the curling smoke never ceased
to ascend, nor the sounds of song and dance to be heard;
when bands of gaily dressed savages roamed over every
HAIDAH NATIONS. 155
hill-side; when humanity unrestrained vied with bird
and beast in the exercise of liberty absolute. This is
no history; alas! they have none; it is but a sun-picture,
and to be taken correctly must be taken quickly. Nor
need we pause to look back through the dark vista of
unwritten history, and speculate, who and what they are,
nor for how many thousands of years they have been com
ing and going, counting the winters, the moons, and the
sleeps ; chasing the wild game, basking in the sunshine,
pursuing and being pursued, killing and being killed.
All knowledge regarding them lies buried in an eternity
of the past, as all knowledge of their successors remains
folded in an eternity of the future. We came upon
them unawares, unbidden, and while we gazed they
melted away. The infectious air of civilization pene
trated to the remotest corner of their solitudes. Their
ignorant and credulous nature, unable to cope with the
intellect of a superior race, absorbed only its vices, yield
ing up its own simplicity and nobleness for the white
man's diseases and death.
In the Haidah family I include the nations occupying
the coast and islands from the southern extremity of
Prince of Wales Archipelago to the Bentinck Arms in
about 52°. Their territory is bounded on the north and
east by the Thlinkeet and Carrier nations of the Hyper
boreans, and on the south by the Nootka family of the
Columbians. Its chief nations, whose boundaries how
ever can rarely be fixed with precision, are the Massets,
the Skiddegats, and the Cunishawas, of Queen Charlotte
Islands; the Kaiyanies, of Prince of Wales Archipelago;
the Chimsyans, about Fort Simpson, and on Chatham
Sound ; the Nass and the Skeenas, on the rivers of the
same names ; the Sebassas, on Pitt Archipelago and the
shores of Gardner Channel ; and the Millbank Sound In
dians, including the Hailtms and the BeGacoolas, the most
southern of this family. These nations, the orthography
of whose names is far from uniform among different wri
ters, are still farther subdivided into numerous indefinite
tribes, as specified at the end of this chapter.
156 COLUMBIANS.
The Haidah territory, stretching on the mainland three
hundred miles in length, and in width somewhat over
one hundred miles from the sea to the lofty Chilkoten
Plain, is traversed throughout its length by the northern
extension of the Cascade Range. In places its spurs and
broken foot-hills touch the shore, and the very heart of
the range is penetrated by innumerable inlets and chan
nels, into which pour short rapid streams from interior
hill and plain. The country, though hilly, is fertile
and covered by an abundant growth of large, straight
pines, cedars, and other forest trees. The forest abounds
with game, the waters with fish. The climate is less se
vere than in the middle United States; and notwith
standing the high latitude of their home, the Haidahs
have received no small share of nature's gifts. Little
has been explored, however, beyond the actual coast,
and information concerning this nation, coming from a
few sources only, is less complete than in the case of the
more southern Nootkas.
Favorable natural conditions have produced in the Hai
dahs a tall, comely, and well-formed race, not inferior to
any in North-western America;7 the northern nations of
7 ' By far the best looking, most intelligent and energetic people on the
N. W. Coast.' Scouler, in Loud. Geog. 8oc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. Also ranked
by Prichard as the finest specimens physically on the coast. Researches, vol.
v. , p. 433. The Nass people ' were peculiarly comely, strong, and well grown. '
Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 207. 'Would be handsome, or at least
comely,' were it not for the paint. 'Some of the women have exceedingly
handsome faces, and very symmetrical figures.' 'Impressed by the manly
beauty and bodily proportions of my islanders.' Poole's Queen Charlotte JsL,
pp. 310, 314. Mackenzie found the coast people 'more corpulent and of
better appearance than the inhabitants of the interior.' Voy. pp. 322-3;
see pp. 370-1. ' The stature (at Burke's Canal) was much more
stout and robust than that of the Indians further south. The prominence
of their countenances and the regularity of their features, resembled the
northern Europeans.' Vancouver's Voy. vol.ii.,p 262. A chief of 'gigantic
person, a stately air, a noble mien, a manly port, and all the characteristics
of external dignity, with a symmetrical figure, and a perfect order of Euro
pean contour.' Dune's Oregon, pp. 279, 251, 283, 285. Mayne says, their
countenances are decidedly plainer ' than the southern Indians. B. C., p. 250.
'A tall, well-formed people.' Bendd's Alex. Arch., p. 29. 'No finer men
can be found on the American Continent. ' Sproat's Scenes, p. 23. In 55°, ' Son
bien corpulentos.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. ' The best
looking Indians we had ever met.' ' Much taller, and in every way superior
to the Puget Sound tribes. The women are stouter than the men, but not so
good-looking.' Heed's Nar.
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE HAIDAHS. 157
the family being generally superior to the southern,8
and having physical if not linguistic affinities with their
Thlinkeet neighbors, rather than with the Nootkas.
Their faces are broad, with high cheek bones;9 the eyes
small, generally black, though brown and gray with a
reddish tinge have been observed among them.10 The
few who have seen their faces free from paint pronounce
their complexion light,11 and instances of Albino charac
teristics are sometimes found.12 The hair is not uni
formly coarse and black, but often soft in texture, and of
varying shades of brown, worn by some of the tribes cut
close to the head.13 The beard is usually plucked out
with great care, but moustaches are raised sometimes as
strong as those of Europeans;14 indeed there seems to
8 The Sebassas are ' more active and enterprising than the Millbank
tribes.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 273. The Haeeltzuk are ' comparatively effeminate
in their appearance.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 223. The
Kyganies ' consider themselves more civilised than the other tribes, whom
they regard with feelings of contempt.' Id., p. 219. The Chimsyans 'are
much more active and cleanly than the tribes to the south.' Id., p. 220. 'I
have, as a rule, remarked that the physical attributes of those tribes coming
from the north, are superior to those of the dwellers in the south.' Barrett-
Lennard's Trav., p. 40.
9 Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 370-1, 322-3; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 262,
320; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. ' Regular, and often fine
featiires.' BendeVs Alex. Arch., p. 29.
10 Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 309-10, 322-3, 370-1; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p.
229. 'Opening of the eye long and narrow.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. vi., p. 197.
11 'Had it not been for the filth, oil, and paint, with which, from their
earliest infancy, they are besmeared from head to foot, there is great reason
to believe that their colour would have differed but little from such of the
labouring Europeans, as are constantly exposed to the inclemency and alter
ations of the weather.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 262. ' Between the olive
and the copper.' Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 370-1. ' Their complexion, when they
are washed free from paint, is as white as that of the people of the S. of Eu
rope.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218. Skin 'nearly as
white as ours.' Poole's Q. Char. Isl., pp. 314-5. ' Of a remarkable light color.'
BendeVs Alex. Arch., p. 29. 'Fairer in complexion than the Vancouverians.'
Their young women's skins are as clear and white as those of Englishwomen/
Sproat's Scenes, pp. 23-4. ' Fair in complexion, sometimes with ruddy cheeks. '
Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. ' De buen semblante, coloi
bianco y bermejos.' Crespi, in Doc, Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646.
12 Tolmie mentions several instances of the kind, and states that ' amongst
the Hydah or Queen Charlotte Island tribes, exist a family of coarse, red-haired,
light-brown eyed, square-built people, short-sighted, and of fair complexion.'
Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 229-30.
13 Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 322-3, 371; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 370;
Dunn's Oregon, p. 283; Poole's Q. Char. Isl., p. 315.
14 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218; Poole's Q. Char. Isl.,
p. 74. 'What is very unusual among the aborigines of America, they have
158 COLUMBIANS.
be little authority for the old belief that the North
western American Indians were destitute of hair except
on the head.15 Dr Scouler, comparing Chimsyan skulls
writh those of the Chinooks, who are among the best
known of the north-western nations, finds that in a nat
ural state both have broad, high cheek-bones, with a re
ceding forehead, but the Chimsyan skull, between the
parietal and temporal bones, is broader than that of the
Chinook, its vertex being remarkably flat.16 Swollen and
deformed legs are common from constantly doubling them
under the body while sitting in the canoe. The teeth are
frequently worn down to the gums with eating sanded
salmon.17
The Haidahs have no methods of distortion peculiar
to themselves, by which they seek to improve their fine
physique ; but the custom of flattening the head in in
fancy obtains in some of the southern nations of this
family, as the Hailtzas and Bellacoolas,18 and the Thlin-
keet lip-piece, already sufficiently described, is in use
throughout a larger part of the whole territory. It was
observed by Simpson as far south as Mill bank Sound,
where it was highly useful as well as ornamental, afford
ing a firm hold for the fair fingers of the sex in their
drunken fights. These ornaments, made of either wood,
bone, or metal, are wrorn particularly large in Queen
thick beards, which appear early in life.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
vi., p. 197.
15 ' After the age of puberty, their bodies, in their natural state, are cov
ered in the same manner as those of the Europeans. The men, indeed,
esteem a beard very unbecoming, and take great pains to get rid of it, nor
is there any ever to be perceived on their faces, except when they grow old,
and become inattentive to their appearance. Every crinous efflorescence on
the other parts of the body is held unseemly by them, and both sexes employ
much time in their extirpation. The Nawdowessies, and the remote nations,
pluck them out with bent pieces of hard wood, formed into a kind of nippers;
whilst those who have communication with Europeans procure from them
wire, which they twist into a screw or worm; applying this to the part, they
press the rings together, and with a sudden twitch draw out all the hairs that
are inclosed between them.' Carver's Trav., p. 225.
16 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 220.
17 Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 370-1; Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 226; Dunn's Oregon,
p. 287.
is Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 232; Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi.,
pp. 218, 220, 223. ' The most northern of these Flat-head tribes is the Haut-
zuk.' tichoolcrqft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 325.
HAIDAH DRESS AND ORNAMENT. 159
Charlotte Islands, where they seem to be not a mark of
rank, but to be worn in common by all the women.19 Be
sides the regular lip-piece, ornaments, various in shape
and material, of shell, bone, wood, or metal, are worn
stuck in the lips, nose, and ears, apparently according to
the caprice or taste of the wearer, the skin being some
times, though more rarely, tattooed to correspond.20 Both
for ornament and as a protection against the weather, the
skin is covered with a thick coat of paint, a black polish
being a full dress uniform. Figures of birds and beasts,
and a coat of grease are added in preparation for a feast,
with fine down of duck or goose — a stylish coat of tar and
feathers — sprinkled over the body as an extra attraction.21
When the severity of the weather makes additional pro
tection desirable, a blanket, formerly woven by them
selves from dog's hair, and stained in varied colors, but
now mostly procured from Europeans, is thrown loosely
over the shoulders. Chiefs, especially in times of feasting,
wear richer robes of skins.22 The styles of dress and orna
ment adopted around the forts from contact with the whites
need not be described. Among the more unusual arti
cles that have been noticed by travelers are, "a large hat,
resembling the top of a small parasol, made of the twisted
fibres of the roots of trees, with an aperture in the in
side, at the broader end" for the head, worn by a Se-
bassa chief; and at Millbank Sound, "masks set with
w Simpson's Overland Joum., vol. i. , pp. 204, 233 . ' This wooden ornament
seems to be wore by all the se.x indiscriminately, whereas at Norfolk Sound it
is confined to those of superior rank.' Dixon's Voy., pp. 225, 208, with a cut.
A piece of brass or copper is first put in, and ' this corrodes the lacerated
parts, and by consuming the flesh gradually increases the orifice.' Vancouver1 a
Voy., vol.ii., pp. 279-80, 408. Scouler, in Lond. Geog. &oc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218;
Dunn's Oregon, pp. 276, 279; Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 651;
Cornwallis' New Eldorado, p. 106; Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113, with
plate.
20 Mayne's B. C., pp. 281-2; Poole's Q. Char. Isl., pp. 75, 311; Barrett-Len-
nard's Trav., pp. 45-6; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 279, 285.
21 Poole's ^. Char. Isl., pp. 82,' 106, 310, 322-3; Mayne's B. C., pp. 282,
283; Dunn's Oregon, p. 251.
22 Mayne's B\ C., p. 282; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 251, 276, 291; Parker's Explor.
Tour., p. 263; Poole's Q. Char. Isl., p. 310. 'The men habitually go naked, but
when they go off on a journey they wear a blanket.' Reed's Nar. 'Cuero
de nutrias y lobo marino .... sombreros de junco bien tejidos con la copa
puntiaguda.' Crespi, in Doc. Ilist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., p. 646.
160 COLUMBIANS.
seals' whiskers and feathers, which expand like a fan,"
with secret springs to open the mouth and eyes.23 Mac
kenzie and Vancouver, who were among the earliest vis
itors to this region, found fringed robes of bark-fibre,
ornamented with fur and colored threads. A circular
mat, with an opening in the centre for the head, was
worn as a protection from the rain; and war garments
consisted of several thicknesses of the strongest hides
procurable, sometimes strengthened by strips of wood on
the inside.24
The Haidahs use as temporary dwellings, in their fre
quent summer excursions for war and the hunt, simple
lodges of poles, covered, among the poorer classes by ce
dar mats, and among the rich by skins. Their perma
nent villages are usually built in strong natural posi
tions, guarded by precipices, sometimes on rocks detached
from the main land, but connected with it by a narrow
platform. Their town houses are built of light logs, or
of thick split planks, usually of sufficient size to accom
modate a large number of families. Poole mentions a
house on Queen Charlotte Islands, which formed a cube of
fifty feet, ten feet of its height being dug in the ground, and
which accommodated seven hundred Indians. The build
ings are often, however, raised above the ground on a
platform supported by posts, sometimes carved into hu
man or other figures. Some of these raised buildings
seen by the earlier visitors were twenty-five or thirty
feet from the ground, solidly and neatly constructed, an
inclined log with notches serving as a ladder. These
houses were found only in the southern part of the Hai-
23 Dunn's Oregon, pp. 253, 276-7; CaUin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113.
24 At Salmon Biver, 52° 58', 'their dress consists of a single robe tied
over the shoulders, falling down behind, to the heels, and before, a little below
the knees, with a deep fringe round the bottom. It is generally made of the
bark of the cedar tree, which they prepare as fine as hemp; though some of
these garments are interwoven with strips of the sea-otter skin, which give
them the appearance of a fur on one side. Others have stripes of red and yel
low threads fancifully introduced towards the borders.' Clothing is laid
aside whenever convenient. ' The women wear a close fringe hanging down
before them about two feet in length, and half as wide. When they sit down
they draw this between their thighs.' Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 322-3, 371; Van
couver's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 280, 339.
HAIDAH HOUSES. 161
dah territory. The fronts were generally painted with
figures of men and animals. There were no windows or
chimney ; the floors were spread with cedar mats, on which
the occupants slept in a circle round a central fire, whose
smoke in its exit took its choice between the hole which
served as a door and the wall-cracks. On the south
eastern boundary of this territory, Mackenzie found in
the villages large buildings of similar but more careful
construction, and with more elaborately carved posts, but
they were not dwellings, being used probably for religious
purposes.25
Although game is plentiful, the Haidahs are not a race
of hunters, but derive their food chiefly from the innu
merable multitude of fish and sea animals, which, each
25 A house ' erected on a platform, raised and supported near thirty feet
from the ground by perpendicular spars of a very large size ; the whole occu
pying a space of about thirty -five by fifteen (yards), was covered in by a roof
of boards lying nearly horizontal, and parallel to the platform; it seemed to
be divided into three different houses, or rather apartments, each having a
separate access formed by a long tree in an inclined position from the plat
form to the ground, with notches cut in it by way of steps, about a foot and
a half asunder.' Vancouver's I'oy., \ol.ii., p. 274. See also pp. 137, 207-8,
272, 284. 'Their summer and winter residences are built of split plank,
similar to those of the Chenooks.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 263. 'Us habi-
tent dans des loges de soixante pieds de long, construites avec des troncs de
sapin et recouvertes d'ecorces d'arbres.' Jllofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 337.
'Their houses are neatly constructed, standing in a row; having large im
ages, cut out of wood, resembling idols. The dwellings have all painted
fronts, showing imitations of men and animals. Attached to their houses.
observed several oblong squares, of about twenty feet by eight. They were
made of thick cedar boards, which were joined with so much neatness, that
I at first thought they were one piece. They were painted with hieroglyphics,
and figures of different animals.' probably for purposes of devotion, as
was 'a large building in the middle of the village. . . .The ground-plot was
fifty feet by forty-five; each end is formed by four stout posts, fixed perpendic
ularly in the ground. The corner ones are plain, and support a beam of the
whole length, having three intermediate props on each side, but of a larger
size, and eight or nine feet in height. The two centre posts, at each end, are
two and a half feet in diameter, and carved into human figures, supporting
two ridge poles on their heads, twelve feet from the ground. The figures at
the upper part of this square represent two persons, with their hands upon
their knees, as if they supported the weight with pain and difficulty: the
others opposite to them stand at their ease, with their hands resting on their
hips. . . .Posts, poles, and figures, were painted red and black, but the sculp
ture of these people is superior to their painting.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. 331.
See also pp. 307, 318, 328-30, 339, 345; Poole's Q. Char. M., pp. Ill, 113-4;
Reed's Nar.; Marchand, Fo?/., torn, ii., pp. 127-31.
VOL. I. 11
162 COLUMBIANS.
variety in its season, fill the coast waters. Most of the
coast tribes, and all who live inland, kill the deer and
other animals, particularly since the introduction of fire
arms, but it is generally the skin and not the flesh that
is sought. Some tribes about the Bentinck channels, at
the time of Mackenzie's visit, would not taste flesh ex
cept from the sea, from superstitious motives. Birds that
burrow in the sand-banks are enticed out by the glare
of torches, and knocked down in large numbers with
clubs. They are roasted without plucking or cleaning,
the entrails being left in to improve the flavor. Potatoes,
and small quantities of carrots and other vegetables, are
now cultivated throughout this territory, the crop being
repeated until the soil is exhausted, when a new place is
cleared. Wild parsnips are abundant on the banks of
lakes and streams, and their tender tops, roasted, fur
nish a palatable food; berries and bulbs abound, and
the inner tegument of some varieties of the pine and
hemlock is dried in cakes and eaten with salmon-oil.
The varieties of fish sent by nature to the deep inlets
and streams for the Haidah's food, are very numerous;
their standard reliance for regular supplies being the sal
mon, herring, eulacbon or candle-fish, round-fish, and
halibut. Salmon are speared ; dipped up in scoop-nets ;
entangled in drag-nets managed between two canoes and
forced by poles to the bottom; intercepted in their pur
suit of smaller fish by gill-nets with coarse meshes, made
of cords of native hemp, stretched across the entrance of
the smaller inlets ; and are caught in large wicker bask
ets, placed at openings in weirs and embankments which
are built across the rivers. The salmon fishery differs
little in different parts of the Northwest. The candle-
fish, so fat that in frying they melt almost completely
into oil, and need only the insertion of a pith or bark
wick to furnish an excellent lamp, are impaled on the
sharp teeth of a rake, or comb. The handle of the rake
is from six to eight feet long, and it is swept through
the water by the Haidahs in their canoes by moon
light. Herring in immense numbers are taken in April
FOOD OF THE HAIDAHS. 163
by similar rakes, as well as by dip-nets, a large part
of the whole take being used for oil. Seals are speared
in the water or shot while on the rocks, and their flesh
is esteemed a great delicacy. Clams, cockles, and shell
fish are captured by squaws, such an employment be
ing beneath manly dignity. Fish, when caught, are
delivered to the women, whose duty it is to prepare
them for winter use by drying. No salt is used, but the
fish are dried in the sun, or smoke-dried by being hung
from the top of dwellings, then wrapped in bark, or
packed in rude baskets or chests, and stowed on high
scaffolds out of the reach of dogs and children. Salmon
are opened, and the entrails, head, and back-bone removed
before drying. During the process of drying, sand is
blown over the fish, and the teeth of the eater are often
worn down by it nearly even with the gums. The spawn
of salmon and herring is greatly esteemed, and besides
that obtained from the fish caught, much is collected on
pine boughs, which are stuck in the mud until loaded
with the eggs. This native caviare is dried for preser
vation, and is eaten prepared in various ways; pounded
between two stones, and beaten with water into a creamy
consistency; or boiled with sorrel and different berries,
and moulded into cakes about twelve inches square and
one inch thick by means of wooden frames. After a
sufficient supply of solid food for the winter is secured,
oil, the great heat- producing element of all northern
tribes, is extracted from the additional catch, by boiling
the fish in wooden vessels, and skimming the grease from
the water or squeezing it from the refuse. The arms and
breast of the women are the natural press in which the
mass, wrapped in mats, is hugged ; the hollow stalks of an
abundant sea-weed furnish natural bottles in which the
oil is preserved for use as a sauce, and into which nearly
everything is dipped before eating. When the stock of
food is secured, it is rarely infringed upon until the
winter sets in, but then such is the Indian appetite — ten
pounds of flour in the pancake-form at a meal being
nothing for the stomach of a Haidah, according to Poole
164 COLUMBIANS.
—that whole tribes frequently suffer from hunger before
spring.26
The Haidah weapons are spears from four to sixteen
feet long, some with a movable head or barb, which comes
oft' when the seal or whale is struck ; bows and arrows ;
hatchets of bone, horn, or iron, with which their planks
are made ; and daggers. Both spears and arrows are fre
quently pointed with iron, which, whether it found its
way across the continent from the Hud son- Bay settle
ments, down the coast from the Russians, or was ob
tained from wrecked vessels, was certainly used in Brit
ish Columbia for various purposes before the coming of
the whites. Bows are made of cedar, with sinew glued
along one side. Poole states that before the introduc
tion of fire-arms, the Queen Charlotte Islanders had no
weapon but a club. Brave as the Haidah warrior is
admitted to be, open fair fight is unknown to him, and
in true Indian style he resorts to night attacks, supe
rior numbers, and treachery, to defeat his foe. Cut
ting off the head as a trophy is practiced instead of
scalping, but though unmercifully cruel to all sexes and
ages in the heat of battle, prolonged torture of captives
seems to be unknown. Treaties of peace are arranged
by delegations from the hostile tribes, following set forms,
and the ceremonies terminate with a many days' feast.27
Nets are made of native wild hemp and of cedar-bark
fibre ; hooks, of two pieces of wood or bone fastened to
gether at an obtuse angle ; boxes, troughs, and household
dishes, of wood; ladles and spoons, of wood, horn, and
bone. Candle-fish, with a wick of bark or pith, serve as
26 On food of the Haidahs and the methods of procuring it, see Lord's
Nat., vol. i., pp. 41, 152; Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 306, 313-14, 319-21, 327, 333,
339, 369-70; Poole' s Q. Char. Isl., pp. 148, 284-5, 315-16; Vancouver's Voy.,
vol. ii., p. 273; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 251, 267, 274, 290-1; Mofras, Explor., torn,
ii., p. 337; Pemberton's Vancouver Island, p. 23; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 263;
Iteed's Nar.
27 Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 339; Poke's Q. Char. JsL, p. 316; Macken
zie's Voy., p. 372-3. ' Once I saw a party of Kaiganys of about two hundred
men returning from war. The paddles of the warriors killed in the fight
were lashed upright in their various seats, so that from a long distance the
number of the fallen could be ascertained; and on each mast of the canoes —
and some of them had three — was stuck the head of a slain foe.' Benders
Alex. Arch., p. 30.
HAIDAH MANUFACTURES. 165
lamps; drinking vessels and pipes are carved with great
skill from stone. The Haidahs are noted for their skill
in the construction of their various implements, particu
larly for sculptures in stone and ivory, in which they
excel all the other tribes of Northern America.28
The cedar-fibre and wild hemp. were prepared for use
by the women by beating on the rocks; they were then
spun with a rude distaff and spindle, and woven on a
frame into the material for blankets, robes, and mats,
or twisted by the men into strong and even cord, be-
28 The Kaiganies ' are noted for the beauty and size of their cedar canoes,
and their skill in carving. Most of the stone pipes, inlaid with fragments of
Haliotis or pearl shells, so common in ethnological collections, are their
handiwork. The slate quarry from which the stone is obtained is situated on
Queen Charlotte's Island.' DalVs Alaska, p. 411. The Chimsyans 'make fig
ures in stone dressed like Englishmen ; plates and other utensils of civiliza
tion, ornamented pipe stems and heads, models of houses, stone flutes,
adorned with well-carved figures of animals. Their imitative skill is as
noticeable as their dexterity in carving.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 317. The sup
porting posts of their probable temples were carved into human figures, and
all painted red and black, ' but the sculpture of these people (52° 40') is supe
rior to their painting. ' Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 330-1 ; see pp. 333-4. * One man
(near Fort Simpson) known as the Arrowsmith of the north-east coast, had
gone far beyond his compeers, having prepared very accurate charts of most
parts of the adjacent shores.' Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 207. ' The
Indians of the Northern Family are remarkable for their ingenuity and me
chanical dexterity in the construction of their canoes, houses, and different
warlike or fishing implements. They construct drinking-vessels, tobacco-
pipes, &c., from a soft argillaceous stone, and these articles are remarkable
for the symmetry of their form, and the exceedingly elaborate and intricate
figures which are carved upon them. With respect to carving and a faculty
for imitation, the Queen Charlotte's Islanders are equal to the most ingenious
of the Polynesian Tribes.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 218.
'Like the Chinese, they imitate literally anything that is given them to do;
so that if you give them a cracked gun-stock to copy, and do not warn them,
they will in their manufacture repeat the blemish. "Many of their slate-carv
ings are very good indeed, and their designs most curious.' Mayne's B. C.,
p. 278. See also, Dunn's Oregon, p. 293; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 337,
and plate p. 387. The Skidagates ' showed me beautifully wrought articles
of their own design and make, and amongst them some flutes manufactured
from an unctuous blue slate .... The two ends were inlaid with lead, giving
the idea of a fine silver mounting. Two of the keys perfectly represented
frogs in a sitting posture, the eyes being picked out with burnished lead It
would have done credit to a European modeller.' Poole's Q. Char. Isl., p. 258.
' Their talent for carving has made them famous far beyond their own country. '
Bendel's Alex* Arch. , p. 29. A square wooden box, holding one or two bushels,
is made from three pieces, the sides being from one piece so mitred as to
bend at the corners without breaking. 'During their performance of this
character of labor, (carving, etc.) their superstitions will not allow any spec
tator of the operator's work.' Heed's Nar.; Jnd. Life, p. 96. ' Of a very fine
and hard slate they make cups, plates, pipes, little images, and various orna
ments, wrqught with surprising elegance and taste.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. ' Us peignent aussi avec le meme gout.' Rossi, Souve
nirs, p. 298; Anderson, in Hist. May., vol. vii., pp. 74-5.
166 COLUMBIANS.
tween the hand and thigh. Strips of otter-skin, bird-
feathers, and other materials, were also woven into the
blankets. Dogs of a peculiar breed, now nearly extinct,
were shorn each year, furnishing a long white hair, which,
mixed with fine hemp and cedar, made the best cloth.
By dyeing the materials, regular colored patterns were
produced, each tribe having had, it is said, a peculiar
pattern by which its matting could be distinguished.
Since the coming of Europeans, blankets of native man
ufacture have almost entirely disappeared. The Bella-
coolas made very neat baskets, called zeilusqua, as wrell
as hats and water-tight vessels, all of fine cedar-roots.
Each chief about Fort Simpson kept an artisan, whose
business it was to repair canoes, make masks, etc.29
The Haidah canoes are dug out of cedar logs, and
are sometimes sixty feet long, six and a half wide,
and four and a half deep, accommodating one hundred
men. The prow and stern are raised, and often grace
fully curved like a swan's neck, with a monster's head
at the extremity. Boats of the better class have their
exteriors carved and painted, with the gunwale inlaid
in some cases with otter- teeth. Each canoe is made of
a single log, except the raised extremities of the larger
boats. They are impelled rapidly and safely over the
often rough waters of the coast inlets, by shovel-shaped
paddles, and when on shore, are piled up and covered
with mats for protection against the rays of the sun.
Since the coming of Europeans, sails have been added
to the native boats, and other foreign features imitated.30
29 Mackenzie's Voy., p. 338; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 63; vol. ii., pp. 215-17,
254, 258; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 251, 253, 291, 293. 'They boil the cedar root
until it becomes pliable to be worked by the hand and beaten with sticks,
when they pick the fibres apart into threads. The warp is of a different ma
terial — sinew of the whale, or dried kelp-thread.' Heed's Nar. 'Petatito de
vara en cuadro bien vistoso, tejido de palma fina de dos colores bianco y negro
que tejido en cuadritos.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., s. iv., vol. vi., pp. 647,
650-1.
30. Pook's Q. Char. Isl, p. 269, and cuts on pp. 121, 291; Mackenzie's
Voy., p. 335; Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 204; Vancouver's Voy., vol.
ii., p. 303; Sutily Mexicana, Viage, p. cxxv; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 174; lieed's
Nar.; Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113, with plate. The Bellabellahs
' promised to construct a steam-ship on the model of ours .... Some time after
this rude steamer appeared. She was from 20 to 30 feet long, all in one
TEADE AND GOVEBNMENT. 167
Rank and power depend greatly upon wealth, which
consists of implements, wives, and slaves. Admission
to alliance with medicine-men, whose influence is greatest
in the tribe, can only be gained by sacrifice of private
property. Before the disappearance of sea-otters from
the Haidah waters, the skins of that animal formed the
chief element of their trade and wealth; now the po
tatoes cultivated in some parts, and the various manu
factures of Queen Charlotte Islands, supply their slight
necessities. There is great rivalry among the islanders
in supplying the tribes on the main with potatoes, fleets
of forty or fifty canoes engaging each year in the trade
from Queen Charlotte Islands. Fort Simpson is the great
commercial rendezvous of the surrounding nations, who
assemble from all directions in September, to hold a fair,
dispose of their goods, visit friends, fight enemies, feast,
and dance. Thus continue trade and merry-making for
several weeks. Large fleets of canoes from the north also
visit Victoria each spring for trading purposes.31
Very little can be said of the government of the Hai-
dahs in distinction from that of the other nations of the
Northwest Coast. Among nearly all of them rank is nom
inally hereditary, for the most part by the female line,
but really depends to a great extent on wealth and ability
in war. Females often possess the right of chieftainship.
In early intercourse with whites the chief traded for the
whole tribe, subject, however, to the approval of the several
families, each of which seemed to form a kind of subordi
nate government by itself. In some parts the power of the
piece — a large tree hollowed out — resembling the model of our steamer. She
was black, with painted ports; decked over; and had paddles painted red,
and Indians under cover, to turn them round. The steersman was not seen.
She was floated triumphantly, and went at the rate of three miles an hour.
They thought they had nearly come up to the point of external structure;
but then the enginery baffled them; and this they thought they could imi
tate in time, by perseverance, and the helping illumination of the Great
Spirit.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 272. See also, p. 291. 'A canoe easily distanced
the champion boat of the American Navy, belonging to the man-of-war Sar-
emac.' Bender s Alex. Arch., p. 29.
si Scouler, in Lond. Geog Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 219; Macfie's B. C., pp.
429, 437, 458; Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206; Lord's Nat., vol. i.,
p. 174; Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 279, 281-3,
292; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. cxxv.
1G8 COLUMBIANS.
chief seems absolute, and is wantonly exercised in the
commission of the most cruel acts according to his pleas
ure. The extensive embankments and weirs found by
Mackenzie, although their construction must have re
quired the association of all the labor of the tribe, were
completely under the chief's control, and no one could
fish without his permission. The people seemed all equal,
but strangers must obey the natives or leave the village.
Crimes have no punishment by law ; murder is settled for
with relatives of the victim, by death or by the payment of
a large sum ; and sometimes general or notorious offenders,
especially medicine-men, are put to death by an agree
ment among leading men.32 Slavery is universal, and as
the life of the slave is of no value to the owner except as
property, they are treated with extreme cruelty. Slaves
the northern tribes purchase, kidnap, or capture in war
from their southern neighbors, who obtain them by like
means from each other, the course of the slave traffic be
ing generally from south to north, and from the coast in
land?3
Polygamy is everywhere practiced, and the number of
wives is regulated only by wealth, girls being bought of
parents at any price which may be agreed upon, and
returned, and the price recovered, when after a proper
trial they are not satisfactory. The transfer of the
presents or price to the bride's parents is among some
tribes accompanied by slight ceremonies nowhere fully
described. The marriage ceremonies at Millbank Sound
are performed on a platform over the water, supported
by canoes. While jealousy is not entirely unknown,
chastity appears to be so, as women who can earn the
32 Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 374-5; Tolmieand Anderson, in Lord's Nat., vol.
ii., pp. 240-2, 235; Macjie's 1L C., p. 429; /Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i.,
p. 205 ; Dixon's Voy., p. 227. ' There exists among them a regular aristocracy.'
' The chiefs are always of unquestionable birth, and generally count among
their ancestors men who were famous in battle and council.' 'The chief is
regarded with all the reverence and respect which his rank, his birth, and
his wealth can claim,' but 'his power is by no means unlimited.' Bendel's
Alex. Arch., p. 30.
33 Dunn's Oregon, pp. 273-4, 283; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 263; BendeVs
Alex. Arch., p. 30; Kane's Wand., p. 220.
H AID AH GAMBLERS. 169
greatest number of blankets win great admiration for
themselves and high position for their husbands. Abor
tion and infanticide are not uncommon. Twin births
are unusual, and the number of children is not large, al
though the age of bearing extends to forty or forty-six
years. Women, except in the season of preparing the
winter supply of fish, are occupied in household affairs
and the care of children, for whom they are not without
some affection, and whom they nurse often to the age of
two or three years. Many families live together in one
house, with droves of filthy dogs and children, all sleep
ing on mats round a central fire.34
The Haidahs, like all Indians, are inveterate gamblers,
the favorite game on Queen Charlotte Islands being odd
and even, played with small round sticks, in which the
game is won when one player has all the bunch of forty
or fifty sticks originally belonging to his opponent. Far
ther south, and inland, some of the sticks are painted
with red rings, and the player's skill or luck consists
in naming the number and marks of sticks previously
wrapped by his antagonist in grass. All have become
fond of whisky since the coming of whites, but seem to
have had no intoxicating drink before. At their annual
trading fairs, and on other occasions, they are fond of
visiting and entertaining friends with ceremonious inter
change of presents, a suitable return being expected for
each gift. At these reception feasts, men and wromen
34 ' Polygamy is universal, regulated simply by the facilities for subsist-
;e.' Anderson, in Lord's Kat., vol. ii., p. 235. See pp. 231-5, and vol. i.,
and her father. Poole's Q. Char. IsL, pp. 312- 15, 115-10, 155. ' The Indians
are in general very jealous of their women.' Dixon's Voy., p. 225-6. ' Tous
les individus d'une famille couchent pele-mele sur le sol plancheye de Fhabi-
tation.' Marchand, Voy., tom.ii., p. 144. 'Soon after I had retired. . . .the chief
paid me a visit to insist on my going to his bed-companion, and taking my
place himself.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. 331. See pp. 300, 371-2. Parker's Ex-
plor. Tour., p. 263. ' On the weddingday they have a public feast, at which
they dance and sing.' Dunn' ft Oregon, pp. '252-3, 289-90. 'According to a
custom of the Bellabollahs, the widow of the deceased is transferred to his
brother's harem.' Simpson's Overland Jo-urn., vol. i., p. 203-4. 'The tempo
rary present of a wife is one of the greatest honours that can be shown there
to a guest.' Sproat's Scenes,p. 95.
170 COLUMBIANS.
are seated on benches along opposite walls ; at wedding
feasts both sexes dance and sing together. In dancing,
the body, head, and arms are thrown into various atti
tudes to keep time with the music, very little use being
made of the legs. On Queen Charlotte Islands the wom
en dance at feasts, while the men in a circle beat time
with sticks, the only instruments, except a kind of tam
bourine. For their dances they deck themselves in their
best array, including plenty of birds' down, which they
delight- to communicate to their partners in bowing, and
which they also blow into the air at regular intervals,
through a painted tube. Their songs are a simple and
monotonous chant, with which they accompany most of
their dances and ceremonies, though Mackenzie heard
among them some soft, plaintive tones, not unlike church
music. The chiefs in winter give a partly theatrical,
partly religious entertainment, in which, after prepara
tion behind a curtain, dressed in rich apparel and wear
ing masks, they appear on a s,tage and imitate different
spirits for the instruction of the hearers, who meanwhile
keep up their songs.35
After the salmon season, feasting and conjuring are
in order The chief, whose greatest authority is in his
character of conjurer, or tzeetzaiak as he is termed in
the Hailtzuk tongue, pretends at this time to live alone
in the forest, fasting or eating grass, and while there is
known as taamish. When he returns, clad in bear-robe,
chaplet, and red-bark collar, the crowd flies at his ap
proach, except a few brave spirits, who boldly present
their naked arms, from which he bites and swallows
large mouthfuls. This, skillfully done, adds to the repu
tation of both biter and bitten, and is perhaps all the
foundation that exists for the report that these people are
35 ' The Queen Charlotte Islanders surpass any people that I ever saw in
passionate addiction ' to gambling. Poole's Q. Char. JsL, p. 318-20. See pp.
186-87, 232-33. Mackenzie's Voy., pp. 288, 311. The Sebassas are great
gamblers, and 'resemble the Chinooks in their games.' Dunn's Oregon, pp.
25-7, 252-9, 281-3, 293. 'The Indian mode of dancing bears a strange
resemblance to that in use among the Chinese.' Poole's Q. Char. JsL, p. 82.
Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 258; Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 263; Ind. Life, p. 63.
MAGICIANS AND MEDICINE-MEN. 171
cannibals; although Mr Duncan, speaking of the Chim-
syans in a locality not definitely fixed, testifies to the
tearing to pieces and actual devouring of the body of a
murdered slave by naked bands of cannibal medicine
men. Only certain parties of the initiated practice this
barbarism, others confining their tearing ceremony to
the bodies of dogs.36
None of these horrible orgies are practiced by the
Queen Charlotte Islanders. The performances of the
Haidah magicians, so far as they may differ from those of
the Nbotkas have not been clearly described by travelers.
The magicians of Chatham Sound keep infernal spirits
shut up in a box away from the vulgar gaze, and pos
sess great power by reason of the implicit belief on the
part of the people, in their ability to charm away life.
The doctor, however, is not beyond the reach of a kins
man's revenge, and is sometimes murdered.37 With their
ceremonies and superstitions there seems to be mixed
very little religion, as all their many fears have refer
ence to the present life. Certain owls and squirrels are
regarded with reverence, and used as charms; salmon
must not be cut across the grain, or the living fish will
leave the river ; the mysterious operations with astronom
ical and other European instruments about their rivers
caused great fear that the fisheries would be ruined ; fogs
are conjured away without the slightest suspicion of the
sun's agency.38 European navigators they welcome by
paddling their boats several times round the ship, mak
ing long speeches, scattering birds' down, and singing.39
36 Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 223; Duncan, in Mayne's
B. C., pp. 285-8, and in Macfie's Vane. Isl., pp. 434-7; White's Oregon, p.
246; Simpson's Overland Journ.,\o\. i., p. 205; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., Nov. 1860,
pp. 222-8; Ind. Life, p. 68; Reed's flar.; Anderson in Hist. Mag., vol. vii.,
p. 79.
37 The Indians of Millbank Sound became exasperated against me, * and
they gave me the name of " Schloapes," i. e., "stingy:" and when near them,
if I should spit, they would run and try to take up the spittle in something;
for, according as they afterwards informed me, they intended to give it to their
doctor or magician; and he would charm my life away.' Dunn's Oregon, pp.
246-7. See pp. 279-80; Pooie's Q. Char. Isl., pp. 320-1.
S3 Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 32-4, 53-4; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 267, 274-5.
39 Vancouver's Voy.t vol. ii., pp. 385-9.
172 COLUMBIANS.
Ordinary presents, like tobacco or trinkets, are gladly re
ceived, but a written testimonial is most highly prized by
the Haidahs, who regard writing as a great and valuable
mystery. They have absolutely no methods of recording
events. Although living so constantly on the water, I
find no mention of their skill in swimming, while Poole
states expressly that they have no knowledge of that
art.40
Very slight accounts are extant of the peculiar methods
of curing diseases practiced by the Haidahs. Their chief
reliance, as in the case of all Indian tribes, is on the in
cantations and conjurings of their sorcerers, who claim
supernatural powers of seeing, hearing, and extracting
disease, and are paid liberally when successful. Bark,
herbs, and various decoctions are used in slight sickness,
but in serious cases little reliance is placed on them. To
the bites of the sorcerer-chiefs on the main, eagle-down
is applied to stop the bleeding, after which a pine-gum
plaster or sallal-bark is applied. On Queen Charlotte
Islands, in a case of internal uneasiness, large quantities
of sea-water are swallowed, shaken up, and ejected through
the mouth for the purpose, as the natives say, of 'washing
themselves inside out.'41
Death is ascribed to the ill will and malign influence
of an enemy, and one suspected of causing the death of
a prominent individual, must make ready to die. As
a rule, the bodies of the dead are burned, though ex
ceptions are noted in nearly every part of the territory.
In the disposal of the ashes and larger bones which
remain unburned, there seems to be no fixed usage.
Encased in boxes, baskets, or canoes, or wrapped in
4° Poolers Q. Char. Isl, pp. 109-10, 116; Anderson, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii.,
p. 242.
41 At about 52° 40', between the Fraser River and the Pacific, Mackenzie
observed the treatment of a man with a bad ulcer on his back. They blew
on him and whistled, pressed their fingers on his stomach, put their fists into
his rnouth, and spouted water into his face. Then he was carried into the
woods, laid down in a clear spot, and a fire was built against his back while
the doctor scarified the ulcer with a blunt instrument. Voy., pp. 331-33;
Dunn's Oregon, pp. 258, 284; Pooled Q. Char. M., pp. 316-18; Duncan, in
Mayne's B. C., 289-91; Reed's Nar., in Olympia Wash. Stand., May 16, 1868.
HAIDAH BURIALS. 173
mats or bark, they are buried in or deposited on the
ground, placed in a tree, on a platform, or hung from a
pole. Articles of property are frequently deposited with
the ashes, but not uniformly. Slaves' bodies are simply
thrown into the river or the sea. Mourning for the dead
consists usually of cutting the hair and blackening anew
the face and neck for several months. Among the Kai-
ganies, guests at the burning of the bodies are wont to
lacerate themselves with knives and stones. A tribe
visited by Mackenzie, kept their graves free from shrub
bery, a woman clearing that of her husband each time
she passed. The Nass Indians paddle a dead chief, gaily
dressed, round the coast villages.42
The Haidahs, compared with other North American
Indians, may be called an intelligent, honest, and brave
race, although not slow under European treatment to be
come drunkards, gamblers, and thieves. Acts of unpro
voked cruelty or treachery are rare; missionaries have
been somewhat successful in the vicinity of Fort Simp
son, finding in civilized liquors their chief obstacle.43
42 At Boca de Quadra, Vancouver found ' a box about three feet square, and
a foot and a half deep, in which were the remains of a human skeleton, which
appeared from the confused situation of the bones, either to have been cut to
pieces, or thrust with great violence into this small space.' . . . . ' I was inclined
to suppose that this mode of depositing their dead is practised only in respect
to certain persons of their society.' Voy.. vol. ii., p. 351. At Cape North
umberland, in 54° 45', ' was a kind of vault formed partly by the natural
cavity of the rocks, and partly by the rude artists of the country. It was
lined* with boards, and contained some fragments of warlike implements,
lying near a square box covered with mats and very curiously corded down.'
Id. , p. 370 ; Cornwattis' New El Dorado, pp. 106-7. On Queen Charlotte Islands,
' Ces monumens sont de deux especes: les premiers et les plus simples ne
sont composes que d'un seul pilier d'environ dix pieds d'elevation et d'un
pied de diarm'tre, sur le sommet duquel sont fixees des planches formant un
plateau ; et dans quelques-uns ce plateau est supporte par deux piliers. Le
corps, depose sur cette plate-forme, est reconvert de mousse et de grosses
pierres '....' Les mausolees de la seconde espece sont plus composes: quatre
poteaux plank's en terre, et eleves de deux pieds seulement au-dessus du sol
portent un sarcophage travaille avec art, et hermetiquement clos.' Marchand,
Voy., torn, ii., pp. 135-6. 'According to another account it appeared that
they actually bury their dead ; and when another of the family dies, the re
mains of the person who was last interred, are taken from the grave and
burned.' Mackenzie's Voy., p. 308. See also pp. 374, 295-98; Simpson's Over
land Journ., vol.i., pp. 203-4; Dunn's Oregon, pp.272, 276, 280; Mayne'sB. <?.,
pp. 272, 293; Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 235; Macfie's Vane. Isl., pp. 440-41; DalVs
Alaska, p. 417.
43 On the coast, at 52° 12', Vancouver found them ' civil, good-humoured
and friendly.' At Cascade Canal, about 52° 24', ' in traffic they proved them-
174 COLUMBIANS.
THE NOOTKAS, the second division of the Columbian
group, are immediately south of the Haidah country;
occupying Yancouver Island, and the coast of the main
land, between the fifty-second and the forty-ninth paral
lels. The word nootka is not found in any native dialect
of the present day. Captain Cook, to whom we are in
debted for the term, probably misunderstood the name
given by the natives to the region of Nootka Sound.44
selves to be keen traders, but acted with the strictest honesty;' at Point
Hopkins '-they all behaved very civilly and honestly;' while further north, at
Observatory Inlet, ' in their countenances was expressed a degree of savage
ferocity infinitely surpassing any thing of the sort I had before observed, '
presents being scornfully rejected. Voy., vol. ii., pp. 281, 269, 303, 337.
The Kitswinscolds on Skeena River ' are represented as a very superior
race, industrious, sober, cleanly, and peaceable.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p.
563. The Chimsyans are fiercer and more uncivilized than the Indians of
the South. Sprout's Scenes, .p. 317. ' Finer and fiercer men than the Indians
of the South.' Mayne's B. C., p. 250. 'They appear to be of a friendly dis
position, but they are subject to sudden gusts of passion, which are as quickly
composed; and the transition is instantaneous, from violent irritation to
the most tranquil demeanor. Of the many tribes... .whom I have seen,
these appear to be the most susceptible of civilization.' Mackenzie's Voy , p.
375, 322. At Stewart's Lake the natives, whenever there is any advantage
to be gained are just as readily tempted to betray each other as to deceive
the colonists. Macfie's Vane. IsL, pp. 466-68, 458-59; Lord's Nat., vol. i.,
p. 174. A Kygarnie chief being asked to go to America or England, refused
to go where even chiefs were slaves — that is, had duties to perform — while
he at home was served by slaves and wives. The Sebassas ' are more active
and enterprising than the Milbank tribes, but the greatest thieves and rob
bers on the coast.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 287, 273. 'All these visitors of Fort
Simpson are turbulent and fierce. Their broils, which are invariably at
tended with bloodshed, generally arise from the most trivial causes.' Simp
son's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206. The Kygarnies 'are very cleanly, fierce
and daring.' The islanders, ' when they visit the mainland, they are bold
and treacherous, and always ready for mischief.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
Jour., vol. xi., p. 219. The Kygarnies ' are a very fierce, treacherous race, and
have not been improved by the rum and fire-arms sold to them.' Dall's Alaska,
p. 411. Queen Charlotte Islanders look upon white men as superior beings,
but conceal the conviction. The Skidagates are the most intelligent race
upon the islands. Wonderfully acute in reading character, yet clumsy in
their own dissimulation ' Not revengeful or blood-thirsty, except when
smarting under injury or seeking to avert an imaginary wrong.' . . . . ' I never
met with a really brave man among them.' The Acoltas have 'given more
trouble to the Colonial Government than any other along the coast.' Poole's
Q. Char. IsL, pp. 83, 151-2, 185-6, 208, 214, 233, 235, 245, 257, 271-72, 289,
309, 320-21. ' Of a cruel and treacherous disposition.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. 8.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 197. They will stand up and fight Englishmen with their
fists. Sproat's Scenes, p. 23. Intellectually superior to the Puget Sound
tribes. Reed's Nar. 'Mansos y de buena indole.' Orespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
B. iv., vol. vi., p. 646. On Skeena River, 'the worst I have seen in all my
travels.' Downie, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 73. 'As rogues, where all are
rogues,' preeminence is awarded them. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii.,
pp. 74-5.
44 ' On my arrival at this inlet, I had honoured it with the name of King
George's Sound; but I afterward found, that it is called Nootka by the na-
THE NOOTKAS. 175
The first European settlement in this region was on the
Sound, which thus became the central point of early En
glish and Spanish intercourse with the Northwest Coast ;
but it was soon abandoned, and no mission or trading
post has since taken its place, so that no tribes of this
family have been less known in later times than those
on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The chief tribes
of the Nootka family, or those on whose tribal existence,
if not on the orthography of their names authors to some
extent agree, are as follows.45 The Nitinats, Cldyoquots,
and Nootkas, on the sounds of the same names along the
west coast of Vancouver Island ; the Quackolls and Ne-
wittees*6 in the north ; the CowichinSj Ucktas, and Comux,
on the east coast of Vancouver and on the opposite main ;
the Saukaulutuchs* ', in the interior of the island ; the CM-
lumsf* Sokes, and Patcheena, on the south end ; and the
Kwantlums and Teets® on the lower Fraser River. These
tribes differ but little in physical peculiarities, or manners
and customs, but by their numerous dialects they have
been classed in nations. No comprehensive or satisfac
tory names have, however, been applied to them as na
tional divisions.50
tives.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 288. 'No Aht Indian of the present
day ever heard of such a name as Nootkah, though most of them recognize
the other words in Cook's account of their language.' Sprout's Scenes, p. 315.
Sproat conjectures that the name may have come from Noochee! Noochee !
the Aht word for mountain. A large proportion of geographical names origi
nate in like manner through accident.
*5 For full particulars see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at end of this chapter.
46 ' The Newatees, mentioned in many books, are not known on the west
coast. Probably the Klah-oh-quahts are meant.' Sprout's Scenes, p. 314.
<7 There are no Indians in the interior. Fitzucilliam's Evidence, in Hud.
B. Co., Re.pt. Spec. Com., 1857, p. 115.
48 The same name is also applied to one of the Sound nations across the
strait in Washington.
49 The Teets or Haitlins are called by the Tacullies, ' Sa-Chinco ' strangers.
Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., pp. 73-4.
50 Sproat's division into nations, 'almost as distinct as the nations of
Europe,' is into the Quoquoulth (Quackoll) or Fort Kupert, in the north and
north-east; the Kowitchan, or Thongeith, on the east and south; Aht on the
west coast; and Komux, a distinct tribe also on the east of Vancouver.
' These tribes of the Ahts are not confederated; and I have no other warrant
for calling them a nation than the fact of their occupying adjacent territories,
and having the same superstitions and language.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 18-19,
311. Mayne makes by language four nations; the first including the Cow-
itchen in the harbor and valley of the same name north of Victoria, with the
Nanaimo and Kwantlum Indians about the mouth of the Fraser River, and
176 COLUMBIANS.
Between the Nootka family and its fish-eating neigh
bors on the north and south, the line of distinction is
not clearly marked, but the contrast is greater with the
interior hunting tribes on the east. Since their first in
tercourse with whites, the Nootkas have constantly de
creased in numbers, and this not only in those parts
where they have been brought into contact with traders
and miners, but on the west coast, where they have re
tained in a measure their primitive state. The savage
fades before the superior race, and immediate intercourse
is not necessary to produce in native races those l baleful
influences of civilization,' which like a pestilence are
wafted from afar, as on the wings of the wind.51
The Nootkas are of less than medium height, smaller
than the Haidahs, but rather strongly built; usually
plump, but rarely corpulent;52 their legs, like those of
the Songhies; the second comprising the Comoux, Nanoose, Nimpkish, Quaw-
guult, etc., on Vancouver, and the Squawmisht, Sechelt, Clahoose, Ucle-tah,
Mama-lil-a-culla, etc., on the main, and islands, between Nanaimo and Fort
Kupert; the third and fourth groups include the twenty-four west-coast tribes
who speak two distinct languages, not named. Mayne's Vane. IsL, pp. 243-51.
Grant's division gives four languages on Vancouver, viz., the Quackoll, from
Clayoquot Sound north to C. Scott, and thence S. to Johnson's Strait; the
Cowitchin, from Johnson's Strait to Sanetch Arm; the Tsclallum, or Clel-
lum, from Sanetch to Soke, and on the opposite American shore; and the
Macaw, from Patcheena to Clayoquot Sound. ' These four principal lan
guages are totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation,
and modes of expression.' Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 295.
Scouler attempts no division into nations or languages. Lond. Geo. Soc. Jour.,
vol. xi., pp. 221, 224. Mofras singularly designates them as one nation of
20,000 souls, under the name of Ouakich. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 343.
Recent investigations have shown a somewhat different relationship of these
languages, which I shall give more particularly in a subsequent volume.
51 See Sproat's Scenes, pp. 272-86, on the ' effects upon savages of inter
course with civilized men.' ' Hitherto, (1856) in Vancouver Island, the tribes
who have principally been in intercourse with the white man, have found it
for their interest to keep up that intercourse in amity for the purposes of trade,
and the white adventurers have been so few in number, that they have not
at all interfered with the ordinary pursuits of the natives.' Grant, in Lond.
Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 303.
52 ' Muy robustos y bien apersonados.' 'De mediana estatura, excepto los
Xefes cuya corpulencia se hace notar.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 55, 124.
' The young princess was of low stature, very plump.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i.,
p. 395. Macquilla, the chief was five feet eight inches, with square shoulders
and muscular limbs; his son was five feet nine inches. Belcher's Voy., vol. i.,
pp. 110-12. The seaboard tribes have ' not much physical strength.' Poole's
Q. Char. IsL, p. 73. 'La gente dicen ser muy robusta.' Perez, Eel. del Viage,
MS., p. 20. ' Leur taille est moyenne.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 343. ' In
general, robust and well proportioned.' Mearcs' Voy., p. 249. Under the com
mon stature, pretty full and plump, but not muscular — never corpulent, old
NOOTKA PHYSIQUE. 177
all the coast tribes, short, small, and frequently deformed,
with large feet and ankles;53 the face broad, round, and
full, with the usual prominent cheek-bone, a low fore
head, flat nose, wide nostrils, small black eyes, round
thickish-lipped mouth, tolerably even well-set teeth ; the
whole forming a countenance rather dull and expression
less, but frequently pleasant.54 The Nootka complexion,
people lean — short neck and clumsy body; women nearly the same size as
the men. Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Of smaller stature than
the Northern Tribes; they are usually fatter and more muscular.' Scouler, in
Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. '221. In the north, among the Clayoquots
and Quackolls, men are often met of five feet ten inches and over; on the
south coast the stature varies from five feet three inches to five feet six inches.
Grant, in Loud. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297. 'The men are in gen
eral from about five feet six to five feet eight inches in height; remarkably
straight, of a good form, robust and strong.' Only one dwarf was seen. Jew-
itt's Nar., pp. 60-(51. The Klah-oh-quahts are ' as a tribe physically the finest.
Individuals may be found in all the tribes who reach a height of five feet
eleven inches, and a weight of 180 pounds, without much flesh on their
bodies.' Extreme average height: men, five feet six inches, women, five feet
one-fourth inch. ' Many of the men have well-shaped forms and limbs. None
are corpulent.' 'The men generally have well-set, strong frames, and, if
they had pluck and skill, could probably hold their own in a grapple with
Englishmen of the same stature. SproaVs Scenes, pp. 2:2-3. 'Rather above
the middle stature, copper-colored and of an athletic make.' Spark's Life of
Ledyard, p. 71 ; Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 442. ' Spare muscular forms.'
Barrett- Lennard's Trav., pp. 44; Gordon's Hist, and Geog. Mem., pp. 14-22.
53 Limbs small, crooked, or ill-made; large feet; badly shaped, and pro
jecting ankles from sitting so much on their hams and knees. Cook's Voy.
to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Their limbs, though stout and athletic, are
crooked and ill-shaped.' Meares' Voy., p. 250. 'Us ont les membres infe-
rieures legerement arques, les chevilles tres-saillantes, et la pointe des pieds
tournee en dedans, difformite qui provient de la maniere dont ils sont assis
dans leurs canots.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 343-4. 'Stunted, and move
with a lazy waddling gait.' Macfie's Vane. M., p. 428. ' Skeleton shanks. . . .
not much physical strength. . . .bow-legged — defects common to the seaboard
tribes.' Poole's Q. Char. Isl., pp. 73-^L All the females of the Northwest
Coast are very short-limbed. ' Earo es el que no tiene muy salientes los to-
billos y las puntas de los pies inclinadas hacia dentro . . . . y una especie de
entumecimiento que se advierte, particularmente en las mugeres.' Sutil y
Mexicana, Viage, pp. 124, 30, 62-3. They have great strength in the fingers.
Sproat's Scenes, p. 33. Women, short-limbed, and toe in. Id., p. 22; Mayne's
B. C., pp. 282-3. ' The limbs of both sexes are ill-formed, and the toes
turned inwards.' 'The legs of the women, especially those of the slaves,
are often swollen as if oedematous, so that the leg appears of an uniform
thickness from the ankle to the calf, ' from wearing a garter. Scouler, in Lond.
Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221.
54 ' The different Aht tribes vary in physiognomy somewhat — faces of the
Chinese and Spanish types may be seen.' 'The face of the Ahts is rather
broad and flat; the mouth and lips of both men and women are large, though
to this there are exceptions, and the cheekbones are broad but not high.
The skull is fairly shaped, the eyes small and long, deep set, in colour a
lustreless inexpressive black, or very dark hazel, none being blue, grey, or
brown One occasionally sees an Indian with eyes distinctly Chinese. The
nose. . . .in some instances is remarkably well-shaped.' ' The teeth are reg-
VOL. I. 12
178 COLUMBIANS.
so far as grease and paint have allowed travelers to ob
serve it, is decidedly light, but apparently a shade darker
than that of the Haidah family.55 The hair, worn long,
ular, but stumpy, and are deficient in enamel at the points,' perhaps from
eating sanded salmon. Sprout's Scents, pp. 19, 27. "iheir faces are large
and full, their cheeks high and prominent, with small black eyes; their noses
are broad and flat; their lips thick, and they have generally very fine teeth,
and of the most brilliant whiteness.' Meares' Voy., pp. 249-50; Barrett-Len-
nard's Trav., p. 44. ' La fisonomia de estos (Nitinats) era difference cle la de
los habitantes de Nutka: tenian el craneo de figura natural, los ojos chicos
muy proximos, cnrgados los parpados.' Many have a languid look, but few
a stupid- appearance. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 28, 30, 62-3, 124. 'Dull
and inexpressive eye.' ' Unprepossessing and stupid countenances.' Pooled
Q. Char. IsL, pp. 74, 80. The Wickinninish have 'a much less open and
pleasing expression of countenance ' than the Klaizzarts. The Newchemass
' were the most savage looking and ugly men that I ever saw. ' ' The shape
of the face is oval; the features are tolerably regular, the lips being thin and
the teeth very white and even: their eyes are black but rather small, and the
nose pretty well formed, being neither flat nor very prominent.' The women
'are in general very well-looking, and some quite handsome.' Jeicitt's Aar.,
pp. 76, 77, 61. ' Features that would have attracted notice for their delicacy
and beauty, in those parts of the world where the qualities of the human
form are best understood.' Meares' Voy., p. 250. Face round and full, some
times broad, with prominent cheek-bones falling in between the temples,
the nose flattening at the base, wide nostrils and a rounded point. . . .forehead
low; eyes small, black and languishing; mouth round, with large, round,
thickish lips; teeth tolerably equal and well-set, but not very white. Re
markable sameness, a dull phlegmatic want of expression; no pretensions to
beauty among the women. Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-2. See por
traits of Nootkas in Belcher's Voy., vol. i., p. 108; Cook's Atlas, pi. 38-9; Sutil
y Mexicana, Viage, Atlas; Whytnper's Alaska, p. 75. 'Long nose, high cheek
bones, large ugly mouth, very long eyes, and foreheads villainously low.'
' The women of Vancouver Island have seldom or ever good features ; they
are almost invariably pug-nosed; they have however, frequently a pleasing
expression, and there is no lack of intelligence in their dark hazel eyes.' Grant,
in Lond. Geog. 8oc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 297-8. 'Though without any pre
tensions to beauty, could not be considered as disagreeable.' Vancouver's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 395. 'Have the common facial characteristics of low foreheads,
high cheek-bones, aquiline noses, and large mouths.' 'Among some of the
tribes pretty women may be seen.' Mayne's B. C., p. 277.
55 'Her skin was clean, and being nearly white, ' etc. Vancouver's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 395. 'Reddish bro\\n, like that of a dirty copper kettle.' Some,
when washed, have 'almost a florid complexion.' Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 297, 299. ' Brown, somewhat inclining to a copper
cast.' The women are much whiter, 'many of them not being darker
than those in some of the Southern parts of Europe.' The Newchemass
are much darker than the other tribes. Jewitt's Nar., pp. 61, 77. 'Their
complexion, though light, has more of a copper hue ' than that of the Hai-
dahs. Kcouhr, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 221. Skin white, with
the clear complexion of Europe.' Meares' Voy., p. 250. The color hard to
tell on account of the paint, but in a few cases ' the whiteness of the skin
appeared almost to equal that of Europeans; though rather of that pale effete
cast. . . .of our southern nations. . . .Their children. . . .also equalled ours in
•whiteness.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 303. 'Their complexion is a
dull brown, ' darker than the Haidahs. ' Cook and Meares probably men
tioned exceptional cases.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 23-4. ' Tan blancos como el
mejor Espanol.' Perez, Ed. del Viage, MS. p. 20. 'For lo que se puede in-
ferir del (color) de los ninos, parece menos obscuro que el de los Mexicanos,'
NOOTKA HAIK AND BEARD. 179
is as a rule black or dark brown, coarse, and straight,
though instances are not wanting where all these quali
ties are reversed.56 The beard is carefully plucked out
by the young men, and this operation, repeated for gen
erations, has rendered the beard naturally thin. Old
men often allow it to grow on the chin and upper lip.
To cut the hair short is to the Nootka a disgrace.
Worn at full length, evened at the ends, and sometimes
cut straight across the forehead, it is either allowed to
bang loosely from under a band of cloth or fillet of bark,
or is tied in a knot on the crown. On full-dress occa
sions the top-knot is secured with a green bough, and
after being well saturated with whale-grease, the hair is
powdered plentifully with white feathers, which are re
garded as the crowning ornament for manly dignity in all
these regions. Both sexes, but particularly the women,
take great pains with the hair, carefully combing and
plaiting their long tresses, fashioning tasteful head-dresses
of bark-fibre, decked with beads and shells, attaching
but judging by the chiefs' daughters they are wholly white. Sutil y Mexicana,
Viage, p. 125. 'A dark, swarthy copper-coloured figure.' Lord's Nat., vol.
i., p. 143. They ' have lighter complexions than other aborigines of America. '
Greenhow'x Hist. Ogn., p. 116. 'Sallow complexion, verging towards copper
colour.' Barrett- Lennard's Trav., pp. 44-6. Copper-coloured. Spark's Life
of Ledyard, p. 71.
56 ' The hair of the natives is never shaven from the head. It is black pr
dark brown, without gloss, coarse and lank, but not scanty, worn long ....
Slaves wear their hair short. Now and then, but rarely, a light-haired native
is seen. There is one woman in the Opechisat tribe at Alberni who had
curly, or rather wavy, brown hair. Few grey-haired men can be noticed in
any tribe. The men's beards and whiskers are deficient, probably from the
old alleged custom, now seldom practiced, of extirpating the hairs with small
shells Several of the Nootkah Sound natives (Moouchahts) have large
moustaches and whiskers.1 Sproat's Scenes, pp. 25-7. 'El cabello es largo
lacio y grueso, variando su color entre rubio, obscuro, castano y negro. La
barba sale a los mozos con la inisma regularidad que a los de otros paises, y
llega a ser en los ancianos tan poblada y larga como la de los Turcos ; pero
los jdvenes parecen imberbes porque se la arrancan con los dedos, 6 mas com-
unmente con pinzas formadas de pequenas conchas.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage,
pp. 124-5, 57. ' Hair of the head is in great abundance, very coarse, and
strong; and without a single exception, black, straight and lank.' No beards
at all, or a small thin one on the chin, not from a natural defect, but from
plucking. Old men often have beards. Eyebrows scanty and narrow. Cook's
Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 301-3. 'Neither beard, whisker, nor moustache
ever adorns the face of the redskin.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 143; Jewitt's Nar.,
pp. 61, 75, 77. Hair 'invariably either black or dark brown.' Grant, in Lond.
Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297; Meares' Voy., p. 250; Maynes* B. C., pp.
277-8; Macfie's Vane. Isl., p. 442; Spark's Life of Ledyard, p. 71.
180 COLUMBIANS.
leaden weights to the braids to keep them straight. The
bruised root of a certain plant is thought by the Ahts to
promote the growth of the hair.57
The custom of flattening the head is practiced by the
Nootkas, in common with the Sound and Chinook fami
lies, but is not universal, nor is so much importance at
tached to it as elsewhere ; although all seem to admire a
flattened forehead as a sign of noble birth, even among
tribes that do not make this deformity a sign of freedom.
Among the Quatsinos and Quackolls of the north, the
head, besides being flattened, is elongated into a conical
sugar-loaf shape, pointed at the top. The flattening pro
cess begins immediately after birth, and is continued
until the child can walk. It is effected by compressing
the head with tight bandages, usually attached to the
log cradle, the forehead being first fitted with a soft pad,
a fold of soft bark, a mould of hard wood, or a flat stone.
Observers generally agree that little or no harm is done
to the brain by this infliction, the traces of which to a
great extent disappear later in life. Many tribes, in
cluding the Aht nations, are said to have abandoned the
custom since they have been brought into contact with
the whites.58
The body is kept constantly anointed with a reddish
clayey earth, mixed in train oil, and consequently little
affected by their frequent baths. In war and mourning
the whole body is blackened; on feast days the head,
limbs, and body are painted in fantastic figures with va
rious colors, apparently according to individual fancy,
although the chiefs monopolize the fancy figures, the
57 Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp.
126-7; SproaVs Scenes, pp. 26-7; Meares1 Voy., p. 254; Macfie's Vane. IsL, p.
442; Jewitt's Nar., pp. 21, 23, 62, 65, 77-8; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour.,
vol. xxvii., p. 297; Mayne's B. C., pp. 277-8; Barrett-Lennard's Trav., p. 44.
58 Mayne's B. C., pp. 242, 277, with cut of a child with bandaged head,
and of a girl with a sugar-loaf head, measuring eighteen inches from the
eyes to the summit. Sproat's Scenes, pp. 28-30; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
-f 1 •• . C\f\C\ . O 7 • T J n O T 1 • \ C\C\C\ _
Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 298; Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 222;
s' Voy., p. 2
124; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 171; vol. ii., p. 103, cut of" three skulls of" flat-
Meares' Voy., p. 249; Macfie's Vane. IsL, p. 441; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p.
tened, conical, and natural form; Kane's Wand., p. 241; Jewitt's Nar., p. 76;
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 325; Barrett-Lennard' s Trav., p. 45; Gordon's
Hist, and Geog. Mem., p. 115.
NOOTKA FACE-PAINTING. 181
common people being restricted to plain colors. Solid
grease is sometimes applied in a thick coating, and carved
or moulded in alto-relievo into ridges and figures after
wards decorated with red paint, while shining sand or
grains of mica are sprinkled over grease and paint to
impart a glittering appearance. The women are either
less fond of paint than the men, or else are debarred by
their lords from the free use of it; among the Ahts, at
least of late, the women abandon ornamental paint after
the age of twenty-five. In their dances, as in war,
masks carved from cedar to represent an endless variety
of monstrous faces, painted in bright colors, with mouth
and eyes moveable by strings, are attached to their heads,
giving them a grotesquely ferocious aspect.59 The nose
59 At Valdes Island, ' the faces of some were made intirely white, some
red, black, or lead colour.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 307, 341. At Nunez
Gaona Bay, 'se pintan de encarnado y negro.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 30.
At Nootka Sound, ' Con esta grasa (de ballena) se untan todo el cuerpo, y
despues se pintan con una especie de barniz compuesto de la misma grasa 6
aceyte, y de almagre en terminos que parece este su color natural.' Chiefs
only may paint in varied colors, plebeians being restricted to one.' Id., pp.
125-7. ' Many of the females painting their faces on all occasions, but the
men only at set periods.' Vermilion is obtained by barter. Black, their
war and mourning color, is made by themselves. Mamie's Vane. IsL, p. 442.
' Ces Indiens enduisent leur corps d'huile de baleine, et se peignent avec
des ocres.' Chiefs only may wear different colors, and figures of animals.
Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 344. 'Rub their bodies constantly with a red
paint, of a clayey or coarse ochry substance^ mixed with oil Their faces
are often stained with a black, a brighter red, or a white colour, by way of orna
ment They also strew the brown martial mica upon the paint, which makes
it glitter.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 305. 'A line of vermilion extends
from the centre of the forehead to the tip of the nose, and from this "trunk
line " others radiate over and under the eyes and across the cheeks. Between
these red lines white and blue streaks alternately fill the interstices. A sim
ilar pattern ornaments chest, arms, and back, the frescoing being artistically
arranged to give apparent width to the chest.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 143.
' They paint the face in hideous designs of black and red (the only colours
nsed), and the parting of the hair is also coloured red.' Mayne's B. C., p. 277.
' At great feasts the faces of the women are painted red with vermilion or
berry-juice, and the men's faces are blackened with burnt wood. About the
age of twenty-five the women cease to use paint. . . .Some of the young men
streak their faces with red, but grown-up men seldom now use paint, unless
on particular occasions ... The leader of a war expedition is distinguished
by a streaked visage from his black-faced followers.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 27-8.
The manner of painting is often a matter of whim. ' The most usual method
is to paint the eye-brows black, in form of a half moon, and the face red in
email squares, with the arms and legs and part of the body red; sometimes
one half of the face is painted red in squares, and the other black; at others,
dotted with red spots, or red and black instead of squares, with a variety of
other devices, such as painting one half of the face and body red, and the
other black.' JewiWs Nar., p. 64; Meares' Voy., p. 252; Barrett-Lennard's
Trav., p. 46; Spark's Life of Ledyard, p. 71.
182 COLUMBIANS.
and ears are regularly pierced in childhood, with from one
to as many holes as the feature will hold, and from the
punctures are suspended bones, shells, rings, beads, or in
fact any ornament obtainable. The lip is sometimes,
though more rarely, punctured. Bracelets and anklets
of any available material are also commonly worn.60
The aboriginal dress of the Nootkas is a square blanket,
of a coarse yellow material resembling straw matting,
made by the women from cypress bark, with a mixture of
dog's hair. This blanket had usually a border of fur ; it
sometimes had arm-holes, but was ordinarily thrown over
the shoulders, and confined at the waist by a belt, Chiefs
wore it painted in variegated colors or unpainted, but
the common people wore a coarser material painted uni
formly red. Women wore the garment longer and fast
ened under the chin, binding an additional strip of cloth
closely about the middle, and showing much modesty
about disclosing the person, while the men often went
entirely naked. Besides the blanket, garments of many
kinds of skin were in use, particularly by the chiefs on
public days. In war, a heavy skin dress was worn as a
protection against arrows. The Nootkas usually went
bareheaded, but sometimes wore a conical hat plaited of
rushes, bark, or flax. European blankets have replaced
those of native manufacture, and many Indians about
the settlements have adopted also the shirt and breeches.61
60 ' The habit of tattooing the legs and arms is common to all the women
of Vancouver's Island; the men do not adopt it.' Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 307. ' No such practice as tattooing exists among these
natives.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 27. 'The ornament on which they appear to set
the most value, is the nose-jewel, if such an appellation may be given to the
wooden stick, which some of them employ for this purpose .... I have seen
them projecting not less than eight or nine inches beyond the face on each
side ; this is made fast or secured in its place by little wedges on each side
of it.' JewiWs Nar., pp. 65-6, 75; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 344. Cook's
Voy. toPac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8; Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 30, 126-7; Mac-
fie's Vane. IsL, p. 442; Whymper's Alaska, pp. 37, 74, with cut of mask.
Mayne's B. C., p. 268; Kane's Wand., pp. 221-2, and illustration of a hair
medicine-cap.
61 ' Their cloaks, which are circular capes with a hole in the centre, edged
with sea-otter skin, are constructed from the inner bark of the cypress. It
turns the rain, is very soft and pliable, ' etc. Belcher's Voy., vol. i., p. 112. The
usual dress of the Newchemass ' is a kootsuck made of wolf skin, with a
number of the tails attached to it hanging from the top to the bottom;
though they sometimes wear a similar mantle of bark cloth, of a much coarser
DWELLINGS OF THE NOOTKAS. 183
The Nootkas choose strong positions for their towns and
encampments. At Desolation Sound, Vancouver found a
village built on a detached rock with perpendicular sides,
only accessible by planks resting on the branches of a
tree, and protected on the sea side by a projecting plat
form resting on timbers fixed in the crevices of the
precipice. The Nimkish tribe, according to Lord, build
their homes on a table-land overhanging the sea, and
reached by ascending a vertical cliff on a bark-rope lad
der. Each tribe has several villages in favorable loca
tions for fishing at different seasons. The houses, when
more than one is needed for a tribe, are placed with
regularity along streets; they vary in size according to
the need or wealth of the occupants, and are held in
common under the direction of the chief. They are con
structed in the manner following. A row of large posts,
from ten to fifteen feet high, often grotesquely carved,
supports an immense ridge-pole, sometimes two and a
half feet thick and one hundred feet long. Similar but
smaller beams, on shorter posts, are placed on either side
of the central row, distant from it fifteen, twenty, or
twenty-five feet, according to the dimensions required.
This frame is then covered with split cedar planks, about
two inches thick, and from three to eight feet wide. The
texture than that of Nootka.' Jewitt's Nar., pp. 77-8, 21-3, 56-8, 62-6. 'Their
common dress is a flaxen garment, or mantle, ornamented on the upper edge
by a narrow strip of fur, and at the lower edge, by fringes or tassels. It
passes under the left arm, and is tied over the right shoulder, by a string be
fore, and one behind, near its middle .... Over this, which reaches below the
knees, is worn a small cloak of the same substance, likewise fringed at the
lower part .... Their head is covered with a cap, of the figiire of a truncated
cone, or like a flower-pot, made of fine matting, having the top frequently
ornamented with a round or pointed knob, or bunch of leathern tassels. ' Cook's
Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 304-8, 270-1, 280. ' The men's dress is a blanket;
the women's a strip of cloth, or shift, and blanket. The old costume of the
natives was the same as at present, but the material was different.1 Sproat's
Scenes, pp. 25, 315. 'Their clothing generally consists of skins,' but they
have two other garments of bark or dog's hair. ' Their garments of all kinds
are worn mantlewise, and the borders of them are fringed' with wampum.
Spark's Life of Ledyard, pp. 71-2; Colyer, in InclsAff. Rept., 1869, p. 533;
Sutily Mexicana, Viage, pp. 30-1, 38, 56-7, 126-8; Meares' Voy., pp. 251-4;
Grant, in. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 297; Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp.
143-4; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 344-5; V/Tiympers Alaska, p. 37; Greeii-
how's Hist. Ogn., p. 116; Macfie's Van. Isl., pp. 431, 443; Barrett-Lennard's.
Trav., p. 46. ' See portraits in Cook's Atlas, Belcher's Voy., Sutil y Mexicanat
Atlas, and Whymper's Alaska.
184 COLUMBIANS.
side planks are tied together with bark, and supported
by slender posts in couples just far enough apart to re
ceive the thickness of the plank. A house like this,
forty by one hundred feet, accommodates many families,
each of which has its allotted space, sometimes parti
tioned off like a double row of stalls, with a wide passage
in the middle. In the centre of each stall is a circle of
stones for a fire-place, and round the walls are raised
couches covered with mats. In rainy weather, cracks in
the roof and sides are covered with mats. No smoke or
window holes are left, and when smoke becomes trouble
some a roof-plank is removed. The entrance is at one end.
These dwellings furnish, according to Nootka ideas, a
comfortable shelter, except when a high wind threatens
to unroof them, and then the occupants go out and sit
on the roof to keep it in place. Frequently the outside
is painted in grotesque figures of various colors. Only
the frame is permanent ; matting, planks, and all utensils
are several times each year packed up and conveyed in
canoes to another locality where a frame belonging to
the tribe awaits covering. The odor arising from fish-
entrails and other filth, which they take no pains to re
move, appears to be inoffensive, but the Nootkas are often
driven by mosquitos to sleep on a stage over the water.62
62 On the east side of Vancouver was a village of thirty-four houses, ar
ranged in regular streets. The house of the leader 'was distinguished by-
three rafters of stout timber raised above the roof, according to the archi
tecture of Nootka, though much inferior to those I had there seen, in point
of size.' Bed-rooms were separated, and more decency observed than at
Nootka Sound. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 346-7, with a view of this vil
lage; also pp. 324-5, description of the village on Desolation Sound; p. 338,
on Valdes Island; p. 326, view of village on Bute Canal; and vol. iii., pp.
310-11, a peculiarity not noticed by Cook — 'immense pieces of timber which
are raised, and horizontally placed on wooden pillars, about eighteen inches
above the roof of the largest houses in that village; one of which pieces of
timber was of a size sufficient to have made a lower mast for a third rate
man of war.' See Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 281, 313-19, and Atlas,
plate 40. A sort of a duplicate inside building, with shorter posts, furnishes
on its roof a stage, where all kinds of property and supplies are stored.
Sproat's Scenes, pp. 37-43. ' The planks or boards which they make use of
for building their houses, and for other uses, they prociire of different
lengths, as occasion requires, by splitting them out, with hard wooden
wedges from pine logs, and afterwards dubbing them down with their chiz-
zels.' Jewitt's Nar., pp. 52-4. Grant states that the Nootka houses are
palisade inclosures formed of stakes or young fir-trees, some twelve or thir
teen feet high, driven into the ground close together, roofed in with slabs of
FOOD OF THE NOOTKAS. 185
The Nootkas, like the Haidahs, live almost wholly on
the products of the sea, and are naturally expert fisher
men. Salmon, the great staple, are taken in August and
September, from sea, inlet, and river, by nets, spears,
pots or baskets, and even by hooks. Hooks consist of
sharp barbed bones bound to straight pieces of hard
wood; sea- wrack, maple-bark, and whale-sinew furnish
lines, which in salmon-fishing are short and attached to
the paddles. The salmon-spear is a forked pole, some
fifteen feet long, the detachable head having prongs
pointed with fish-bone or iron, and the fish in deep
water is sometimes attracted within its reach by a wood
en decoy, forced down by a long pole, and then detached
and allowed to ascend rapidly to the surface. Spearing
is carried on mostly by torch-light. A light-colored
Btone pavement is sometimes laid upon the bottom of
the stream, which renders the fish visible in their pass
age over it. Nets are made of nettles or of wild flax,
found along Fraser River. They are small in size, and
used as dip-nets, or sunk between two canoes and lifted
as the fish pass over. A pot or basket fifteen to twen
ty feet long, three to five feet in diameter at one end,
and tapering to a point at the other, is made of pine
splinters one or two inches apart, with twig-hoops; and
placed, large end up stream, at the foot of a fall or at
an opening in an embankment, The salmon are driven
down the Ml with poles, and entering the basket are
taken out by a door in the small end. This basket is
sometimes enclosed in another one, similar but of uni
form diameter, and closed at one end. Fences of stakes
across the river oblige the salmon to enter the open
mouth in their passage up, and passing readily through
fir or cedar. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 299. The Teets have pal
isaded enclosures. Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. 'The chief re
sides at the upper end, the proximity of his relatives to him being according
to their degree of kindred.' Macfie's Vane. Isl., pp. 443-4; Dunn's Oregon, p.
243; Belcher's Voy., vol. i., p. 112; Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 158, 164-5, 167,
320-21; Seemann's Voy. of Herald, vol. i., pp. 105-6. The carved pillars are
not regarded by the natives as idols in any sense. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp.
128-9, 102; Barrett- Lennard's Trav., pp. 47, 73-4. Some houses eighty by
two hundred feet. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 533; Mayne's B. €., p.
296; Gordon's Hist, and Geog. Mem.', pp. 120-1.
186 COLUMBIANS.
an opening left in the point of the inner basket, they
find themselves entrapped. In March, herring appear on
the coast in great numbers, and in April and May they
enter the inlets and streams, where they are taken with
a dip-net, or more commonly by the fish-rake — a pole
armed* with many sharp bones or nails. Early in the
season they can be taken only by torch-light. Halibut
abound from March to June, and are caught with hooks
and long lines, generally at some distance from shore.
For all other fish, European hooks were early adopted,
but the halibut, at least among the Ahts, must still be
taken with the native hook. Many other varieties of
fish, caught by similar methods, are used as food, but
those named supply the bulk of the Nootka's provision.
In May or June, whales appear and are attacked in
canoes by the chief, with the select few from each tribe
who alone have the right to hunt this' monarch of the
sea. The head of their harpoon is made ,of two barbed
bones and pointed with muscle-shell; it is fastened to a
whale-sinew line of a few feet in length, and this short
line to a very long bark rope, at one end of which are
seal-skin air-bags and bladders, to keep it afloat. The
point is also fastened to a shaft from ten to twenty-five
feet in length, from which it is easily detached. With
many of these buoys in tow the whale cannot dive, and
becomes an easy prey. Whale-blubber and oil are great
delicacies, the former being preferred half putrid, while
the oil with that of smaller denizens of the sea preserved
in bladders, is esteemed a delicious sauce, and eaten with
almost everything. Sea-otters and seals are also speared,
the former with a weapon more barbed and firmly at
tached to the handle, as they are fierce fighters ; but when
found asleep on the rocks, they are shot with arrows.
Seals are often attracted within arrow- shot by natives
disguised as seals in wooden masks.
Clams and other shell-fish, which are collected in great
numbers by the women, are cooked, strung on cypress-
bark cords, and hung in the houses to dry for winter
use. Fish are preserved by drying only, the use of salt
FOOD OF THE NOOTKAS. 187
being unknown. Salmon, after losing their heads and
tails, which are eaten in the fishing season, are split open
and the back-bone taken out before drying ; smaller fry
are sometimes dried as they come from their element;
but halibut and cod are cut up and receive a partial dry
ing in the sun. The spawn of all fish, but particularly
of salmon and herring, is carefully preserved by stowing
it away in baskets, where it ferments. Bear, deer, and
other land animals, as well as wild fowl, are sometimes
taken for food, by means of rude traps, nets, and covers,
successful only when game is abundant, for the Nootkas
are but indifferent hunters. In the time of Jewitt, three
peculiarities were observable in the Nootka use of ani
mal food, particularly bear-meat. When a bear was
killed, it was dressed in a bonnet, decked with fine down,
and solemnly invited to eat in the chief's presence, be
fore being eaten; after partaking of bruin's flesh, which
was appreciated as a rarity, the Nootka could not taste
fresh fish for two months ; and while fish to be palatable
must be putrid, meat when tainted was no longer fit for
food. The Nootka cuisine furnished food in four styles ;
namely, boiled — the mode par excellence, applicable to
every variety of food, and effected, as by the Haidahs,
by hot stones in wooden vessels; steamed — of rarer use,
applied mostly to heads, tails, and fins, by pouring water
over them on a bed of hot stones, and covering the whole
tightly with mats; roasted — rarely, in the case of some
smaller fish and clams ; and raw — fish-spawn and most
other kinds of food, when conveniences for cooking were
not at hand. Some varieties of sea- weed and lichens, as
well as the camass, and other roots, were regularly laid
up for winter, while berries, everywhere abundant, were
eaten in great quantities in their season, and at least one
variety preserved by pressing in bunches. In eating,
they sit in groups of five or six, with their legs doubled
under them round a large wooden tray, and dip out the
food nearly always boiled to a brothy consistency, with
their fingers or clam-shells, paying little or no attention
to cleanliness. Chiefs and slaves have trays apart, and
188 COLUMBIANS.
the principal meal, according to Cook, was about noon.
Feasting is the favorite way of entertaining friends,
so long as food is plentiful ; and by a curious custom, of
the portion allotted them, guests must carry away what
they cannot eat. Water in aboriginal days was the only
Nootka drink ; it is also used now when whisky is not to
be had.63
Lances and arrows, pointed with shell, slate, flint,
or bone, and clubs and daggers of wood and bone, were
the weapons with which they met their foes; but fire
arms and metallic daggers, and tomahawks, have long
since displaced them, as they have to a less degree the
original hunting and fishing implements.64 The Nootka
tribes were always at war with each other, hereditary
63 ' Their heads and their garments swarm with vermin, which, ... .we used
to see them pick off with great composure, and eat.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol.
ii., p. 305. See also pp. 279-80, 318-24. ' Their mode of living is very simple
— their food consisting almost wholly of fish, or fish spawn fresh or dried,
the blubber of the whale, seal, or sea-cow, muscles, clams, and berries of
various kinds; all of which are eaten with a profusion of train oil.' Jewitt's
Nar.. pp. 58-60, 68-9, 86-8, 94-7, 103. Croat's Scenes, pp. 52-7, 61, 87, 144-9,
216-70. ' The common business of fishing for ordinary sustenance is car
ried on by slaves, or the lower class of people; — While the more noble occu
pation of killing the whale and hunting the sea-otter, is followed by none but
the chiefs and warriors.' Meares' Voy., p. 258. 'They make use of the dried
fucus giganteus, anointed with oil, for lines, in taking salmon and sea-otters.'
Belcher's Voy., vol. i., pp. 112-13. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 17, 26, 45-6,
59-60, 76, 1'29-SO, 134-5; Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp.
299-300; Maym's B. C., pp. 252-7; Macfie's Vane. Isl, pp. 165-442; Simp
son's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 239; Pemberton's Vane. Isl., pp. 28-32;
Dunn's Oregon, p. 243; Mofras, Explor., tom.ii.,p. 338. The Sau-kau-lutuck
tribe ' are said to live on the edge
and bear, and such fish as they can
tribe ' are said to live on the edge of a lake, and subsist principally on deer
and bear, and such fish as they can take in the lake.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp.
158-9; Barrelt-Lennard's Trav., pp. 48, 74-5, 76-7, 85-6, 90-1, 144-50, 197-8;
vol. ii., p. Ill; Cornwall^' New El Dorado, p. 100; Forbes' Vane. Isl., pp.
54-5; Eattray's Vane. Isl, pp. 77-8, 82-3; Hud. Bay Co., Eept. Spec. Com.
1857, p. 114.
<* Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 57, 63, 78; Jewitt's Nar., pp. 78-81; Van
couver's Voy., vol.i., p. 307; Macfie's Vane. Isl., p. 443; Cox's Adven., vol. i.,
p. 100. ' The native bow, like the canoe and paddle, is beautifully formed.
It is generally made of yew or crab-apple wood, and is three and a half feet
long, with about two inches at each end turned sharply backwards from the
string. The string is a piece of dried seal-gut, deer-sinew, or twisted bark.
The arrows are about thirty inches long, and are made of pine or cedar,
tipped with six inches of serrated bone, or with two unbarbed bone or iron
prongs. I have never seen an Aht arrow with a barbed head.' Sproat's
Scenes, p. 82. ' Having now to a great extent discarded the use of the tradi
tional tomahawk and spear. Many of these weapons are, however, still pre
served as heirlooms among them.' Barrett- Leonard's Trav., p. 42. 'No bows
and arrows.' ' Generally fight hand to hand, and not with missiles.' Fitzwtt-
Ham's Evidence, in Hud. Bat/ Co. Rept., 1857, p. 115.
NOOTKA BATTLES AND BOATS. 189
quarrels being handed down for generations. According
to their idea, loss of life in battle can only be forgotten
when an equal number of the hostile tribe are killed.
Their military tactics consist of stratagem and surprise
in attack, and watchfulness in defense. Before engag
ing in war, some weeks are spent in preparation, which
consists mainly of abstinence from women, bathing, scrub
bing the skin with briers till it bleeds, and finally paint
ing the whole body jet-black. All prisoners not suitable
for slaves are butchered or beheaded. In an attack the
effort is always made to steal into the adversary's camp
at night and kill men enough to decide the victory be^_
fore the alarm can be given. When they fail in this,
the battle is seldom long continued, for actual hand-to-
hand fighting is not to the Nootka taste. On the rare
occasions when it is considered desirable to make over
tures of peace, an ambassador is sent with an ornamented
pipe, and with this emblem his person is safe. Smoking
a pipe together by hostile chiefs also solemnizes a treaty.65
Nootka boats are dug out each from a single pine tree,
and are made of all sizes from ten to fifty feet long, the
largest accommodating forty or fifty men. Selecting a
proper tree in the forest, the aboriginal Nootka fells it
with a sort of chisel of flint or elk-horn, three by six
inches, fastened in a wooden handle, and struck by a
smooth stone mallet. Then the log is split with wooden
wedges, and the better piece being selected, it is hollowed
out with the aforesaid chisel, a muscle-shell adze, and a
bird's-bone gimlet worked between the two hands. Some
times, but not always, fire is used as an assistant. The
65 The Ahts ' do not take the scalp of the enemy, but cut off his head, by
three dexterous movements of the knife .... and the warrior who has taken
most heads is most praised and feared.' Sprout's Scenes, pp. 186-202. ' Scalp
every one they kill.' Macfte's Vane. Isl, p. 470, 443, 467. One of the Nootka
princes assured the Spaniards that the bravest captains ate human flesh be
fore engaging in battle. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 130. The Nittinahts con
sider the heads of enemies slain in battle as spolla opima. Whymper's Alaska,
pp. 54, 78; Jewitt's Nar., pp. 120-1; Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 155-6, 158, 166,
171, vol. ii., p. 251-3. Women keep watch during the night, and tell the
exploits of their nation to keep awake. Meares' Voy., p. 267. Vancouver's
Voy., vol. i., p. 396; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 296;
Mayne's B. C.} p. 270; Barrett-Lennard's Trav., pp. 41-2, 129-36.
l90 COLUMBIANS.
exterior is fashioned with the same tools. The boat is
widest in the middle, tapers toward each end, and is
strengthened by light cross-pieces extending from side to
side, which, being inserted after the boat is soaked in hot
water, modify and improve the original form. The bow
is long and pointed, the stern square-cut or slightly round
ed ; both ends are raised higher than the middle by sep
arate pieces of wood painted with figures of birds or
beasts, the head on the bow and the tail on the stern.
The inside is painted red ; the outside, slightly burned,
is rubbed smooth and black, and for the whale fishery
is ornamented along the gunwales with a row of small
shells or seal-teeth, but for purposes of war it is painted
with figures in white. Paddles are neatly made of hard
wood, about five and a half feet long with a leaf-shaped
blade of two feet, sharp at the end, and used as a weapon
in canoe-fighting. A cross-piece is sometimes added to
the handle like the top of a crutch.66
In addition to the implements already named are
chests and boxes, buckets, cups and eating-troughs, all
of wood, either dug out or pinned together; baskets of
twigs and bags of matting; all neatly made, and many
of the articles painted or carved, or ornamented with
shell work. As among the Haidahs, the dried eulachon
is often used as a lamp.67 The matting and coarser kinds
CG 'They have no scats. . . .The rowers generally sit on their hams, but
sometimes they make use of a kind of small stool.' Meares' Voy., pp. 263-4.
The larger canoes are used for sleeping and eating, being dry and more com
fortable than the houses. Cook's Vvy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp.319, 327, and Atlas,
pi. 41. ' The most skillful canoe-makers among the tribes are the Nitinahts
and the Klah-oh-quahts. They make canoes for sale to other tribes.' ' The
baling-dish of the canoes, is always of one shape — the shape of the gable-roof
of a cottage.' Sjiroat's Scenes, pp. 85, 87-8; Mayne's .B. C., p. 283, and cut on
title-page. Canoes not in use are hauled up on the beach in front of their
villages. Grant, in Lend. Geoa. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 301. 'They keep
time to the stroke of the paddle with their songs.' JeicitVs Nar., pp. 69-71,
75; Sutil y Mxioana, Viage, pp. 39, 133; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 144; Van
couver's \ oy., vol. i., p. 338. Their canoes 'are believed to supply the pat
tern after which clipper ships are built.' Macfie's Vane. Id., pp. 484, 430.
Barreit-Ltnnard's Trav., p. 50. Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 533.
c? Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 271, 308, 316, 326, 329-30. Sproat's
Scenes, pp. 8G-:.', :J17; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 129; Lord's Nat., vol. ii.,
pp. 257-8, which describes a painted and ornamented plate of native copper
some one and a half by two and a half feet, kept with great care in a wooden
case, also elaborately ornamented. It was the property of the tribe at Fort
PROPERTY OF THE NOOTKAS. 191
of cloth are made of rushes and of pine or cedar bark,
which after being soaked is beaten on a plank with a
grooved instrument of wood or bone until the fibres are
separated. The threads are twisted into cords between
the hand and thigh; these cords, hung to a horizontal
beam and knotted with liner thread at regular intervals,
form the cloth. Thread of the same bark is used with
a sharpened twig for a needle. Intercourse with Euro
peans has modified their manufactures, and checked the
development of their native ingenuity.68
Captain Cook found among the Ahts very "strict no
tions of their having a right to the exclusive property
of everything that their country produces," so that they
claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. The limits
of tribal property are very clearly defined, but individ
uals rarely claim any property in land. Houses belong
to the men who combine to build them. Private wealth
consists of boats and implements for obtaining food, do
mestic utensils, slaves, and blankets, the latter being
generally the standard by which wealth or price is
computed. Food is not regarded as common property,
yet any man may help himself to his neighbor's store
when needy. The accumulation of property beyond the
necessities of life is only considered desirable for the
purpose of distributing it in presents on great feast-days,
and thereby acquiring a reputation for wealth and lib
erality ; and as these feasts occur frequently, an unsuc
cessful man may often take a fresh start in the race.
Instead of being given away, canoes and blankets are
often destroyed, which proves that the motive in this
disposal of property is not to favor friends, but merely
to appear indifferent to wealth. It is certainly a most
Rupert, and was highly prized, and only brought out on great occasions,
though its use was not discovered. Macjie's Vane. M., p. 165.
<* Woolen cloths of all degrees of fineness, made by hand and worked in
figures, by a method not known. Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 3'25. butily
p.
Dorado, pp. 99-100. 'The implement used for 'weaving, (by the Teets) dif
fered in no apparent respect from the rude loom of the days of the Phara
ohs.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78.
192 COLUMBIANS.
remarkable custom, and one that exerts a great influence
on the whole people. Gifts play an important part in
procuring a wife, and a division of property accompanies
a divorce. To enter the ranks of the medicine-men or
magicians, or to attain rank of any kind, property must
be sacrificed ; and a man who receives an insult or suffers
any affliction must tear up the requisite quantity of
blankets and shirts, if he would retain his honor.69 Trade
in all their productions was carried on briskly between
the different Nootka tribes before the coming of the
whites. They manifest much shrewdness in their ex
changes; even their system of presents is a species of
trade, the full value of each gift being confidently ex
pected in a return present on the next festive occasion.
In their intertribal commerce, a band holding a strong
position where trade by canoes between different parts
may be stopped, do not fail to offer and enforce the ac
ceptance of their services as middlemen, thereby greatly
increasing market prices.70
The system of numeration, sufficiently extensive for
the largest numbers, is decimal, the numbers to ten
having names which are in some instances compounds
but not multiples of smaller numbers. The fingers are
used to aid in counting. The year is divided into months
with some reference to the moon, but chiefly by the fish-
seasons, ripening of berries, migrations of birds, and
other periodical events, for which the months are named,
as: 'when the herrings spawn,' etc. The unit of meas
ure is the span, the fingers representing its fractional
parts.71 The Nootkas display considerable taste in orna-
& Sproat's Scenes, pp. 79-81, 89, 96, 111-13; Kane's Wand., pp. 220-1;
Macfie's Vane. JsL, pp. 429, 437; Cook's Voy. io Pac., vol. ii., p. 284; Sutil y
Mexicana, Viage, p. 147; Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 165-6; Mayne's B. <?., 263-5.
70 JewUt's Nar., pp. 78-80; Sproat's Scenes, pp. 19, 55/78-9, 92. Before
the adoption of blankets as a currency, they used small shells from the coast
bays for coin, and they are still used by some of the more remote tribes.
Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 307. 'Their acuteness in
barter is remarkable.' Forbes' Vane. JsL, p. 25.
71 The Ahts ' divide the year into thirteen months, or rather moons, and
begin with the one that pretty well answers to our November. At the same
time, as their names are applied to each actual new moon as it appears, they
are not, by half a month and more (sometimes), identical with our calendar
NOOTKA AKT AND GOVERNMENT. 193
menting with sculpture and paintings their implements
and houses, their chief efforts being made on the posts
of the latter, and the wooden masks which they wear
in war and some of their dances; but all implements
may be more or less carved and adorned according to
the artist's fancy. They sometimes paint fishing and
hunting scenes, but generally their models exist only
in imagination, and their works consequently assume
unintelligible forms. There seems to be no evidence
that their carved images and complicated paintings are
in any sense intended as idols or hieroglyphics. A rude
system of heraldry prevails among them, by which some
animal is adopted as a family crest, and its figure is
painted or embroidered on canoes, paddles, or blankets.72
To the Nootka system of government the terms patri
archal, hereditary, and feudal have been applied. There
is no confederation, each tribe being independent of all
the rest, except as powerful tribes are naturally domi
nant over the weak. In each tribe the head chief's rank
is hereditary by the male line ; his grandeur is displayed
on great occasions, when, decked in all his finery, he is
the central figure. At the frequently recurring feasts of
state he occupies the seat of honor ; presides at all coun
cils of the tribe, and is respected and highly honored by
all; but has no real authority over any but his slaves.
Between the chief, or king, and the people is a nobility,
in number about one fourth of the whole tribe, composed
of several grades, the highest being partially hereditary,
but also, as are all the lower grades, obtainable by feats
months.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 121-4. 'Las personas mas cultas dividen el
ano en catorce meses, y cada uno de estos en veinte dias, agregando luego
algunos dias intercaiares al fin de cada mes. El de Julio, que ellos llaman
Satz-tzi-ndtl, y es el primero de su ailo, a mas de sus veinte dias ordinaries
tiene tantos intercaiares quantos dura la abundancia de lenguados, atunes,
etc.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 153-4, 148; Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour.,
vol. xxvii., pp. 295, 301; Lord's Rat., vol. ii., pp. 242-4.
72 ' They shew themselves ingenious sculptors. They not only preserve,
with great exactness, the general character of their own faces, but finish the
more minute parts, with a degree of accuracy in proportion, and neatness in
execution.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 326-7, and Atlas, pi. 40; Lord's
Nat., vol. i., pp. ]64-5, vol. ii., pp. 257-8, and cut, p. 103; Macfie's Vane.
Isl., pp. 444-7, 484; Mayne's B. C., cut on p. 271.
VOL. I. 13
194 COLUMBIANS.
of valor or great liberality. All chieftains must be con
firmed by the tribe, and some of them appointed by the
king; each man's rank is clearly defined in the tribe, and
corresponding privileges strictly insisted on. There are
chiefs who have full authority in warlike expeditions.
Harpooners also form a privileged class, whose rank is
handed down from father to son. This somewhat com
plicated system of government nevertheless sits lightly,
since the people are neither taxed nor subjected to any
laws; nor interfered with in their actions. Still, long-
•continued custom serves as law and marks out the few
•duties and privileges of the Nootka citizen. Stealing
is not common except from strangers; and offenses re
quiring punishment are usually avenged — or pardoned
in consideration of certain blankets received — by the
injured parties and their friends, the chiefs seeming to
have little or nothing to do in the matter.73
73 'In an Aht tribe of two hundred men, perhaps fifty possess various de
grees of acquired or inherited rank; there may be about as many slaves; the
remainder are independent members.' Some of the Klah-oh-quahts 'pay
.annually to their chief certain contributions, consisting of blankets, skins,
etc.' 'A chief's "blue blood" avails not in a dispute with one of his own
people; he must fight his battle like a common man.' f- • proofs Scents, pp.
113-17, 18-20, 226. Cheslakees, a chief on Johnson's Strait, was inferior
but not subordinate in authority to Maquinna, the famous king at Nootka
.Sound, but the chief at Loughborough's Channel claimed to be under Ma
quinna. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 346, 331. ' La dignidad de Tays es heredi-
taria de padres a hijos, y pasa regularmente a estos luego que estan en edad
.de gobernar, si los padres por ancianidad u otras causas no pueden seguir
mandando.' 'El gobierno de estos naturales puede llamarse Patriarcal; pues
el Xefe de la nacion hace a un niismo tiempo los oficios de padre de familia,
de Rey y de Sumo Sacerdote.' 'Los nobles gozan de tanta consideracion en
Nutka, que ni aun de palabra se atreven los Tayses a reprelienderlos.' ' To-
dos consideraban a este (Maquinna) conio Soberano de las costas, desde la
• de Buena Esperanza hasta la punta de Arrecifes, con todos los Canales interi-
•ores.' To steal, or to know carnally a girl nine years old, is punished with
• death, tiuttt y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 140, 136, 147, 19, 25. 'There are such
men as Chiefs, who are distinguished by the name or title of Acwtek, and to
whom the others are, in some measure, subordinate. But, I should guess,
the authority of each of these great men extends no farther than the family
to which he belongs.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 333-4. 'La forme de
leur gouvernement est toute patriarcale, et la dignite de chef, hereditaire.'
Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 346. Several very populous villages to the north
ward, included in the territory of Maquilla, the head chief, were entrusted to
the government of the principal of his female relations. The whole govern
ment formed a political bond of union similar to the feudal system which
formerly obtained in Europe. Meares' Voy., pp. 228-9. ' The king or head
Tyee, is their leader in war, in the management of which he is perfectly ab
solute. He is also president of their councils, which are almost always reg
ulated by his opinion. But he has no kind of power over the property of his
NOOTKA SLAVEKY AND MARRIAGE. 195
Slavery is practiced by all the tribes, and the slave-
trade forms an important part of their commerce. Slaves
are about the only property that must not be sacrificed
to acquire the ever-desired reputation for liberality.
Only rich men — according to some authorities only the
nobles — may hold slaves. War and kidnapping supply
the slave-market, and no captive, whatever his rank in
his own tribe, can escape this fate, except by a heavy
ransom offered soon after he is taken, and before his
whereabouts becomes unknown to his friends. Children
of slaves, whose fathers are never known, are forever
slaves. The power of the owner is arbitrary and un
limited over the actions and life of the slave, but a cruel
exercise of his power seems of rare occurrence, and,
save the hard labor required, the material condition of
the slave is but little worse than that of the common
free people, since he is sheltered by the same roof and
partakes of the same food as his master. Socially the
slave is despised ; his hair is cut short, and his very name
becomes a term of reproach. Female slaves are prosti
tuted for hire, especially in the vicinity of white settle
ments. A runaway slave is generally seized and resold
by the first tribe he meets.74
The Nootka may have as many wives as he can buy,
but as prices are high, polygamy is practically restricted
to the chiefs, who are careful not to form alliances with
subjects.' Jewilt's Nar., pp. 138-9, 47, 69, 73. Kane's Wand., pp. 220-1. ' There
is no code of laws, nor do the chiefs possess the power or means of maintain
ing a regular government; but their personal influence is nevertheless very
great with their followers.' Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 246.
74 ' Usually kindly treated, eat of the same food, and live as well as their
masters.' 'None but the king and chiefs have slaves.' 'Maquinua had
nearly fifty, male and female, in his house. JevciWs Aar., pp. 73-4. Meares
states that slaves are occasionally sacrificed and feasted upon. Voy., p. 255.
The Newettee tribe nearly exterminated by kidnappers. Dunn's Oregon, p.
242. 'An owner might bring half a dozen slaves out of his house and kill
them publicly in a row without any notice being taken of the atrocity. But
the slave, as a rule, is not harshly treated.' • ' borne of the smaller tribes at
the north of the Island are practically regarded as slave-breeding tribes, and
are attacked periodically by stronger tribes. ' The American shore of the strait
is also a fruitful source of slaves. Sproat's Scenes, pp. 89-92. 'They say that
one Flathead slave is worth more than two Roundheads.' Kept. Ind. A/., 1857,
196 COLUMBIANS.
families beneath them in rank. Especially particular as
to rank are the chiefs in choosing their first wife, always
preferring the daughters of noble families of another tribe.
Courtship consists in an offer of presents by the lover to
the girl's father, accompanied generally by lengthy speech
es of friends on both sides, extolling the value of the man
and his gift, and the attractions of the bride. After the
bargain is concluded, a period of feasting follows if the
parties are rich, but this is not necessary as a part of
the marriage ceremony. Betrothals are often made by
parents while the parties are yet children, mutual de
posits of blankets and other property being made as
securities for the fulfillment of the contract, which is
rarely broken. Girls marry at an average age of sixteen.
The common Nootka obtains his one bride from his own
rank also by a present of blankets, much more humble
than that of his rich neighbor, and is assisted in his
overtures by perhaps a single friend instead of being
followed by the whole tribe. Courtship among this class
is not altogether without the attentions which render it
so charming in civilized life ; as when the fond girl lov
ingly caresses and searches her lover's head, always giv
ing him the fattest of her discoveries. Wives are not
ill treated, and although somewhat overworked, the di
vision of labor is not so oppressive as among many
Indian tribes. Men build houses, make boats and im
plements, hunt and fish; women prepare the fish and
game for winter use, cook, manufacture cloth and cloth
ing, and increase the stock of food by gathering berries
and shell-fish ; and most of this work among the richer
class is done by slaves. Wives are consulted in matters
of trade, and in fact seem to be nearly on terms of equal
ity with their husbands, except that they are excluded
from some public feasts and ceremonies. There is much
reason to suppose that before the advent of the whites, the
Nootka wife was comparatively faithful to her lord, that
chastity was regarded as a desirable female quality, and of
fenses against it severely punished. The females so freely
brought on board the vessels of early voyagers and offered
THE NOOTKA FAMILY. 197
to the men, were perhaps slaves, who are everywhere
prostituted for gain, so that the fathers of their children
are never known. Women rarely have more than two
or three children, and cease bearing at about twenty-five,
frequently preventing the increase of their family by
abortions. ' Pregnancy and childbirth affect them but
little. The male child is named at birth, but his name
is afterwards frequently changed. He is suckled by the
mother until three or four years old, and at an early
age begins to learn the arts of fishing by which he is to
live. Children are not quarrelsome among themselves,
and are regarded by both parents with some show of
affection and pride. Girls at puberty are closely con
fined for several days, and given a little water but no
food ; they are kept particularly from the sun or fire, to
see either of which at this period would be a lasting dis
grace. At such times feasts are given by the parents.
Divorces or separations may be had at will by either
party, but a strict division of property and return of
betrothal presents is expected, the woman being allowed
not only the property she brought her husband, and ar
ticles manufactured by her in wedlock, but a certain pro
portion of the common wealth. Such property as be
longs to the father and is not distributed in gifts during
his life, or destroyed at his death, is inherited by the
eldest son.75
w 'The women go to bed first, and are up first in the morning to prepare
breakfast,' p. 52. ' The condition of the Aht women is not one of unseemly
inferiority,' p. 93. 'Their female relations act as midwives. There is no
separate place for lying-in. The child, on being born, is rolled up in a mat
among feathers.' ' They suckle one child till another comes, ' p. 94. ' A girl
who was known to have lost her virtue, lost with it one of her chances of a
favourable marriage, and a chief. . . .would have put his daughter to death for
such a lapse, ' p. 95. In case of a separation, if the parties belong to different
tribes, the children go with the mother, p. 96. ' No traces of the existence of
polyandry among the Ahts,' p. 99. The personal modesty of the Aht women
when young is much greater than that of the men, p. 315. fiproat's Scenes,
pp. 28-30, 50-2, 93-102, 160, 264, 315. One of the chiefs said that three was
the number of wives permitted: 'como numero necesavio para no comunicar
con la que estuviese en cinta.' ' Muchos de ellos mueren sin casarse.' ' El
Tays no puede hacer uso de sus mugeres sin ver enteramente iluminado el
disco de la luna.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 141-6. Women treated with
no particular respect in any situation. Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 318.
Persons of the same crest are not allowed to marry. ' The child again always
takes the crest of the mother.' 'As a rule also, descent is traced from the
198 COLUMBIANS.
From the middle of November to the middle of Jan
uary, is the Nootka season of mirth and festivity, when
nearly the whole time is occupied with public and pri
vate gaiety. Their evenings are privately passed by the
family group within doors in conversation, singing, jok
ing, boasting of past exploits, personal and tribal, and
teasing the women until bed-time, when one by one they
retire to rest in the same blankets worn during the day.76
Swimming and trials of strength by hooking together
the little fingers, or scuffling for a prize, seem to be the
only out-door amusements indulged in by adults, while
the children shoot arrows and hurl spears at grass figures
of birds and fishes, and prepare themselves for future
conflicts by cutting off the heads of imaginary enemies
modeled in mud.77 To gambling the Nootkas are pas
sionately addicted, but their games are remarkably few
and uniform. Small bits of wood compose their entire
paraphernalia, sometimes used like dice, when the game
depends on the side turned up; or passed rapidly from
hand to hand, when the gamester attempts to name the
hand containing the trump stick; or again concealed in
dust spread over a blanket and moved about by one play
er that the rest may guess its location. In playing they
always form a circle seated on the ground, and the women
rarely if ever join the game.78 They indulge in smok-
mother, not from the father.' 'Intrigue -with the wives of men of other
tribes is one of the commonest causes of quarrel among the Indians.' Mayne's
B. C., pp. 257-8, 276; Macfte's Vane. Isl., pp. 444-7. The women are 'very
reserved and chaste.' Meares' Voy., pp. 251, 258, 265, 268; Kane's Wand.,
pp. 239-40. The Indian woman, to sooth her child, makes use of a springy
stick fixed obliquely in the ground to which the cradle is attached by a string,
forming a convenient baby-jumper. Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 259; Pemberton's
Vane. Isl., p. 131; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 346-7. 'Where there are
no slaves in the tribe or family they perform all the drudgery of bringing
firewood, water, &c.' Grant, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 298-9,
304. No intercourse between the newly married pair for a period of ten
days, p. 129. 'Perhaps in no part of the world is virtue more prized,' p. 74.
JewiWs Nar., pp. 59-60, 74, 127-9; Cornwallis' New El Dorado, p. 101.
76 ' When relieved from the presence of strangers, they have much easy
and social conversation among themselves.' ' The conversation is frequently
coarse and indecent.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 50-1. ' Cantando y baylando al
rededor de las hogueras, abaiidonandose a todos los excesos de la liviandad. '
Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 133.
77 Sproat's Scenes, pp. 55-6; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 144.
78 Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 299; Mayne's B. C., pp.
NOOTKA AMUSEMENTS. 199
ing, the only pipes of their own manufacture being of
plain cedar, filled now with tobacco by those who can
afford it, but in which they formerly smoked, as it is
supposed, the leaves of a native plant — still mixed with
tobacco to lessen its intoxicating properties. The pipe
is passed round after a meal, but seems to be less used
in serious ceremonies than among eastern Indian na
tions.79
But the Nootka amusement par excellence is that of
feasts, given by the richer classes and chiefs nearly every
evening during l the season.' Male and female heralds are
employed ceremoniously to invite the guests, the house hav
ing been first cleared of its partitions, and its floor spread
with mats.80 As in countries more civilized, the common
people go early to secure the best seats, their allotted place
being near the door. The elite come later, after being
repeatedly sent for; on arrival they are announced by
name, and assigned a place according to rank. In one
corner of the hall the fish and whale-blubber are boiled
by the wives of the chiefs, who serve it to the guests in
pieces larger or smaller, according to their rank. What
can not be eaten must be carried home. Their drink or
dinarily is pure water, but occasionally berries of a pecu
liar kind, preserved in cakes, are stirred in until a froth is
formed which swells the body of the drinker nearly to
bursting.81 Eating is followed by conversation and speech-
making, oratory being an art highly prized, in which,
with their fine voices, they become skillful. Finally,
the floor is cleared for dancing. In the dances in which
the crowd participate, the dancers, with faces painted in
black and vermilion, form a circle round a few leaders
who give the step, which consists chiefly in jumping with
275-6; Pemberton's Vane. Isl., p. 134; Macfie's Vane. Isl., p. 444; Barrett-
Lennard's Trav., p. 53.
79 tiproat's Scenes, p. 269. But Lord says 'nothing can be done without
it.' Nat., vol. i., p. 108.
80 The Indian never invites any of the same crest as himself. Macfe's
Vane. IsL, 445. 'They are very particular about whom they invite to their
feasts, and, on great occasions, men and women feast separately, the women
always taking the precedence.' Duncan, in Mayne's B. C., pp. 263-6; SproaVs
Scenes, pp. 59-63.
si Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 259-60.
200 COLUMBIANS.
both feet from the ground, brandishing weapons or bunch
es of feathers, or sometimes simply bending the body with
out moving the feet. As to the participation of women
in these dances, authorities do not agree.82 In a sort of
conversational dance all pass briskly round the room to
the sound of music, praising in exclamations the build
ing and all within it, while another dance requires many
to climb upon the roof and there continue their motions.
Their special or character dances are many, and in them
they show much dramatic talent. A curtain is stretched
across a corner of the room to conceal the preparations,
and the actors, fantastically dressed, represent personal
combats, hunting scenes, or the actions of different ani
mals. In the seal-dance naked men jump into the water
and then crawl out and over the floors, imitating the
motions of the seal. Indecent performances are men
tioned by some visitors. Sometimes in these dances
men drop suddenly as if dead, and are at last revived
by the doctors, who also give dramatic or magic perform
ances at their houses; or they illuminate a wax moon
out on the water, and make the natives believe they are
communing with the man in the moon. To tell just
where amusement ceases and solemnity begins in these
dances is impossible.83 Birds' down forms an important
item in the decoration at dances, especially at the recep
tion of strangers. All dances, as well as other cere
monies, are accompanied by continual music, instrumental
and vocal. The instruments are: boxes and benches
82 ' I have never seen an Indian woman dance at a feast, and believe it is
seldom if ever done.' Mayne's B. C., pp. 267-9. The women generally ' form
a separate circle, and chaunt and jump by themselves.' Grant, in Lond. Geog.
Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 306. 'As a rule, the men and women do not dance
together; when the men are dancing the women sing and beat time,' but
there is a dance performed by both sexes. Sproat's Scenes, pp. 66-7. ' On
other occasions a male chief will invite a party of female guests to share his
hospitality.' Macfie's Vane. Isl., p. 431. 'Las mugeres baylan desayradisi-
mamente ; rara vez se prestan a esta diversion. ' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 152.
83 ' La decencia obliga a pasar en silencio los bayles obscenos de los Mis-
chimis (common people), especialmente el del impotente a causa de la edad,
y el del pobre que no ha podido casarse.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 151-2,
18; Macfie's Vane. Isl., pp. 432-7; Sproat's Scenes, pp. 65-71; Mayne's B. C.,
pp. 266-7; Jeuoitt's Nar., p. 389; Gro.nt, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol xxvii.,
p. 306; Cornwattis' New El Dorado, pp. 99-] 03.
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. 201
struck with sticks ; a plank hollowed out on the under
side and beaten with drum-sticks about a foot long; a
rattle made of dried seal-skin in the form of a fish, with
pebbles ; a whistle of deer- bone about an inch long with
one hole, which like the rattle can only be used by chiefs ;
and a bunch of muscle- shells, to be shaken like castanets.84
Their songs are monotonous chants, extending over but
few notes, varied by occasional howls and whoops in some
of the more spirited melodies, pleasant or otherwise, ac
cording to the taste of the hearer.85 Certain of their
feasts are given periodically by the head chiefs, which
distant tribes attend, and during which take place the
distributions of property already mentioned. Whenever
a gift is offered, etiquette requires the recipient to snatch
it rudely from the donor with a stern and surly look.86
Among the miscellaneous customs noticed by the differ
ent authorities already quoted, may be mentioned the fol
lowing. Daily bathing in the sea is practiced, the vapor-
bath not being used. Children are rolled in the snow by
their mothers to make them hardy. Camps and other
property are moved from place to place by piling them on
a plank platform built across the canoes. Whymper saw
Indians near Bute Inlet carrying burdens on the back by
a strap across the forehead. In a fight they rarely strike
but close and depend on pulling hair and scratching; a
chance blow must be made up by a present. Invitations
s* Jewitt's Nar., pp. 39, 66, 72-3; Vancouver's Voy., vol. iii., pp. 307-10;
Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 310-11.
85 Their music is mostly grave and serious, and in exact concert, when
sung by great numbers. ' Variations numerous and expressive, and the ca
dence or melody powerfully soothing.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 310-
11,283. Dislike European music, tiutily Mexicana, Viage, pp. 151-2. 'Their
tunes are generally soft and plaintive, and though not possessing great va
riety, are not deficient in harmony.' Jewitt thinks the words of the songs
may be borrowed from other tribes. Jewitt's Nar., p. 72, and specimen of
war song, p. 166. Airs consist of five or six bars, varying slightly, time being
beaten in the middle of the bar. ' Melody they have none, there is nothing
soft, pleasing, or touching in their airs; they are not, however, without some
degree of rude harmony.' Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xviii., p. 306.
' A certain beauty of natural expression in many of the native strains, if it
were possible to relieve them from the monotony which is their fault.' There
are old men, wandering minstrels, who sing war songs and beg. ' It is re
markable how aptly the natives catch and imitate songs heard from settlers
or travelers.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 63-5.
86 Macfie's Vane. Isl, pp. 430-1; JewitVs Nar., p. 39.
2 32 COLUMBIANS.
to eat must not be declined, no matter how often repeated.
Out of doors there is no native gesture of salutation, but
in the houses a guest is motioned politely to a couch;
guests are held sacred, and great ceremonies are per
formed at the reception of strangers ; all important events
are announced by heralds. Friends sometimes saunter
along hand in hand. A secret society, independent of
tribe, family, or crest, is supposed by Sproat to exist among
them, but its purposes are unknown. In a palaver
with whites the orator holds a long white pole in his
hand, which he sticks occasionally into the ground by
way of emphasis. An animal chosen as a crest must
not be shot or ill-treated in the presence of any wearing
its figure; boys recite portions of their elders' speeches
as declamations; names are changed many times during
life, at the will of the individual or of the tribe.
In sorcery, witchcraft, prophecy, dreams, evil spir
its, and the transmigration of souls, the Nootkas are firm
believers, and these beliefs enable the numerous sorcer
ers of different grades to acquire great power in the
tribes by their strange ridiculous ceremonies. Most of
their tricks are transparent, being deceptions worked by
the aid of confederates to keep up their power; but, as
in all religions, the votary must have some faith in the
efficacy of their incantations. The sorcerer, before giv
ing a special demonstration, retires apart to meditate.
After spending some time alone in the forests and mount
ains, fasting and lacerating the flesh, he appears sud
denly before the tribe, emaciated, wild with excitement,
clad in a strange costume, grotesquely painted, and
wearing a hideous mask. The scenes that ensue are
indescribable, but the aim seems to be to commit all the
wild freaks that a maniac's imagination may devise,,
accompanied by the most unearthly yells which can ter-j
rorize the heart. Live dogs and dead human bodies are;
seized and torn by their teeth ; but, at least in later times,;
they seem not to attack the living, and their perform-,
ances are somewhat less horrible and bloody than the
wild orgies of the northern tribes. The sorcerer is
CUSTOMS AND CANNIBALISM. 203
thought to have more influence with bad spirits than
with good, and is always resorted to in the case of any
serious misfortune. New members of the fraternity are
initiated into the mysteries by similar ceremonies. Old
women are not without their traditional mysterious pow
ers in matters of prophecy and witchcraft ; and all chiefs
in times of perplexity practice fasting and laceration.
Dreams are believed to be the visits of spirits or of the
wandering soul of some living party, and the unfortu
nate Nootka boy or girl whose blubber-loaded stomach
causes uneasy dreams, must be properly hacked, scorched,
smothered, and otherwise tormented until the evil spirit
is appeased.87 Whether or not these people were can
nibals, is a disputed question, but there seems to be little
doubfc that slaves have been sacrificed and eaten as a
part of their devilish rites.88
87 ' I have seen the sorcerers at work a hundred times, but they use so
many charms, which appear to me ridiculous, — they sing, howl, and gesticu
late in so extravagant a manner, and surround their office with such dread
and mystery, — that I am quite unable to describe their performances,' pp.
169-70. 'An unlucky dream will stop a sale, a treaty, a fishing, hunting,
or war expedition,' p. 175. SproaVs Scenes, pp. 1G5-75. A chief, offered a
piece of tobacco for allowing his portrait to be made, said it was a small re
ward for risking his life. Kane's Wand., p. 240. Shrewd individuals impose
on their neighbors by pretending to receive a revelation, telling them where
fish or berries are most abundant. Description of initiatory ceremonies of
the sorcerers. Macfie's Vane. 7s/., pp. 446, 433-7, 451. Jewitt's Nar., pp. 98-9.
A brave prince goes to a distant lake, jumps from a high rock into the water,
and rubs all the skin off his face with pieces of rough bark, amid the ap
plause of his attendants. Description of king's prayers, and ceremonies to
bring rain. Sutil y Mexicana, Viaye, pp. 145-6, 37. Candidates are thrown
into a state of mesmerism before their initiation. ' Medicus,' in Hulchings' Cal.
Mag., vol. v., pp. 227-8; Barrett-Lennard' 's Trav., pp. 51-3; Californias, Noti-
cias, pp. 61-85.
88 They brought for sale ' human skulls, and hands not yet quite stripped
of the flesh, which they made our people plainly understand they had eaten;
and, indeed, some of them had evident marks that they had been upon the
fire.' Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 271. Slaves are occasionally sacrificed
and feasted upon. Meares' Voy., p. 255. 'No todos habian comido la carne
humana, ni en todo tiempo, sino solamente los guerreros mas animosos quan-
do se preparaban para salir a campana.' ' Parece indudable que estos salva
ges han sido antropofagos.' Sutit y Mexicana, Viaye, p. 130. 'At Nootka
Sound, and at the Sandwich Islands, Ledyard witnessed instances of canni
balism. In both places he saw human flesh prepared for food.' Spark's Life
of Ledyard, p. 74; Cornwallis' New El Dorado, pp. 104-6. ' Cannibalism, ail-
though unknown among the Indians of the Columbia, is practised by the
savages on the coast to the northward.' Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 310-11. The
cannibal ceremonies quoted by Macfie and referred to Vancouver Island,
probably were intended for the Haidahs farther north. Vane. Isl., p. 434. A
slave as late as 1850 was drawn up and down a pole by a hook through the
204 COLUMBIANS.
The Nootkas are generally a long-lived race, and from
the beginning to the failing of manhood undergo little
change in appearance. Jewitt states that during his cap
tivity of three years at Nootka Sound, only five natural
deaths occurred, and the people suffered scarcely any dis
ease except the colic. Sproat mentions as the common
est diseases; bilious complaints, dysentery, a consumption
which almost always follows syphilis, fevers, and among
the aged, ophthalmia. Accidental injuries, as cuts, bruis
es, sprains, and broken limbs, are treated with con
siderable success by means of simple salves or gums,
cold water, pine-bark bandages, and wooden splints.
Natural pains and maladies are invariably ascribed to the
absence or other irregular conduct of the soul, or to the
influence of evil spirits, and all treatment is directed to
the recall of the former and to the appeasing of the latter.
Still, so long as the ailment is slight, simple means are
resorted to, and the patient is kindly cared for by the
women; as when headache, colic, or rheumatism is
treated by the application of hot or cold water, hot ashes,
friction, or the swallowing of cold teas made from vari
ous roots and leaves. Nearly every disease has a specific
for its cure. Oregon grape and other herbs cure syphilis ;
wasp-nest powder is a tonic, and blackberries an astring
ent; hemlock bark forms a plaster, and dog- wood bark
is a strengthener ; an infusion of young pine cones or
the inside scrapings of a human skull prevent too rapid
family increase, while certain plants facilitate abortion.
When a sickness becomes serious, the sorcerer or medi
cine-man is called in and incantations begin, more or less
noisy according to the amount of the prospective fee
skin and tendons of the back, and afterwards devoured. Medicus, in Hutch-
ings' CaL Mag., vol. v., p, 223. L'aiithropophagie a ete longtemps en usage
. . . . et peut-etre y existe-t-elle encore . . . . Le chef Maquina .... tuait un prison-
nier a chaque lune nouvelle. Tous les chefs etaient invites a cette horrible
fete.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 345. 'It is not improbable* that the sus
picion that the Nootkans are cannibals may be traced to the practice of
some custom analagous to the Tzeet-tzaiak of the Haeel tzuk.' Scouler, in
Lond., Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., pp. 223-4. 'The horrid practice of sacri
ficing a victim is not annual, but only occurs either once in three years or
else at uncertain intervals.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 156.
NOOTKA BUKIAL. 205
and the number of relatives and friends who join in the
uproar. A very poor wretch is permitted to die in com
parative quiet. In difficult cases the doctor, wrought up
to the highest state of excitement, claims to see and hear
the soul, and to judge of the patient's prospects by its
position and movements. The sick man shows little
fortitude, and abandons himself helplessly to the doctor's
ridiculous measures. Failing in a cure, the physician
gets no pay, but if successful, does not fail to make a
large demand. Both the old and the helplessly sick are
frequently abandoned by the Ahts to die without aid in
the forest.89
After death the Nootka's body is promptly put away;
a slave's body is unceremoniously thrown into the wa
ter; that of a freeman, is placed in a crouching posture,
their favorite one during life, in a deep wooden box, or
in a canoe, and suspended from the branches of a tree,
deposited on the ground with a covering of sticks and
stones, or, more rarely, buried. Common people are usu
ally left on the surface ; the nobility are suspended from
trees at heights differing, as some authorities say, accord
ing to rank. The practice of burning the dead seems
also to have been followed in some parts of this region.
Each tribe has a bury ing-ground chosen on some hill
side or small island. With chiefs, blankets, skins, and
other property in large amounts are buried, hung up
about the grave, or burned during the funeral ceremo
nies, which are not complicated except for the highest
officials. The coffins are often ornamented with carv-
89 Rheumatism and paralysis are rare maladies.' Syphilis is probably
indigenous. Amputation, blood-letting, and metallic medicine not employed.
Medicines to produce love are numerous. ' Young and old of both sexes are
exposed when afflicted with lingering disease.' Sproat's Scenes, pp. 251-7, 282,
213-4. ' Headache is cured by striking the part affected with small branches
of the spruce tree.' Doctors are generally chosen from men who have
themselves suffered serious maladies. Macfie's Vane. IsL, pp. 438-40. 'Their
cure for rheumatism or similar pains .... is by cutting or scarifying the part
affected.' Jeicitt's Nar., p. 142. They are sea sick on European vessels.
Poole's Q. Char. IsL, p. 81. Description of ceremonies. Swan, in Mayne's
B. C., pp. 261-3, 304. 'The
starved, lest the food should
warm and steam bath is verj
Cal. Mag., vol. v., pp. 226-8.
206 COLUMBIANS.
ings or paintings of the deceased man's crest, or with
rows of shells. When a death occurs, the women of
the tri-be make a general howl, and keep it up at intervals
for many days or months ; the men, after a little speech-
making, keep silent. The family and friends, with black
ened faces and hair cut short, follow the body to its last
resting-place with music and other manifestations of sor
row, generally terminating in a feast. There is great
reluctance to explain their funeral usages to strangers;
death being regarded by this people with great supersti
tion and dread, not from solicitude for the welfare of
the dead, but from a belief in the power of departed
spirits to do much harm to the living.90
The Nootka character presents all the inconsistencies
observable among other American aborigines, since there
is hardly a good or bad trait that has not by some ob
server been ascribed to them. Their idiosyncracies as a
race are perhaps best given by Sproat as "want of ob
servation, a great deficiency of foresight, extreme fickle
ness in their passions and purposes, habitual suspicion,
and a love of power and display; added to which may
be noticed their ingratitude and revengeful disposition,
90 The custom of burning or burying property is wholly confined to chiefs.
' Night is their time for interring the dead.' Buffoon tricks, with a feast and
dance, formed part of the ceremony. Jewitt's Nar., pp. 105, 111-2, 136. At Val-
des Island, ' we saw two sepulchres built with plank about five feet in height,
seven in length, and four in breadth. These boards were curiously perforated
at the ends and sides, and the tops covered with loose pieces of plank;' in
closed evidently the relics of many different bodies. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i.,
pp. 338-9. ' The coffin is usually an old canoe, lashed round and round, like
an Egyptian mummy-case.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 170. 'There is generally
some grotesque figure painted on the outside of the box, or roughly sculp
tured out of wood and placed by the side of it. For some days after death
the relatives burn salmon or venison before the tomb.' ' They will never
mention the name of a dead man.' Grant, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii.,
pp. 301-3. 'As a rule, the Indians burn their dead, and then bury the ash
es. ' ' It was at one time not uncommon for Indians to desert forever a lodge
in \\lhich one of their family had died.' Mayne's Jl. C., pp. 271-2, with cut of
graves. For thirty days after the funeral, dirges are chanted at sunrise and
sunset. Macfie's Vane. lsl.,pp. 447-8. Children frequently, but grown persons
never, were found hanging in trees. Meares' Voy., p. 268; Kproat's Scenes,
pp. 258-G3. The bodies of chiefs are hung in trees on high mountains,
while those of the commons are buried, that their souls may have a shorter
journey to their residence in a future life. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 139-
40. 'The Indians never inter their dead.' and rarely burn them. JJarrett-
Lennard's Trai\, p. 51.
CHARACTER OF THE NOOTKAS. 207
their readiness for war, and revolting indifference to
human suffering." These qualities, judged by civilized
standards censurable, to the Nootka are praiseworthy,
while contrary qualities are to be avoided. By a strict
application, therefore, of 'put yourself in his place ' prin
ciples, to which most 'good Indians' owe their reputation,
Nootka character must not be too harshly condemned.
They are not, so far as physical actions are concerned, a
remarkably lazy people, but their minds, although intel
ligent when aroused, are averse to effort and quickly
fatigued ; nor can they comprehend the advantage of con
tinued effort for any future good which is at all remote.
What little foresight they have, has much in common
with the instinct of beasts. Ordinarily, they are quiet
and well behaved, especially the higher classes, but when
once roused to anger, they rage, bite, spit and kick with
out the slightest attempt at self-possession. A serious of
fense against an individual, although nominally pardoned
in consideration of presents, can really never be com
pletely atoned for except by blood ; hence private, family,
and tribal feuds continue from generation to generation.
Women are not immodest, but the men have no shame.
Stealing is recognized as a fault, and the practice as be
tween members of the same tribe is rare, but skillful pil
fering from strangers, if not officially sanctioned, is ex
tensively carried on and much admired ; still any prop
erty confided in trust to a Nootka is said to be faithfully
returned. To his wife he is kind and just; to his chil
dren affectionate. Efforts for their conversion to foreign
religions have been in the highest degree unsuccessful.91
91 As light-fingered as any of the Sandwich Islanders. Of a quiet, phleg
matic, and inactive disposition.' 'A docile, courteous, good-natured people
. . . .but quick in resenting what they look upon as an injury; and, like most
other passionate people, as soon forgetting it.' Not curious; indolent; gen
erally fair in trade, and would steal only such articles as they wanted for
some purpose. Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 272, o08-T2, etc. 'Exceed
ingly hospitable in their own homes, ... .lack neither courage nor intelli
gence.' Peniberton's Vane. IsL, p. 131. The Kla-iz-zarts ' appear to be more
civilized than any of the others." The Cayuquets are thought to be deficient
in courage; and the Kla-os-quates 'are a fierce, bold, and enterprizing people.'
JewiiVs A'ar., pp. 75-7. ' Civil and inoffensive ' at Horse Sound. Vancouver's
Voy., vol. i., p. 307. 'Their moral deformities are as great as their physical
208 COLUMBIANS.
THE SOUND INDIANS, by which term I find it conve
nient to designate the nations about Puget Sound, con
stitute the third family of the Columbian group. In
this division I include all the natives of that part of the
territory of Washington lying west of the Cascade Range,
except a strip from twenty-five to forty miles wide along
the north bank of the Columbia. The north-eastern
section of this territory, including the San Juan group,
Whidbey Island, and the region tributary to Bellingham
Bay, is the home of the Nooksak, Lummi, Samish and
Skagit nations, whose neighbors and constant harassers
on the north are the fierce Kwantlums and Cowichins of
the Nootka family about the mouth of the Fraser. The
central section, comprising the shores and islands of
Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, and Puget Sound proper,
is occupied . by numerous tribes with variously spelled
names, mostly terminating in mis/i, which names, with
all their orthographic diversity, have been given gen
erally to the streams on whose banks the different na
tions dwelt. All these tribes may be termed the Nis-
qually nation, taking the name from the most numerous
and best-known of the tribes located about the head of
the sound. The Clallams inhabit the eastern portion
of the peninsula between the sound and the Pacific.
The western extremity of the same peninsula, terminat
ing at Cape Flattery, is occupied by the Classets or Makahs;
ones.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88. The Nittinahts given to aggressive
war, and consequently 'bear a bad reputation.' Whymper's Alaska, p. 74.
Not brave, and a slight repulse daunts them. ' Sincere in his friendship, kind
to his wife and children, and devotedly loyal to his own tribe,' p. 51. ' In
sickness and approaching death, the savage always becomes melancholy,' p.
162. Sproat's Scenes, pp. 30, 36, 52, 91, 119-24, 150-66, 187, 216. ' Comux
and Yucletah fellows very savage and uncivilized dogs, ' and the Nootkas not
to be trusted. 'Cruel, bloodthirsty, treacherous and cowardly.' Grant, in
Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 294, 296, 298, 305, 307. Mayne's B. C.,
p. 246; Macfie's Vane. IsL, pp. 190, 460-1, 472, 477, 484; Poole's Q. Char. Isl,
pp. 294-6. The Spaniards gave the Nootkas a much better character than
voyagers of other nations. Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 25, 31-2, 57-9, 63, 99,
107, 133, 149-51, 154-6; Forbes' Vane. Isl, p. 25; Eattray's Vane. IsL, pp.
172-3. The Ucultas 'are a band of lawless pirates and robbers, levying
black-mail on all the surrounding tribes.' Barrett-Lennard's Trav., p. 43.
' Bold and ferocious, sly and reserved, not easily provoked, but revengeful.'
Spark's Life of Ledyard, p. 72. The Teets have 'all the vices of the coast
tribes ' with ' none of the redeeming qualities of the interior nations. ' Ander
son, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78.
THE SOUND INDIANS. 209
while the Chehalis and Cowlitz nations are found on the
Chehalis River, Gray Harbor, and the upper Cowlitz.
Excepting a few bands on the headwaters of streams
that rise in the vicinity of Mount Baker, the Sound
family belongs to the coast fish-eating tribes rather than
to the hunters of the interior. Indeed, this family has
so few marked peculiarities, possessing apparently no trait
or custom not found as well among the Nootkas or Chi-
nooks, that it may be described in comparatively few
words. When first known to Europeans they seem to
have been far less numerous than might have been ex
pected from the extraordinary fertility and climatic ad
vantages of their country ; and since they have been in
contact with the whites, their numbers have been re
duced, — chiefly through the agency of small-pox and
ague, — even more rapidly than the nations farther to the
north-west.92
92 ' Those who came within our notice so nearly resembled the people of
Nootka, that the best delineation I can offer is a reference to the description
of those people ' (by Cook), p. 252. At Cape Flattery they closely resembled
those of Nootka and spoke the same language, p. 218. At Gray Harbor they
seemed to vary in little or no respect ' from those on the sound, and under
stood the Nootka tongue, p. 83. ' The character and appearance of their sev
eral tribes here did not seem to differ in any material respect from each other,'
p, 288. Evidence that the country was once much more thickly peopled, p.
254. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 218, 252, 254, 288; vol. ii., p. 83. The
Chehalis come down as far as Shoal- water Bay. A band of Klikatats (Sa-
haptins) is spoken of near the head of the Cowlitz. 'The Makahs resemble
the northwestern Indians far more than their neighbors.' The Lummi are
a branch of the Clallains. Rept. Ind. Aff., 1854, pp. 240-4. The Lummi
' traditions lead them to believe that they are descendants of a better race
than common savages.' The Semianmas 'are intermarried with the north
band of the Lummis, and Cowegans, and Quantlums. ' The Neuk-wers and Si-
amanas are called Stick Indians, and in 1852 had never seen a white. 'The
Neuk-sacks (Mountain Men) trace from the salt water Indians,' and 'are en
tirely different from the others.' ' The Loomis appear to be more of a wan
dering class than the others about Bellingham Bay.' Id., 1857, pp. 327-9.
' They can be divided into two classes — the salt-water and the Stick Indians. '
Id., 1857, p. 224. Of the Nisquallies ' some live in the plains, and others on
the banks of the Sound.' The Classets have been less affected than the
Chinooks by fever and ague. Dunn's Oregon, pp. 231-5. The Clallams speak
a kindred language to that of the Ahts. Sproat's Scenes, p. 270. 'El gobier-
no de estos naturales de la entrada y canales de Fuca, la disposicion interior
de las habitaciones las manufacturas y vestidos que usan son muy parecidos
a los de los habitantes de Nutka.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viafje, p. 111. The Sound
Indians live in great dread of the Northern tribes. Wilfces' Nar., in U. <S.
Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 513. The Makahs deem themselves much superior to
the tribes of the interior, because they go out on the ocean. Scammon, in
Overland Monthly, vol. vii., pp. 277-8. The Nooksaks are entirely distinct
VOL. I. 14
210 COLUMBIANS.
These natives of Washington are short and thick-set,
with strong limbs, but bow-legged ; they have broad faces,
eyes fine but wide apart ; noses prominent, both of Ro
man and aquiline type ; color, a light copper, perhaps a
shade darker than that of the Nootkas, but capable of
transmitting a flush ; the hair usually black and almost
universally worn long.93
All the tribes flatten the head more or less, but none
carry the practice to such an extent as their neighbors on
the south, unless it be the Cowlitz nation, which might
indeed as correctly be classed with the Chinooks. By
most of the Sound natives tattooing is not practiced, and
they seem somewhat less addicted to a constant use of
paint than the Nootkas ; yet on festive occasions a plenti
ful and hideous application is made of charcoal or colored
•earth pulverized in grease, and the women appreciate the
•charms imparted to the face by the use of vermilion clay.
The nose, particularly at Cape Flattery, is the grand
•centre of facial ornamentation. Perforating is extrava-
from the Lummi, and some suppose them to have come from the Clallam
country. Coleman, in Harper's Mag., vol.xxxix., p. 799. Stevens, in Pac. 2i. R.
Kept., vol. i., p. 428.
93 At Port Discovery they 'seemed capable of enduring great fatigue.'
Their cheek-bones were high.' 'The oblique eye of the Chinese was not
uncommon.' ' Their countenances wore an expression of wildness, and they
had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features.' Some of
women would with difficulty be distinguished in colour from those of Euro
pean race. The Classet women 'were much better looking than those of
•other tribes.' Portrait of a Tatouche chief. Wilkes' Kar., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. iv., pp. 317-8, 320, 517-8. ' All are bow-legged.' ' All of a sad-colored,
•Caravaggio brown.' 'All have coarse, black hair, and are beardless.' Win-
throp's Canoe and Saddle, p. 32. 'Tall and stout.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 28.
.Sproat mentions a Clallam slave who 'could see in the dark like a racoon.'
Scenes, p. 52. The Classet ' cast of countenance is very different from that
•of the Nootkians. . . .their complexion is also much fairer and their stature
shorter.' Jewitt's Nar., p. 75. The Nisqually Indians 'are of very large
:6tature ; indeed, the largest I have met with on the continent. The women
.are particularly large and stout.' Kane's Wand., pp. 207, 228, 234. The Nis-
quallies are by no means a large race, being from five feet five inches to five
feet nine inches in height, and weighing from one hundred and thirty to one
hundred and eighty pounds. Anderson, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 227. ' Deros-
tro hermoso y de gallarda figura. ' Navarrete, in Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. xciv.
The Queniults, 'the finest-looking Indians I had ever seen.' Swan's N. W.
Coast, pp. 78-9. Neuksacks stronger and more athletic than other tribes.
Many of the Lummi 'very fair and have light hair.' Rept. Jnd. Aff., 1857,
p. 328; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 23; Morton's Crania,
p. 215, with plate of Cowlitz skull; Cornwallis' New El Dorado, p. 97; Van
couver's Voy., vol. i., p. 252; Murphy and Ilarned, Puget Sound Directory,
pp. 64-71; Clark's Lights and Shadows, pp. 214-15, 224-6.
SOUND DRESS AND DWELLINGS. 211
gantly practiced, and pendant trinkets of every form and
substance are worn, those of bone or shell preferred, and,
if we may credit Wilkes, by some of the women these
ornaments are actually kept clean.
The native garment, when the weather makes naked
ness uncomfortable, is a blanket of dog's hair, sometimes
mixed with birds' down and bark-fibre, thrown about the
shoulders. Some few fasten this about the neck with a
wooden pin. The women are more careful in covering
the person with the blanket than are the men, and gen
erally wear under it a bark apron hanging from the waist
in front. A cone-shaped, water-proof hat, woven from
colored grasses, is sometimes worn on the head.94
Temporary hunting-huts in summer are merely cross-
sticks covered with coarse mats made by laying bulrushes
side by side, and knotting them at intervals with cord
or grass. The poorer individuals or tribes dwell perma
nently in similar huts, improved by the addition of a
few slabs; while the rich and powerful build substantial
houses, of planks split from trees by means of bone
wedges, much like the Nootka dwellings in plan, and
nearly as large. These houses sometimes measure over
one hundred feet in length, and are divided into rooms or
94 ' Less bedaubed with paint and less filthy ' than the Nootkas. At Port
Discovery 'they wore ornaments, though none were observed in their noses.'
At Cape Flattery the nose ornament was straight, instead of crescent-shaped,
as among the Nootkas. Vancouver supposed their garments to be composed
of dog's hair mixed with the wool of some wild animal, which he did not
see. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 218, 230, 266. At Port Discovery some
had small brass bells hung in the rim of the ears, p. 318. Some of the Ska>-
gits were tattooed with lines on the arms and face, and fond of brass rings,
pp. 511-12. The Classets 'wore small pieces of an iridescent mussel-shell,
attached to the cartilage of their nose, which was in some, of the size of a
ten cents piece, and triangular in shape. It is generally kept in motion by
their breathing,' p. 517. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.iv., pp. 317-20,
334, 404, 444, 511-2, 517-8. The conical hats and stout bodies 'brought to
mind representations of Siberian tribes.' Pickering's Paces, in Idem., vol. ix.,
p. 23. The Clallams ' wear no clothing in summer.' Faces daubed with red
and white mud. Illustration of head-flattening. Kane's Wand., pp. 180, 207,
210-11, 224. Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 108-9; Possi, Souvenirs, p.
299; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 232-3; San Francisco Bulletin, May 24, 1859; Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1854, p. 243; Id., 1857, p. 329; Stevens, inPac. P. P. Pept., vol. i., p. 430.
Above Gray Harbor they were dressed with red deer skins. Navarrete, in Sutil
y Mexicana, Viage, p. xciv: Cornwallis' New El Dorado, p. 97; Winthrop's
Canoe and Saddle, p. 32-3; Murphy and Harned, in Puget Sd. Direct., pp.
212 COLUMBIANS.
pens, each house accommodating many families. There
are several fire-places in each dwelling; raised benches
extend round the sides, and the walls are often lined with
matting.95
In spring time they abandon their regular dwellings
and resort in small companies to the various sources of
food-supply. Fish is their chief dependence, though
game is taken in much larger quantities than by the
Nbotkas; some of the more inland Sound tribes subsist
ing almost entirely by the chase and by root-digging.
Nearly all the varieties of fish which support the north
ern tribes are also abundant here, and are taken sub
stantially by the same methods, namely, by the net, hook,
spear, and rake ; but fisheries seem to be carried on some
what less systematically, and I find no account of the
extensive and complicated embankments and traps men
tioned by travelers in British Columbia. To the salmon,
sturgeon, herring, rock-cod, and candle-fish, abundant
95 The Skagit tribe being exposed to attacks from the north, combine
dwellings and fort, and build themselves ' enclosures, four hundred feet long,
and capable of containing many families, which are constructed of pickets
made of thick planks, about thirty feet high. The pickets are firmly fixed
into the ground, the spaces between them being only sufficient to point a
musket through. . . .The interior of the enclosure is divided into lodges,' p.
511. At Port Discovery the lodges were 'no more than a few rudely-cut
slabs, covered in part by coarse mats,' p. 319. Wilkes' Nur., in U. 8. Ex. Ex.,
vol. iv., pp. 319-20, 511, 517. The Clallams also have a fort of pickets one
hundred and fifty feet square, roofed over and divided into compartments
for families. ' There were about two hundred of the tribe in the fort at the
time of my arrival.' 'The lodges are built of cedar like the Chinook lodges,
but much larger, some of them being sixty or seventy feet long.' Kane's
Wand., pp. 210, 219, 227-9. ' Their houses are of considerable size, often fifty
to one hundred feet in length, and strongly built.' Kept. Ind. Aff., 1854, pp.
242-3. ' The planks forming the roof run the whole length of the building,
being guttered to carry off the water, and sloping slightly to one end.' Stev-
ens, in Pac. 11. R. Kept., vol. i., pp. 429-30. Well built lodges of timber and
plank on Whidbey Island. Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., p. 300. At
New Dungeness, ' composed of nothing more than a few mats thrown over
cross sticks;' and on Puget Sound ' constructed something after the fashion
of a soldier's tent, by two cross sticks about five feet high, connected at each
end by a ridge-pole from one to the other, over some of which was thrown a
coarse kind of mat; over others a few loose branches of trees, shrubs or
grass.' Vancouver's Voy.,vol. i., pp. 225, 262. The Queniults sometimes, but
not always, whitewash the interior of their lodges with pipe-clay, and then
paint figures of fishes and animals in red and black on the white surface.
See description and cuts of exterior and interior of Indian lodge in Swan's
N. V/. Coast, pp. 266-7, 330, 338; Crane's Top. Mem., p. 65; Cornwall™' New
as, pp.
, p. 98;
El Dorado, p. 98; Clark's Lights and Shadows, p. 225.
FOOD OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 213
in the inlets of the sound, the Classets, by venturing out
to sea, add a supply of whale-blubber and otter-meat,
obtained with spears, lines, and floats. At certain points
on the shore tall poles are erected, across which nets are
spread; and against these nets large numbers of wild
fowl, dazzled by torch-lights at night, dash themselves
and fall stunned to the ground, where the natives stand
ready to gather in the feathery harvest. Vancouver no
ticed many of these poles in different localities, but could
not divine their use. Deer and elk in the forests are
also hunted by night, and brought within arrow-shot by
the spell of torches. For preservation, fish are dried in
the sun or dried and smoked by the domestic hearth,
and sometimes pounded fine, as are roots of various kinds;
clams are dried on strings and hung up in the houses,
or occasionally worn round the neck, ministering to the
native love of ornament until the stronger instinct of
hunger impairs the beauty of the necklace. In the bet
ter class of houses, supplies are neatly stored in baskets
at the sides. The people are extremely improvident,
and, notwithstanding their abundant natural supplies in
ocean, stream, and forest, are often in great want. Boil
ing in wooden vessels by means of hot stones is the
ordinary method of cooking. A visitor to the Nooksaks
thus describes their method of steaming elk-meat : " They
first dig a hole in the ground, then build a wood fire,
placing stones on the top of it. As it burns, the stones
become hot and fall down. Moss and leaves are then
placed on the top of the hot stones, the meat on these,
and another layer of moss and leaves laid over it. Water
is poured on, which is speedily converted into steam.
This is retained by mats carefully placed over the heap.
When left in this 'way for a night, the meat is found
tender and well cooked in the morning." Fowls were
cooked in the same manner by the Queniults.96
96 The Nootsaks, ' like all inland tribes, they subsist principally by the
chase.' Coleman, in Harper's Mag., vol. xxxix., pp. 795, 799, 815; Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1857, p. 328. Sturgeon abound weighing 400 to 600 pounds, and are taken
by the Clallams by means of a spear with a handle seventy to eighty feet
long, while lying on the bottom of the river in spawning time. Fish-hooks
214 COLUMBIANS.
I find no mention of other weapons, offensive or de
fensive, than spears, and bows and arrows. The arrows
and spears were usually pointed with bone; the bows
were of yew, and though short, were of great power.
Vancouver describes a superior bow used at Puget Sound.
It was from two and a half to three feet long, made
from a naturally curved piece of yew, whose concave
side became the convex of the bow, and to the whole
length of this side a strip of elastic hide or serpent-skin
was attached so firmly by a kind of cement as to become
almost a part of the wood. This lining added greatly
are made of cedar root with bone barbs. Their only vegetables are the ca-
mas, wappatoo, and fern roots. Kane's Wand., pp. 213-14, 230-4, 289. At
Puget Sound, ' men, women and children were busily engaged like swine,
rooting up this beautiful verdant meadow in quest of a species of wild onion,
and two other roots, which in appearance and taste greatly resembled the sa-
ranne.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 225, 234, 262. In fishing for salmon
at Port Discovery ' they have two nets, the drawing and casting net, made of
a silky grass, ' ' or of the fibres of the roots of trees, or of the inner bark of
the white cedar. ' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 147. ' The line is made either of kelp
or the fibre of the cypress, and to it is attached an inflated bladder. ' JSeemann's
Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 109. At Port Townsend, 'leurs provisions, consist-
aient en poisson seche au soleil ou boucane;. . . .tout rempli de sable.' Rossi,
Souvenirs, pp. 182-3, 299. The Clallams ' live by fishing and hunting around
their homes, and never pursue the whale and seal as do the sea-coast tribes.'
Scammon, in Overland Monthly, vol. vii., p. 278. The Uthlecan or candle-fish
is used on Fuca Strait for food as well as candles. Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii.,
p. 241. Lamprey eels are dried for food and light by the Nisquallies and Che-
halis. ' Cammass root, . . . .stored in baskets. It is a kind of sweet squills, and
about the size of a small onion. It is extremely abundant on the open prai
ries, and particularly on those which are overflowed by the small streams.'
Cut of salmon fishery, p. 335. ' Hooks are made in an ingenious manner
of the yew tree.' 'They are chiefly employed in trailing for fish.' Cut
of hooks, pp. 444-5. The Classets make a cut in the nose when a whale
is taken. Each seal-skin float has a different pattern painted on it, p. 517.
Wilkes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 318-19, 335, 444-5, 517-18.
The Chehalis live chiefly on salmon. Id., vol. v., p. 140. According to Swan
the Puget Sound Indians sometimes wander as far as Shoalwater Bay, in
Chinook territory, in the spring. The Queniult Indians are fond of large
barnacles, not eaten by the Chinooks of Shoalwater Bay. Cut of a sea-otter
hunt. The Indians never catch salmon with a baited hook, but always use
the hook as a gaff. N. W. Coast, pp. 59, 87, 92, 163, 264, 271; Thornton's Ogn.
and CaL, vol. i., pp. 293-4, 301, 388-9; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 241; Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 732-5; Stevens, in Pac. E. E. Kept.', vol. i., p. 429. ' They all de
pend upon fish, berries, and roots for a subsistence, ' and get their living with
great ease.'' Starling, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 600-2. The Makahs
live ' by catching cod and halibut on the banks north and east of Cape Flat
tery.' Ind. Aff., Kept. 1858, p. 231. ' When in a state of semi-starvation the
beast shows very plainly in them (Stick Indians): they are generally foul
feeders, but at such a time they eat anything, and are disgusting in the ex
treme. Id., 1858, p. 225; Id., 1860, p. 195; Cornwallis' New El Dorado, p. 97;
iii.. p. 408; '
throp's Canoe and Saddle, pp. 33-7; Maurelle's Jour., p. 28.
Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 102-5; Hittejl, in Hesperian, voL iii., p. 408; Win-
MANUFACTURES OF PUGET SOUND. 215
to the strength of the bow, and was not affected by
moisture. The bow-string was made of sinew.97 The
tribes were continually at war with each other, and with
northern nations, generally losing many of their people
in battle. Sticking the heads of the slain enemy on
poles in front of their dwellings, is a common way of
demonstrating their joy over a victory. The Indians at
Port Discovery spoke to Wilkes of scalping among their
warlike exploits, but according to Kane the Classets do
not practice that usage.98 Vancouver, finding sepulchres
at Penn Cove, in which were large quantities of hu
man bones but no limb-bones of adults, suspected that
the latter were used by the Indians for pointing their
arrows, and in the manufacture of other implements.99
The Sound manufactures comprise the few weapons
and utensils used by the natives. Their articles were
made with the simplest tools of bone or shell. Blankets
were made of dog's hair, — large numbers of dogs being
raised for the purpose, — the wool of mountain sheep, or
wild goats, found on the mountain slopes, the down of
wild-fowl, cedar bark-fibre, ravelings of foreign blank
ets, or more commonly of a mixture of several of these
materials. The fibre is twisted into yarn between the
hand and thigh, and the strands arranged in perpendic
ular frames for weaving purposes. Willow and other
twigs supply material for baskets of various forms, often
neatly made and colored. Oil, both for domestic use
and for barter, is extracted by boiling, except in the case
of the candle-fish, when hanging in the hot sun suffices;
it is preserved in bladders and skin-bottles.100
97 Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 253. At Gray Harbor the bows were some
what more circular than elsewhere. Id., vol. ii., p. 84; Wilkes' Nar.,in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 319; Kane's Wand., pp. 209-10.
98 Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 321; Kane's Wand., pp. 231-2;
Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 234. 'They have been nearly annihilated by
the hordes of northern savages that have infested, and do now, even at the
present day, infest our own shores ' for slaves. They had fire-arms before
our tribes, thus gaming an advantage. Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p. 327; Clark's
Lights and Sluidoucs, p. 224.
99 Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 287.
100 'A single thread is wound over rollers at the top and bottom of a
square frame, so as to form a continuous woof through which an alternate
216 COLUMBIANS.
Canoes are made by the Sound Indians in the same
manner as by the Nootkas already described ; being al
ways dug out, formerly by fire, from a single cedar trunk,
and the form improved afterwards by stretching when
soaked in hot water. Of the most elegant proportions,
they are modeled by the builder with no guide but the
eye, and with most imperfect tools; three months' work
is sufficient to produce a medium-sized boat. The form
varies among different nations according as the canoe is
intended for ocean, sound, or river navigation; being
found with bow or stern, or both, in various forms, point
ed, round, shovel-nosed, raised or level. The raised
stern, head-piece, and stern-post are usually formed of
separate pieces. Like the Nootkas, they char and polish
the outside and paint the interior with red. The largest
and finest specimen seen by Mr. Swan was forty-six feet
long and six feet wide, and crossed the bar into Shoal-
water Bay with thirty Queniult Indians from the north.
The paddle used in deep water has a crutch-like handle
and a sharp-pointed blade.101
thread is carried by the hand, and pressed closely together by a sort of
wooden comb ; by turning the rollers every part of the woof is brought with
in reach of the weaver; by this means a bag formed, open at each end, which
being cut down makes a square blanket.' Kane's Wand., pp. 210-11. Cuts
showing the loom and process of weaving among the Nootsaks, also house,
canoes, and willow baskets. Coleman, in Harper's Mag., vol. xxxix., pp. 799-
800. The Clallams ' have a kind of cur with soft and long white hair, which
they shear and mix with a little wool or the ravelings of old blankets.'
Stevens, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 431. The Makahs have 'blankets
and capes made of the inner bark of the cedar, and edged with fur.' Ind.
Aff. Eept., 1854, pp. 241-2; Wit-Ices' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 32. The
candle-fish ' furnishes the natives with their best oil, which is extracted
by the very simple process of hanging it up, exposed to the sun, which in a
few days seems to melt it away.' Thornton's Oyn. and Col., vol. i., p. 388.
They 'manufacture some of their blankets from the wool of the wild goat.'
Dunn's Oregon, p. 231. The Queniults showed ' a blanket manufactured from
the wool of mountain sheep, which are to be found on the precipitous slopes
of the Olympian Mountains." Alia California, Feb. 9, 1861, quoted in Cali
fornia Farmer, July 25, 1862; Cornwallis' New El Dorado, p. 97; Pickering's
Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 26.
101 « They present a model of which a white mechanic might well be proud.'
Description of method of making, and cuts of Queniult, Clallam, and Cow-
litz canoes, and a Queniult paddle. Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 79-82. At Port
Orchard they ' exactly corresponded with the canoes of Nootka, ' while those
of some visitors were ' cut off square at each end, ' and like those seen below
Cape Orford. At Gray Harbor the war canoes ' had a piece of wood rudely
carved, perforated, and placed at each end, three feet above the gunwale;
through these holes they are able to discharge their arrows.' Vancouver's Voy.,
TKADE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 217
In their barter between the different tribes, and in
estimating their wealth, the blanket is generally the unit
of value, and the hiaqua, a long white shell obtained off
Cape Flattery at a considerable depth, is also extensively
used for money, its value increasing with its length. A
kind of annual fair for trading purposes and festivities
is held by the tribes of Puget Sound at Bajada Point,
and here and in their other feasts they are fond of show
ing their wealth and liberality by disposing of their sur
plus property in gifts.102
The system of government seems to be of the simplest
nature, each individual being entirely independent and
master of his own actions. There is a nominal chief in
each tribe, who sometimes acquires great influence and
privileges by his wealth or personal prowess, but he has
no authority, and only directs the movements of his
band in warlike incursions. I find no evidence of he
reditary rank or caste except as wealth is sometimes
inherited.103 Slaves are held by all the tribes, and are
treated very much like their dogs, being looked upon as
vol. i., p. 264; vol. ii., p. 84. The Clallam boats were * low and straight, and
only adapted to the smoother interior waters.' Scarnmon, in Overland Monthly,
vol. vii., p. 278. Cut showing Nootsak canoes in Harper's Mag., vol. xxxix., p.
799. ' The sides are exceedingly thin, seldom exceeding three-fourths of an
inch.' To mend the canoe when cracks occur, 'holes are made in the sides,
through which withes are passed, and pegged in such a way that the strain
will draw it tighter; the withe is then crossed, and the end secured in the
same manner. When the tying is finished, the whole is pitched with the
gum of the pine.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 320-1. The
Clallams have ' a very large canoe of ruder shape and workmanship, being
wide and shovel-nosed,' used for the transportation of baggage. Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1854, p. 243; Stevens, in Pac. It. R. Eept., vol. i., pp. 430-1; Seemann's
Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 108; Pickering's Eac.es, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp.
25-6; Winihrop's Canoe and Saddle, p, 20; Clark's Lights and Shadows, pp.
102 Kaw's Wand,, pp. 237-9; Ind. Aff. Eept., 1862, p. 409; Starling, in
SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 601; Pickering's Eaces, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
ix., p. 26.
103 ' Us obeissent a un chef, qui n'exerce son pouvoir qu'en temps de guer
re.' .Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 299. At Gray Harbor 'they appeared to be divided
into three different tribes, or parties, each having one or two chiefs.' Vancou
ver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 84. Wilkes met a squaw chief at Nisqually, who
' seemed to exercise more authority than any that had been met with.' ' Lit
tle or no distinction of rank seems to exist among them ; the authority of the
chiefs is no longer recognized.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p.
444; vol. v., p. 131. Yellow-cum had become chief of the Makahs from his
own personal prowess. Kane's Wand., pp. 237-9; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp.
327—8.
218 COLUMBIANS.
property, and not within the category of humanity. For
a master to kill half a dozen slaves is no wrong or cru
elty; it only tends to illustrate the owner's noble dispo
sition in so freely sacrificing his property. Slaves are
obtained by war and kidnapping, and are sold in large
numbers to northern tribes. According to Sproat, the
Classets, a rich and powerful tribe, encourage the slave-
hunting incursions of the Nootkas against their weaker
neighbors.104
Wives are bought by presents, and some performances
or ceremonies, representative of hunting or fishing scenes,
not particularly described by any visitor, take place at
the wedding. Women have all the work to do except
hunting and fishing, while their lords spend their time
in idleness and gambling. Still the females are not ill-
treated; they acquire great influence in the tribe, and
are always consulted in matters of trade before a bargain
is closed. They are not overburdened with modesty,
nor are huslands noted for jealousy. Hiring out their
women, chieiiy however slaves, for prostitution, has been
a prominent source of tribal revenue since the country
was partially settled by whites. Women are not prolific,
three or four being ordinarily the limit of their offspring.
Infants, properly bound up with the necessary apparatus
for head-flattening, are tied to their cradle or to a piece
of bark, and hung by a cord to the end of a springy pole
kept in motion by a string attached to the mother's great
toe. Affection for children is by no means rare, but in
few tribes can they resist the temptation to sell or gamble
them away.105
Jo4 Sproat's Scenes, p. 92; Simpson's Overland Journ., vol.i., pp. 242-3; Kane's
Wand., pp. 214-15. The Nooksaks 'have no slaves.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857,
pp. 327-8; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 601. It is said 'that the descend
ants of slaves obtain freedom at the expiration of three centuries.' Pickering's
Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 28.
Ktf The Makahs have some marriage ceremonies, ' such as going through
the performance of taking the whale, manning a canoe, and throwing the
harpoon into the bride's house.' Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 242. The Nooksak
women 'are very industrious, and do most of the work, and procure the
Srincipal part of their sustenance.' Id., 1857, p. 327. 'The women have not
le slightest pretension to virtue.' Id., 1858, p. 225; Siwash Nuptials, in Olyrti-
pia Washington Standard, July 30, 1870. In matters of trade the opinion of
AMUSEMENTS OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 219
Feasting, gambling, and smoking are the favorite
amusements; all their property, slaves, children, and
even their own freedom in some cases are risked in
their games. Several plants are used as substitutes for
tobacco when that article is not obtainable. If any im
portant differences exist between their ceremonies, dances,
songs and feasts, and those of Vancouver Island, such
variations have not been recorded. In fact, many au
thors describe the manners and customs of 'North-west
America' as if occupied by one people.106 There is no
evidence of cannibalism ; indeed, during Vancouver's visit
at Puget Sound, some meat offered to the natives was
refused, because it was suspected to be human flesh.
Since their acquaintance with the whites they have ac
quired a habit of assuming great names, as Duke of
York, or Jenny Lind, and highly prize scraps of paper
with writing purporting to substantiate their claims to
such distinctions. Their superstitions are many, and
they are continually on the watch in all the commonest
acts of life against the swarm of evil influences, from
which they may escape only by the greatest care.107
Disorders of the throat and lungs, rheumatism and
intermittent fevers, are among the most prevalent forms
of disease, and in their methods of cure, as usual, the
absurd ceremonies, exorcisms, and gesticulations of the
medicine-men play the principal part; but hot and cold
baths are also often resorted to without regard to the
nature or stage of the malady.108 The bodies of such as
the women is always called in, and their decision decides the bargain. See-
mann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 108. 'The whole burden of domestic occupa
tion is thrown upon them.' Cut of the native baby-jumper. Wilkes' Nar., in
U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 319-20, 361. At Gray Harbor they were not jealous.
At Port Discovery they offered their children for sale. Vancouver's Voy., vol.
i., p. 231; vol. ii., pp. 83-4. 'Rarely having more than three or four' chil
dren. Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 266; Clark's Lialds and Shadows, pp. 224-6.
ice Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 320, 444; Rossi, Souvenirs,
pp. 298-9; San Francisco Bulletin, May 24, 1859.
1Q7 Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 263, 270. The Lummi 'are a very super
stitious tribe, and pretend to have traditions— legends handed down to them
by their ancestors.' ' No persuasion or pay will induce them to kill an owl
or eat a pheasant.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp. 327-8; Kane's Wand., pp. 216-
17, 229. No forms of salutation. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix.,
p. 23-4; Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle, pp. 21-2.
io* Among to Skagits ' Dr. Holmes saw an old man in the last stage of
£20 COLUMBIANS.
succumb to their diseases, or to the means employed for
cure, are disposed of in different ways according to lo
cality, tribe, rank, or age. Skeletons are found by trav
elers buried in the ground or deposited in a sitting
posture on its surface; in canoes or in boxes supported
by posts, or, more commonly, suspended from the branches
of trees. Corpses are wrapped in cloth or matting, and
more or less richly decorated according to the wealth of
the deceased. Several bodies are often put in one canoe
or box:, and the bodies of young children are found sus
pended in baskets. Property and implements, the latter
always broken, are deposited with or near the remains,
and these last resting-places of their people are relig
iously cared for and guarded from intrusion by all the
tribes.109 All the peculiarities and inconsistencies of the
consumption, shivering from the effects of a cold bath at the temperature of
40° Fahrenheit. A favourite remedy in pulmonary consumption is to tie a
rope tightly around the thorax, so as to force the diaphram to perform respira
tion without the aid of the thoracic muscles.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex.,
vol. iv., p. 512. Among the Clallams, to cure a girl of a disease of the side,
after stripping the patient naked, the medicine-man, throwing off his blanket,
' commenced singing and gesticulating in the most violent manner, whilst
the others kept time by beating with little sticks oil hollow wooden bowls
and drams, singing continually. After exercising himself in this manner for
aboiit half an hour, imtil the perspiration ran clown his body, he darted sud
denly upon the young woman, catching hold of her side with his teeth and
shaking her for a few minutes, while the patient seemed to suffer great agony.
He then relinquished his hold, and cried out that he had got it, at the same
time holding his hands to his mouth ; after which he plunged them in the
water and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease which he
had extracted.' Kane's Wand., pp. 225-6. Small-pox seemed very prevalent
by which many had lost the sight of one eye. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p.
242. To cure a cold in the face the Queniults burned certain herbs to a
cinder and mixing them with grease, anointed the face, tfican's N. W. Coast,
p. 265. Among the Nooksaks mortality has not increased with civilization.
' As yet the only causes of any amount are consumption and the old dis
eases.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 327. At Neah Bay, 'a scrofiilous affection
pervades the whole tribe.' The old, sick and maimed are abandoned by
their friends to die. Id, 1872, p. 350.
109 Slaves have no right to burial. Kane's Wand., p. 215. At a Queniult
burial place ' the different colored blankets and calicoes hung round gave
the place an appearance of clothes hung out to dry on a washing day.' Swan's
N. W. Coast, p. 267. At Port Orchard bodies were 'wrapped firmly in mat
ting, beneath which was a white blanket, closely fastened round the body,
and under this a covering of blue cotton.' At Port Discovery bodies 'are
wrapped in mats and placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, and sur
rounded with stakes and pieces of plank to protect them.' On the Cowlitz
the burial canoes are painted with figures, and gifts are not deposited till
several months after the funeral. Withes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp.
323, 347-8, 509-10. Among the Nisquallies bodies of relatives are sometimes
disinterred at different places, washed, re-wrapped and buiied again in one
CHAKACTEK OF THE SOUND INDIANS. 221'
Nootka character perhaps have been noted by travelers
among the Indians of the Sound, but none of these pecu
liarities are so clearly marked in the latter people. In
their character, as in other respects, they have little in
dividuality, and both their virtues and vices are but
faint reflections of the same qualities in the great fami
lies north and south of their territory. The Cape Flat
tery tribes are at once the most intelligent, bold, and
treacherous of all, while some of the tribes east and
north-east of the Sound proper have perhaps the best
reputation. Since the partial settlement of their terri
tory by the whites, the natives here as elsewhere have
lost many of their original characteristics, chiefly the
better ones. The remnants now for the most part are
collected on government reservations, or live in the vicin
ity of towns, by begging and prostitution. Some tribes,
especially in the region of Bellingham Bay, have been
nominally converted to Christianity, have abandoned
polygamy, slavery, head-flattening, gambling, and super
stitious ceremonies, and pay considerable attention to a
somewhat mixed version of church doctrine and cere
monies.110
grave. Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 238-9. ' Ornes de rubans de diverses coul-
eurs, de dents de poissons, de chapelets et d'autres brimborions du gout des
sauvages.' Rossi, /Souvenirs, pp. 74-5. On Penn Cove, in a deserted village,
were found ' several sepulchres formed exactly like a ceutry box. Some of
them were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied
up in baskets.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., pp. 254-6, 287; 2nd. Aff. Kept.,
1854, p. 242; Stevens in Pac. 11. 11. Rept., vol. i., p. 429. A correspondent
describes a flathead mummy from Puget Sound preserved in San Francisco.
'The eye-balls are still round under the lid; the teeth, the muscles, and ten
dons perfect, the veins injected with some preserving liquid, the bowels,
stomach and liver dried up, but not decayed, all perfectly preserved. The
very blanket that entwines him, made of some threads of bark and saturated
with a pitchy substance, is entire.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 693; Pick
ering's Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 32.
no 'Their native bashfulness renders all squaws peculiarly sensitive to
any public notice or ridicule.' Probably the laziest people in the world..
The mails are intrusted with safety to Indian carriers, who are perfectly safe
from interference on the part of any Indian they may meet. Kane's Wand.,
p. 209-16, 227-8, 234, 247-8. 'La memoire locale et personelle du sauvage
est admirable; il n'oublie jamais un eudroit ni une personne.' Nature seems
to have given him memory to supply the want of intelligence. Much in
clined to vengeance. Those having means may avert vengeance by pay
ments. Rossi, Souvenirs, pp. 113, 295-9. ' Perfectly indifferent to exposure ;
decency has no meaning in their language.' Although always begging, they
refuse to accept any article not in good condition, calling it Peeshaaak, a term
222 COLUMBIANS.
THE CHINOOKS constitute the fourth division of the
Columbian group. Originally the name was restricted
to a tribe on the north bank of the Columbia between
Gray Bay and the ocean; afterwards, from a similarity
in language and customs, it was applied to all the bands
on both sides of the river, from its mouth to the Dalles.111
It is employed in this work to designate all the Oregon
tribes west of the Cascade Range, southward to the
Rogue River or Umpqua Mountains. This family lies
between the Sound Indians on the north and the Cal-
ifornian group on the south, including in addition to
the tribes of the Columbia, those of the Willamette
Valley and the Coast. All closely resemble each other
in manners and customs, having also a general resem
blance to the northern families already described, spring
ing from their methods of obtaining food ; and although
probably without linguistic affinities, except along the
Columbia River, they may be consistently treated as one
of contempt. Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 103-9. Murder of a Spanish
"boat's ere win latitude 47J 20'. Maurelle'sJour., pp. 29, 31. ' Cheerful and well
disposed ' at Port Orchard. At Strait of Fuca ' little more elevated in their
moral qualities than the Fuegians.' At Nisqually, 'addicted to stealing.'
4 Vicious and exceedingly lazy, sleeping all day.' The Skagits are catholics,
and are more advanced than others in civilization. Wilk(.s' JVar.t in U. #. Ex.
Ex., vol. iv., pp. 317, 444, 510-11, 517. Both at Gray Harbor and Puget
Sound they were uniformly civil and friendly, fair and honest in trade.
Each tribe claimed that ' the others were bad people and that the party ques
tioned were the only good Indians in the harbor.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i.,
p. 256; vol. ii., pp. 83-4. « The Clallam tribe has always had a bad charac
ter, which their intercourse with shipping, and the introduction of whiskey,
has by no means improved.' 2nd. Aff. liept., 1854, p. 243. 'The superior
courage of the Makahs, as well as their treachery, will make them more
difficult of management than most other tribes.' Stevens, in Pac. ft. K. ItVpf.,
vol. i., p. 429. The Lummis and other tribes at Bellingham Bay have al
ready abandoned their ancient barbarous habits, and have adopted those of
civilization. Colernan, in Harper's May., vol. xxxix., pp. 795-7; Simpson's
Overland Journ., vol. i., pp. 240-2. 'The instincts of these people are of a
very degraded character. They are filthy, cowardly, lazy, treacherous, drunk
en, avaricious, and much given to thieving. The women have not the
slightest pretension to virtue.' The Makahs ' are the most independent In
dians in my district — they and the Quilleyutes, their near neighbors.' ]nd.
Aff. Kept., 1858, pp. 225, 231; Id., 1802, p. 390; Id., 1870, p. '20; Schoolcraft'8
Arch., vol. iv., p. 001; Wlnthrop's Canoe and Saddle, p. 58; Cram's Top. Mem.,
p. 65.
111 Perhaps the Cascades might more properly be named as the boundary,
since the region of the Dalles, from the earliest records, has been the rendez-
voux for fishing, trading, and gambling purposes, of tribes from every part of
the surrounding country, rather than the home of any particular nation.
THE CHINOOKS. 223
family — the last of the great coast or fish-eating divis
ions of the Columbian group.
Among the prominent tribes, or nations of the Chi
nook family may be mentioned the following: the Wat-
Mas or upper Chinooks, including the bands on the
Columbia from the Cascades to the Cowlitz, and on the
lower Willamette ; the lower Chinooks from the Cowlitz
to the Pacific comprising the Wakiakums and Chinooks
on the north bank, and the Cathlainets and Clatsops on
the south; the Calapooyas occupying the Valley of the
Willamette, and the Clackamas on one of its chief trib
utaries of the same name ; with the Rillamooks and Ump-
quas who live between the Coast Range112 and the ocean.
With respect to the present condition of these na
tions, authorities agree in speaking of them as a squalid
and poverty-stricken race, once numerous and powerful,
now few and weak. Their country has been settled by
whites much more thickly than regions farther north, and
they have rapidly disappeared before the influx of stran
gers. Whole tribes have been exterminated by war and
disease, and in the few miserable remnants collected on
"2 For details see TRIBAL BOUNDARIES at the end of this chapter. The
Chinooks, Clatsops, Wakiakums and Cathlamets, ' resembling each other in
person, dress, language, and manners.' The Chinooks and Wakiakums were
originally one tribe, and Wakiakum was the name of the chief who seceded
with his adherents. Irviny's Astoria, pp. 335-6. 'They may be regarded
as the distinctive type of the tribes to the north of the Oregon, for it is in
them that the peculiarities of the population of these regions are seen in the
most striking manner.' Dornenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 15-G, 36. All the
tribes about the mouth of the Columbia ' appear to IDC descended from the
same stock. . . and resemble one another in language, dress, and habits. Ross'
Adi-en., pp. 87-8. The Cathleyacheyachs at the Cascades differ but little
from the Chinooks. Id., p. 111. Scouler calls the Columbia tribes Cathlas-
cons, and considers them 'intimately related to the Kalapooiah Family.'
LoncL Geog. tioc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 22*5. The Willamette tribes 'differ veiy
little in their habits and modes of life, from those on the Columbia lliver.'
Hunter's Cap., p. 72. Mofras makes Killintous a general name for all Indians
south of the Columbia. Explor., torn, ii., p. 357; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 114-18;
Cox's Adcen., vol. ii., p. 133. The Nechecolees on the Willamette claimed
an affinity with the Eloots at the Narrows of the Columbia. The Killamucks
'resemble in almost every particular the Clatsops and Chinnooks. Lewis
and Clarice's Trav.t pp. 427, 504. 'Of the Coast Indians that I have seen
there seems to be so little difference in their style of living that a description
of one family will answer for the whole.' Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 153-4.
' All the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the Straits, and the deeply
indented territory as far and including the tide-waters of the Columbia, may
be comprehended under the general term of Chinooks.' Pickeriny's Races, in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 25.
221 COLUMBIANS.
reservations or straggling about the Oregon towns, no
trace is apparent of the independent, easy-living bands
of the remote past.113 It is however to be noted that at
no time since this region has been known to Europeans
has the Indian population been at all in proportion to
the supporting capacity of the land, while yet in a state
of nature, with its fertile soil and well-stocked streams
and forests.
In physique the Chinook can not be said to differ ma
terially from the Nootka. In stature the men rarely
exceed five feet six inches, and the women five feet.
Both sexes are thick-set, but as a rule loosely built, al
though in this respect they had doubtless degenerated
when described by most travelers. Their legs are bowed
and otherwise deformed by a constant squatting position
in and out of their canoes. Trained by constant ex
posure with slight clothing, they endure cold and hunger
better than the white man, but to continued muscular
exertion they soon succumb. Physically they improve
in proportion to their distance from the Columbia and
its fisheries; the Calapooyas on the upper Willamette,
according to early visitors, presenting the finest speci
mens.114 Descending from the north along the coast,
113 ' The race of the Chenooks is nearly run. From a large and powerful
tribe ... they have dwindled down to about a hundred individuals, .... and
these are a depraved, licentious, drunken set.' Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 108-
10. The "Willopahs ' may be considered as extinct, a few women only re
maining.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 428; Mofras, Explor., torn.
ii., p. 351; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 239-40; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 354; vol.
ii., p. 217; De Smet, Missions de I' Oregon, pp. 163-4; Kane's Wand., pp. 173-6,
196-7; Irving' 's Astoria, pp. 335-6; Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co., pp. 170-2; Hines'
Oregon, pp. 103-19, 236; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., pp. 52-3; Dome-
nech's Desert's, vol. ii., p. 36; Palmer's Jour., pp. 84, 87; Parker's Explor.
Tour., pp. 191-2. 'In the Wallamette valley, their favorite country,...
there are but few remnants left, and they are dispirited and broken-hearted.'
Robertson's Oregon, p. 130.
114 'The personal appearance of the Chinooks differs so much from that
of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult at first to
recognize the affinity.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 27.
' There are no two nations in Europe so dissimilar as the tribes to the north
and those to the south of the Columbia.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88;
vol. ii., p. 36. ' Thick set limbs' north; 'slight,' south. Id., vol. i., p. 88;
vol. ii., p. 16. ' Very inferior in muscular power.' Id., vol. ii., pp. 15-16.
'Among the ugliest of their race. They are below the middle size, with
squat, clumsy forms.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 198, 216.
The men from five feet to five feet six inches high, with well-shaped limbs;
CHINOOK PHYSIQUE. 225
Hyperboreans, Columbians, and Californians gradually
assume a more dusky hue as we proceed southward.
The complexion of the Chinooks may be called a trifle
darker than the natives of the Sound, and of Vancouver;
though nothing is more difficult than from the vague
expressions of travelers to determine shades of color.115
Points of resemblance have been noted by many ob
servers between .the Chinook and Mongolian physiog
nomy, consisting chiefly in the eyes turned obliquely
upward at the outer corner. The face is broad and
round, the nose flat and fat, with large nostrils, the
mouth wide and thick-lipped, teeth irregular and much
worn, eyes black, dull and expressionless ; the hair gen
erally black and worn long, and"" the beard carefully
plucked out; nevertheless, their features are often reg
ular.116
the women six to eight inches shorter," with bandy legs, thick ankles, broad,
flat feet, loose hanging breasts. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 303-4. 'A dimin
utive race, generally below five feet five inches, with crooked legs and thick
ankles.' 'Broad, flat feet.' Irving's Astoria, pp. 87, 336. ' But not deficient
in strength or activity.' Nicolay's Oregon, p. 145. Men ' stout, muscular and
strong, but not tall;' women 'of the middle size, but very stout and flabby,
with short necks and shapeless limbs.' Ross' Adven. , pp. 89-93. At Cape
Orford none exceed five feet six inches; ' tolerably well limbed, though slen
der in their persons.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 204. The Willamette
tribes were somewhat larger and better shaped than those of the Columbia
and the coast. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp.425, 436-7, 504, 508. Hunter's Cap.,
pp. 70-73; Nines' Voy., pp. 88, 91. 'Persons of the men generally are rather
symmetrical; their stature is low, with light sinewy limbs, and remarkably
small, delicate hands. The women are usually more rotund, and, in some in
stances, even approach obesity.' Townsend's Nar., p. 178. ' Many not even
five feet.' Francfiere's Nar., pp. 240-1. Can endure cold, but not fatigue;
sharp sight and hearing, but obtuse smell and taste. 'The women are un
couth, and from a combination of causes appear old at an early age. Parker's
Explor. Tour., pp. 244-5. 'The Indians north of the Columbia are, for the
most part good-looking, robust men, some of them having fine, symmetrical,
forms. They have been represented as diminutive, with crooked legs and
uncouth features. This is not correct; but, as a general rule, the direct re
verse is the truth.' Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 154; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 122-3.
115 The following terms applied to Chinook complexion are taken from
the authors quoted in the preceding note: 'Copper-colored brown;' 'light
copper color;' 'light olive;' 'fair complexion.' 'Not dark' when young.
' Rough tanned skins.' 'Dingy copper.' 'Fairer' than eastern Indians.
Fairer on the coast than on the Columbia. Half-breeds partake of the
swarthy hue of their mothers.
116 'The Cheenook cranium, even when not flattened, is long and narrow,
compressed laterally, keel-shaped, like the skull of the Esquimaux.' Broad
and high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
Jour., vol. xi., p. 220. 'Skulls. . . .totally devoid of any peculiar development.'
Nose flat, nostrils distended, short irregular teeth ; eyes black, piercing and
VOL. I. 15
226 COLUMBIANS.
It is about the mouth of the Columbia that the cus
tom of flattening the head seems to have originated. Ra
diating from this centre in all directions, and becoming
less universal and important as the distance is increased,
the usage terminates on the south with the nations
which I have attached to the Chinook family, is rarely
found east of the Cascade Range, but extends, as we
have seen, northward through all the coast families, al
though it is far from being held in the same esteem in the
far north as in its apparently original centre. The or
igin of this deformity is unknown. All we can do is to
refer it to that strange infatuation incident to humanity
which lies at the root of fashion and ornamentation, and
which even in these later times civilization is not able
to eradicate. As Alphonso the Wise regretted not hav
ing been present at the creation — for then he would
have had the world to suit him — so different ages and
nations strive in various ways to remodel and improve
the human form. Thus the Chinese lady compresses
the feet, the European the waist, and the Chinook the
head. Slaves are not allowed to indulge in this extrav-
treacherous. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 115, 303. ' Broad faces, low foreheads,
lank black hair, wide mouths.' 'Flat noses, and eyes turned obliquely up
ward at the outer corner.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 198,
216. ' Faces are round, with small, but animated eyes. Their noses are
broad and flat at the top, and fleshy at the end, with large nostrils.' Irving' s
Astoria, p. 336. Portraits of two Calapooya Indians. Pickering's Races, in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 14. South of the Columbia they have 4 long faces,
thin lips, ' but the Calapooyas in Willamette Valley have ' broad faces, low
foreheads,' and the Chinooks have 'a wide face, flat nose, and eyes turned
obliquely outwards.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; vol. ii., pp. 15-16.
'Dull phlegmatic want of expression ' common to all adults. Nicolay's Ogn.
Ter., p. 145. Women ' well-featured,' with 'light hair, and prominent eyes.'
Ross' Adven., pp. 89-93. ' Their features rather partook of the general Euro
pean character.' Hair long and black, clean and neatly combed. Vancouver's
\Voy., vol. i., p. 204. 'Women have, in general, handsome faces.' 'There
Are rare instances of high aquiline noses; the eyes are generally black,' but
.sometimes 'of a dark yellowish brown, with a black pupil.' Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., pp. 425, 436-7. The men carefully eradicate every vestige of a beard.
Dunn's Oregon, p. 124. ' The features of many are regular, though often
<devoid of expression.' Townsend's Nar., p. 178. ' Pluck out the beard at its
first appearance.' Kane's Wand., p. 181. Portrait of chief, p. 174. 'A few
of the old men only suffer a tuft to grow upon their chins.' Franchere's JV'ar.,
p. 240. One of the Clatsops ' had the reddest hair I ever saw, and a fair
skin, much freckled." Gass' Jour., p. 244; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 75. For de
scriptions and plates of Chinook skulls see Morton's Qrania, pp. 202-13; pi.
42-7, 49, 50, and Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., pp. 318-34.
HEAD-FLATTENING PHENOMENON. 227
agance, and as this class are generally of foreign tribes
or families, the work of ethnologists in classifying skulls
obtained by travelers, and thereby founding theories of
race is somewhat complicated ; but the difficulty is less
ened by the fact that slaves receive no regular burial,
and hence all skulls belonging to bodies from native
cemeteries are known to be Chinook.117 The Chinook
ideal of facial beauty is a straight line from the end of
the nose to the crown of the head. The flattening of
the skull is effected by binding the infant to its cradle
immediately after birth, and keeping it there from three
months to a year. The simplest form of cradle is a
piece of board or plank on which the child is laid upon
its back with the head slightly raised by a block of wood.
Another piece of wood, or bark, or leather, is then placed
over the forehead and tied to the plank with strings
which are tightened more and more each day until the
skull is shaped to the required pattern. Space is left
for lateral expansion ; and under ordinary circumstances
the child's head is not allowed to leave its position until
the process is complete. The body and limbs are also
bound to the cradle, but more loosely, by bandages,
which are sometimes removed for cleansing purposes.
Moss or soft bark is generally introduced between the
skin and the wood, and in some tribes comfortable pads,
117 ' Practiced by at least ten or twelve distinct tribes of the lower country. '
Townsend's Nar., pp. 175-6. ' On the coast it is limited to a space of about
one hundred and seventy miles, extending between Cape Flattery and Cape
Look-out. Inland, it extends up the Columbia to the first rapids, or one
hundred and forty miles, and is checked at the falls on the Wallamette.'
lielcfter's Voy., vol. i., p. 307. The custom 'prevails among all the nations
we have seen west of the Rocky Mountains,' but 'diminishes in receding
eastward.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 437. 'The Indians at the Dalles do
not distort the head.' Kane's Wand., pp. 263, 180-2. 'The Chinooks are
the most distinguished for their attachment to this singular usage.' Hole's
Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 198. The tribes from the Columbia
River to Millbank Sound flatten the forehead, also the Yakimas and Klikitats
of the interior. Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2, 249. 'The prac
tice prevails, generally, from the mouth of the Columbia to the Dalles, about
one hundred and eighty miles, and from the Straits of Fuca on the north, to
Coos Bay North ward of the Straits it diminishes gradually to a mere slight
compression, finally confined to women, and abandoned entirely north of Mil-
bank Sound. So east of the Cascade Mountains, it dies out in like manner.'
Gibbs, in Nott and Gliddon's Indig. Races, p. 337. ' None but such as are of
noble birth are allowed to flatten their skulls.' Gray's Hist. Ogn., p. 197.
228 COLUMBIANS.
cushions, or rabbit-skins are employed. The piece of
wood which rests upon the forehead is in some cases at
tached to the cradle by leather hinges, and instances are
mentioned where the pressure is created by a spring.
A trough or canoe-shaped cradle, dug out from a log,
often takes the place of the simple board, and among
the rich this is elaborately worked, and ornamented with
figures and shells. The child while undergoing this
process, with its small black eyes jammed half out of
their sockets, presents a revolting picture. Strangely
enough, however, the little prisoner seems to feel scarcely
any pain, and travelers almost universally state that no
perceptible injury is done to the health or brain. As
years advance the head partially but not altogether re
sumes its natural form, and among aged persons the
effects are not very noticeable. As elsewhere, the per
sonal appearance of the women is of more importance
than that of the men, therefore the female child is sub
jected more rigorously and longer to the compressing
process, than her brothers. Failure properly to mould
the cranium of her offspring gives to the Chinook ma
tron the reputation of a lazy and undutiful mother, and
subjects the neglected children to the ridicule of their
young companions;118 so despotic is fashion. A prac-
"8 All authors who mention the Chinooks have something to say of this
custom; the following give some description of the process and its effects,
containing, however, no points not included in that given above. Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 122-3, 128-30; Ross' Adi-en., pp. 99-100; tiwan's N. W. Coast,
pp. 167-8, with cut; Chamber's Jour., vol. x., pp. 111-2; Belcher's Voy., vol.
i., pp. 307-11, with cuts; Townsend's Nar,, pp. 175-6; Hole's Ethnog., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 216; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 150; Domenech's Deserts, vol.
ii., p. 294; Irving's Astoria, p. 89; Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 302; Catlin'sN.»Am.
Ind., vol. ii., pp. 110-11, with plate. Females remain longer than the boys.
'Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 476, 437. 'Not so great a deformity as is gen
erally supposed.' Parker's Explor. Tour., pp. 142-3, 251-2. 'Looking with
contempt even upon the white for having round heads.' Kane's Wand., p. 181,
204, cut. ' As a general thing the tribes that have followed the practice of flat
tening the skull are inferior in intellect, less stirring and enterprising in their
habits, and far more degraded in their morals than other tribes.' Gray's Hist.
Ogn., p. 197. Mr. Gray is the only authority I have seen for this injurious
effect, except Domenech, who pronounces the flat-heads more subject to
apoplexy than others. Deserts, vol. ii., p. 87; Gass' Jour., pp. 224-5; .Brown-
ell's Ind. Races, pp. 335-7; Morton's Crania Am., pp. 203-13, cut of cradle and
of skulls; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 349-50, Atlas, pi. 26; Foster's Pre-Hist.
Races, pp, 294-5, 328, with cut; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 124; Wilson, in
SmWisonian Eept., 1862, p. 287.
CHINOOK DEESS. 229
tice which renders the Chinook more hideous than the
compression of his skull is that of piercing or slitting the
cartilage of the nose and ears, and inserting therein long
strings of beads or hiaqua shells, the latter being prized
above all other ornaments. Tattooing seems to have
been practiced, but not extensively, taking usually the
form of lines of dots pricked into the arms, legs, and
cheeks with pulverized charcoal. Imitation tattooing,
with the bright-colored juices of different berries, was
a favorite pastime with the women, and neither sex
could resist the charms of salmon-grease and red clay.
In later times, however, according to Swan, the custom
of greasing and daubing the body has been to a great
extent abandoned. Great pains is taken in dressing
the hair, which is combed, parted in the middle, and
usually allowed to hang in long tresses down the back,
but often tied up in a queue by the women and girls, or
braided so as to hang in two tails tied with strings.119
For dress, skins were much more commonly used in
this region than among other coast families ; particularly
the skins of the smaller animals, as the rabbit and wood-
rat. These skins, dressed and often painted, were sewed
together so as to form a robe or blanket similar in form and
use to the more northern blanket of wool, which, as well
as a similar garment of goose-skin with the feathers on,
was also made and worn by the Chinooks, though not in
119 The Multnomah women's hair 'is most commonly braided into two
tresses falling over each ear in front of the body.' ieicis and Clarke's Trav.,
pp. 508-9, 416, 425-6, 437-8. The Clackamas 'tattoo themselves below the
mouth, which gives a light blue appearance to the countenance.' Kane's
Wand., pp. 241,184-5, 256. At Cape Orford 'they seemed to prefer the comforts
of cleanliness to the painting of their bodies.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 204.
On the Columbia ' in the decoration of their persons they surpassed all the
other tribes with paints of different colours, feathers and other ornaments.'
Id., vol. ii., p. 77. 'Us mettent toute leur vanite dans leurs colliers et leurs
pendants d'oreilles.' De Smet, Miss, de V Oregon, p. 45. ' Some of these girls
I have seen with the whole rim of their ears bored full of holes, into each
of which would be inserted a string of these shells that reached to the floor,
and the whole weighing so heavy that to save their ears from being pulled
off they were obliged to wear a band across the top of the head.' 'I never
have seen either men or women put oil or grease of any kind on their bodies.'
8wan'» N. W. Coast, pp. 112, 158-9. See Dunn's Oregon, pp. 115, 123-4;
Cox's Adven., pp. 111-12; Pickering's Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 25;
Irving' 's Astoria, pp. 336-8; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 354; Franchere's
Nar., p. 244.
230 COLUMBIANS.
common use among them. They prefer to go naked
when the weather permits. Skins of larger animals, as
the deer and elk, are also used for clothing, and of the
latter is made a kind of arrow-proof armor for war ; an-
another coat of mail being made of sticks bound together.
Females almost universally wear a skirt of cedar bark-
fibre, fastened about the waist and hanging to the knees.
This garment is woven for a few inches at the top, but
the rest is simply a hanging fringe, not very effectually
concealing the person. A substitute for this petticoat in
some tribes is a square piece of leather attached to a
belt in front; and in others a long strip of deer-skin
passed between the thighs and wound about the waist.
A fringed garment, like that described, is also sometimes
worn about the shoulders; in cold weather a fur robe is
wrapped about the body from the hips to the armpits,
forming a close and warm vest; and over all is some
times thrown a cape, or fur blanket, like that of the
men, varying in quality and value with the wealth of
the wearer. The best are made of strips of sea-otter
skin, woven with grass or cedar bark, so that the fur
shows on both sides. Chiefs and men of wealth wear
rich robes of otter and other valuable furs. The conical
hat woven of grass and bark, and painted in black and
white checks or with rude figures, with or without a brim,
and fastened under the chin; is the only covering for the
head.120
120 « These robes are in general, composed of the skins of a small animal,
•which we have supposed to be the brown mungo.' ' Sometimes they have
a blanket woven with the fingers, from the wool of their native sheep.' Ev
ery part of the body but the back and shoulders is exposed to view. The
Nechecolies had ' larger and longer robes, which are generally of deer skin
dressed in the hair.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 392, 425-6, 438, 504-9,
522. ' I have often seen them going about, half naked, when the thermometer
ranged between 30° and 40J, and their children barefooted and barelegged in
the snow.' ' The lower Indians do not dress as well, nor with as good taste,
as the upper.' Parker's Explor. Tour., pp. 244-5. The fringed skirt 'is still
used by old women, and by all the females when they are at work in the water,
and is called by them their siwash coat.' Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 154-5.
Ross' Adven., pp. 89-93; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 123-4; Domenech's Deserts, vol.
-16, 281-2,
ii., pp. 15-16, 281-2,288; Townsend's Nar., p. 178; Kane's Wand., pp. 184-5;
Franchere's Nar., pp. 242-4. The conical cap reminded Pickering of the
Siberian tribes. Races, in IT. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 25, 39; Cox's Adven.,
vol. i., pp. 111-12, 126-7; Hines' Voy., p. 107. Collars of bears' claws, for
DWELLINGS OF THE CHINOOKS. 231
The Chinooks moved about less for the purpose of ob
taining a supply of food, than many others, even of the
coast families, yet the accumulation of filth or — a much
stronger motive — of fleas, generally forced them to take
down their winter dwellings each spring, preserving
the materials for re-erection on the same or another
spot. The best houses were built of cedar planks at
tached by bark-fibre cords to a frame, which consisted
of four corner, and two central posts and a ridge pole.
The planks of the sides and ends were sometimes per
pendicular, but oftener laid horizontally, overlapping here
in clapboard fashion as on the roof. In some localities
the roof and even the whole structure was of cedar bark.
These dwellings closely resembled those farther north,
but were somewhat inferior in size, twenty-five to sev
enty-five feet long, and fifteen to twenty-five feet wide,
being the ordinary dimensions. On the Columbia they
were only four or five feet high at the eaves, but an
equal depth was excavated in the ground, while on the
Willamette the structure was built on the surface. The
door was only just large enough to admit the body, and
it was a favorite fancy of the natives to make it repre
sent the mouth of an immense head painted round it.
Windows there were none, nor chimney; one or more
fireplaces were sunk in the floor, and the smoke escaped
by the cracks, a plank in the roof being sometimes moved
for the purpose. Mats were spread on the floor and
raised berths were placed on the sides, sometimes in
several tiers. Partitions of plank or matting separated
the apartments of the several families. Smaller tempo
rary huts, and the permanent homes of the poorer In
dians were built in various forms, of sticks, covered with
bark, rushes, or skins. The interior and exterior of all
dwellings were in a state of chronic filth.121
the men, and elks' tusks for the women and children. Irving's Astoria, pp.
336-8; Gass' Jour., pp. 232, 239-40, 242-4, 267, 274, 278, 282.
121 ' Their houses seemed to be more comfortable than those at Nootka,
the roof having a greater inclination, and the planking being thatched over
with the bark of trees. The entrance is through a hole, in a broad plank,
covered in such a manner as to resemble the face of a man, the mouth serv-
232 COLUMBIANS.
The salmon fisheries of the Columbia are now fa
mous throughout the world. Once every year innumer
able multitudes of these noble fish enter the river from
the ocean to deposit their spawn. Impelled by instinct,
they struggle to reach the extreme limits of the stream,
working their way in blind desperation to the very sources
of every little branch, overcoming seeming impossibili
ties, and only to fulfill their destiny and die ; for if they
escape human enemies, they either kill themselves in
their mad efforts to leap impassable falls, or if their
efforts are crowned with success, they are supposed nev
er to return to the ocean. This fishery has always been
the chief and an inexhaustible source of food for the
Chinooks, who, although skillful fishermen, have not
been obliged to invent a great variety of methods or
implements for the capture of the salmon, which rarely
if ever have failed them. Certain ceremonies must,
however, be observed with the first .fish taken ; his meat
must be cut only with the grain, and the hearts of all
caught must be burned or eaten, and on no account be
thrown into the water or be devoured by a 'dog. With
these precautions there is no reason to suppose that the
Chinook would ever lack a supply of fish. The salmon
begin to run in April, but remain several weeks in the
ing the purpose of a door- way. The fire-place is sunk into the earth, and con
fined from spreading above by a wooden frame.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii.,
p. 77. Emmons, in Schooler aft's Archives, vol. iii., p. 206, speaks of a pali
sade enclosure ten or fifteen feet high, with a covered way to the river. ' The
Indian huts on the banks of the Columbia are, for the most part, constructed
of the bark of trees, pine branches, and brambles, which are sometimes cov
ered with skins or rags. ' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 260. But ' the Chinooks
build their houses of thick and broad planks,' etc. Id. Lewis and Clarke
saw a house in the Willamette Valley two hundred and twenty-six feet long,
divided into two ranges of large apartments separated by a narrow alley four
feet wide. Travels, pp. 502-4, 509, 431-2, 415-16, 409, 392. The door is a
piece of board 'which hangs loose by a string, like a sort of pendulum,'
and is self-closing. Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 110-11. 'The tribes near the
coast remove less frequently than those of the interior.' California, Past, Pres
ent and Future, p. 136. 'I never saw more than four fires, or above eighty per
sons — slaves and all — in the largest house.' Boss' Adven., pp. 98-9; Palmer's
Jour., pp. 86, 108; Irving' s Astoria, p. 322; Nicolay's Ogn., 144, 148-9; Cox's
Adven., vol. i., p. 327, from Lewis and Clarke; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 135-7, from
Lewis and Clarke; Parker's Fxplor. Tour., pp. 144-5, 178-9, 245; Franchere's
Nar., pp. 247-8; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 65; Townsend's Nar., p. 181; Kane's
Wand., pp. 187-8; Bale's Ethnog. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 204, 216-17;
Strickland's Hist. Missions, pp. 136-9.
FISHEKIES OF THE CHINOOKS. 2S3
warmer waters near the mouth, and are there taken
while in their best condition, by the Chinook tribe proper,
with a straight net of bark or roots, sometimes five hund
red feet long and fifteen feet deep, with floats and sink
ers. One end of the net is carried out into the river at
high water, and drawn in by the natives on the shore,
wrho with a mallet quiet the fish and prevent them
from jumping over the net and escaping. Farther up,
especially at the Cascades and at the falls of the Willa
mette, salmon are speared by natives standing on the
rocks or on planks placed for the purpose ; scooped up in
small dip-nets ; or taken with a large unbaited hook at
tached by a socket and short line to a long pole. There
is some account of artificial channels of rocks at these
places, but such expedients were generally not needed,
since, beside those caught by the Chinooks, such numbers
were cast on the rocks by their own efforts to leap the
falls, that the air for months was infected by the decay
ing mass ; and many of these in a palatable state of decay
were gathered by the natives for food. Hooks, spears,
and nets were sometimes rubbed with the juice of cer
tain plants supposed to be attractive to the fish. Once
taken, the salmon were cleaned by the women, dried
in the sun and smoked in the lodges; then they were
sometimes powdered fine between two stones, before pack
ing in skins or mats for winter use. The heads were
always eaten as favorite portions during the fishing sea
son. Next to the salmon the sturgeon was ranked as a
source of food. This fish, weighing from two hundred
to five hundred pounds, was taken by a baited hook,
sunk about twenty feet, and allowed to float down the
current; when hooked, the sturgeon rises suddenly and is
dispatched by a spear, lifted into the canoe by a gaff-
hook, or towed ashore. The Chinooks do not attack the
whale, but when one is accidentally cast upon the shore,
more or less decayed, a season of feasting ensues and the
native heart is glad. Many smaller varieties of fish are
taken by net, spear, hook, or rake, but no methods are
employed meriting special description. Wild fowl are
234 COLUMBIANS.
snared or shot; elk and deer are shot with arrows or
taken in a carefully covered pit, dug in their favorite
haunts. As to the methods of taking rabbits and wood-
rats, whose skins are said to have been so extensively
used for clothing, I find no information. Nuts, berries,
wild fruits and roots are all used as food, and to some
extent preserved for winter. The Wapato, a bulbous
root, compared by some to the potatoe and turnip, was
the aboriginal staple, and was gathered by women wrad-
ing in shallow ponds, and separating the root with their
toes.122 Boiling in wooden kettles by means of hot
stones, was the usual manner of cooking, but roasting on
sticks stuck in the sand near the fire was also common.
Clam-shells and a few rude platters and spoons of wood
were in use, but the fingers, with the hair for a napkin,
122 «In the summer they resort to the principal rivers and the sea coast,'
. . . .retiring to the smaller rivers of the interior during the cold season. ' Warre
and Vavasour, in Martin's Hud. Bay, p. 83. All small fish are driven into
the small coves or shallow waters, ' when a number of Indians in canoes con
tinue splashing the water; while others sink branches of pine. The fish are
then taken easily out with scoops or wicker baskets.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal.,
vol. i., pp. 389, 288-9, 384-6, 390-1.'' Fish ' are not eaten till they become soft
from keeping, when they are mashed with water. ' In the Willamette Valley
they raised corn, beans, and squashes. Hunter's Cap., pp. 70-2. A ' stur
geon, though weighing upwards of three hundred pounds, is, by the single
effort of one Indian, jerked into the boat'! Dunn's Oregon, pp. 135, 114-15,
134, 137-9. The Umpquas, to cook salmon, 'all provided themselves with
sticks about three feet long, pointed at one end and split at the other. They
then apportioned the salmon, each one taking a large piece, and filling it with
splinters to prevent its falling to pieces when cooking, which they fastened
with great care, into the forked end of the stick;. . . .then placing themselves
around the fire so as to describe a circle, they stuck the pointed end of the
stick into the ground, a short distance from the fire, inclining the top towards
the flames, so as to bring the salmon in contact with the heat, thus forming a
kind of pyramid of salmon over the whole fire.' Hines'. Voy, p. 102; Id. Ogn., p.
306. ' There are some articles of food which are mashed by the teeth before
being boiled or roasted; this mastication is performed by the women.' Dome-
nech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 314, 16, 240-2. ' The salmon in this country are never
caught with a (baited) hook.' Wilkes' Hist. Ogn., p. 107. ' Turbot and floun
ders are caught (at Shoalwater Bay) while wading in the water, by means of
the feet.' Sican's N. W. Coast, pp. 38, 83, 103-8, 140, 163-6, with cuts. On
food, see Boss' Adven., vol. i., pp. 94-5, 97, 112-3; Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp.
" j's Trav., pp. 409-15, 422, 425, 430-1, 445, 506;
, pp. 6
144, 147-8; P'almer's Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker's Explor. Tour. ~ p. 244; Irv-
,
68-9, 181-3; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 409-15, 422, 425, 430-1, 445
. 60
Wells, in Harper's Mag., vol. xiii., pp. 605-7, with cuts; Nicolay's Ogn., pp.
144, 147-8; Palmer's Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 244; Irv
ing' 8 Astoria, pp. 86, 335; Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 329-32; vol ii., pp. 128-31;
Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113; Abbott, in Pac. R. R. RepL, vol. vi., p.
89; Ind. Life, p. 165; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 26;
Kane's Wand., pp. 185-9; Franchere's Nar., pp. 235-7; Gass' Jour., pp. 224,
230-1, 282-3; Fe'dix, L' Oregon, pp. 44-5; Stanly's Portraits, pp. 59-62.
WEAPONS OF THE CHINOOKS. 235
were found much more convenient table ware.123 In all
their personal habits the Chinooks are disgustingly filthy,
although said to be fond of baths for health and pleas
ure. The Clatsops, as reported by one visitor, form a
partial exception to this rule, as they occasionally wash
the hands and face.12*
Their chief weapons are. bows and arrows, the former
of which is made of cedar, or occasionally, as it is said,
of horn and bone; its elasticity is increased by a cov
ering of sinew glued on. The arrow-head is of bone,
flint, or copper, and the shaft consists of a short piece of
some hard wood, and a longer one of a lighter material.
The bows are from two and a half to four feet long ; five
styles, differing in form and curve, are pictured by School-
craft. Another weapon in common use was a double-
edged wooden broad-sword, or sharp club, two and a half
or three feet long ; spears, tomahawks, and scalping knives
are mentioned by many travelers, but not described, and
it is doubtful if either were ever used by these aborig
ines.125 I have already spoken of their thick arrow-
proof elk-skin armor, and of a coat of short sticks bound
together with grass; a bark helmet is also employed of
sufficient strength to ward off arrows and light blows.
Ross states that they also carry a circular elk-skin shield
about eighteen inches in diameter. Although by no
means a blood-thirsty race, the Chinook tribes were fre
quently involved in quarrels, resulting, it is said, from
the abduction of women more frequently than from other
causes. They, like almost all other American tribes,
123 For description of the various roots and berries used by the Chinooks
as food, see Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 450-5.
124 The Multnomahs ' are very fond of cold, hot, and vapour baths, which
are used at all seasons, and for the purpose of health as well as pleasure.
They, however, add a species of bath peculiar to themselves, by washing the
whole body with urine every morning.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 509,
409. Eat insects from each other's head, for the animals bite them, and
they claim the right to bite back. Kane's Wand., pp. 183-4.
Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 323-4; vol. ii., p. 13; Irving' s Astoria, pp. 324,
338; Ross' Adven., p. 90; Kane's Wand., p. 189; Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii.,
pp. 124-5; ~
31, 509; Hines' Ogn., p. 110; Franchere's Nar., p. 253; Emmons, in Schooler aft' s
p. 113, pi. 210%; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 124-5; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 429-
31, 509; Hines' Ogn., p. 110; Franchere's "
Arch., vol. iii., pp. 206-7, 215-16, 468.
236 COLUMBIANS.
make a free use of war paint, laying it on grotesquely
and in bright colors ; but unlike most other nations, they
never resorted to treachery, surprise, night attacks, or
massacre of women and children. Fighting was gen
erally done upon the water. When efforts to settle am
icably their differences, always the first expedient, failed,
a party of warriors, covered from head to foot with armor,
and armed with bows, arrows, and bludgeons, was pad
dled by women to the enemies' village, where diplomatic
efforts for peace were renewed. If still unsuccessful, the
women were removed from danger, and the battle com
menced, or, if the hour was late, fighting was postponed
till the next morning. As their armor was arrow-proof
and as they rarely came near enough for hand-to-hand
conflict, the battles were of short duration and accompa
nied by little bloodshed ; the fall of a few warriors de
cided the victory, the victors gained their point in the
original dispute, the vanquished paid some damages, and
the affair ended.120
Troughs dug out of one piece of cedar, and woven
baskets served this people for dishes, and were used for
every purpose. The best baskets were of silk grass or
fine fibre, of a conical form, woven in colors so closely
as to hold liquids, and with a capacity of from one to
six gallons. Coarser baskets were made of roots and
rushes, rude spoons of ash-wood, and circular mats did
duty as plates. Wapato diggers used a curved stick
with handle of horn ; fish-hooks and spears were made
of wood and bone in a variety of forms; the wing-bone
of the crane supplied a needle. With regard to their
original cutting instruments, by which trees were felled
for canoes or for planks which were split off by wedges,
there is much uncertainty; since nearly all authorities
126 « When the conflict is postponed till the next day, .... they keep up
frighful cries all night long, and, when they are sufficiently near to understand
each other, defy one another by menaces, railleries, and sarcasms, like the
heroes of Homer and Virgil.' Franchere's Nar., pp. 251-4; Cox's Adven.,vo\.
i., pp. 322-3; Dunn's Oregon, p. 124; Irving' s Astoria, pp. 340-1; Ross' Fur
Hunters vol. i., pp. 88, 105-8; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 354; Stanty's
Portraits, pp. 61-2; Foster's Pre-Hist. Races, p. 232.
• IMPLEMENTS, MANUFACTUKES, BOATS. 237
state that before their intercourse with Europeans, chisels
made of i old files/ were employed, and driven by an oblong
stone or a spruce-knot mallet. Pipe-bowls were of hard
wood fitted to an elder stem, but the best ones, of stone ele
gantly carved, were of Haidah manufacture and obtained
from the north.127 To kindle a fire the Chinook twirls
rapidly between the palms a cedar stick, the point of
which is pressed into a small hollow in a flat piece of the
same material, the sparks falling on finely-frayed bark.
Sticks are commonly carried for the purpose, improving
with use. Besides woven baskets, matting is the chief
article of Chinook manufacture. It is made by the wo
men by placing side by side common bulrushes or flags
about three feet long, tying the ends, and passing strings
of twisted rushes through the whole length, sometimes
twenty or thirty feet, about four inches apart, by means
of a bone needle.128
Chinook boats do not differ essentially, either in mate
rial, form, or method of manufacture, from those already
described as in use among the Sound family. Always dug
out of a single log of white cedar, fir, or pine, they vary in
length from ten to fifty feet, and in form according to the
waters they are intended to navigate or the freight they
are to carry. In these canoes lightness, strength, and ele
gance combine to make them perfect models of water-
craft. Lewis and Clarke describe four forms in use in
this region, and their description of boats, as of most other
matters connected with this people, has been taken with
or without credit by nearly all who have treated of the
subject. I cannot do better than to give their account
of the largest and best boats used by the Killamooks and
127 Pickering makes ' the substitution of the water-proof basket, for the
square wooden bucket of the straits ' the chief difference between this and
the Sound Family. Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol ix., p. 25; Emmons, in /School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 206; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77; Ross' Adven.,
p. 92; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 241, 260; Franchere's Nar., pp. 248-9;
Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp, 432-5; Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 329-32; Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 138-9; Catlin's N. Am. Lid., vol. ii., p. 113, pi. 210%, showing
cradle, ladles, Wapato diggers, Paulomaugons, or war clubs and pipes. Park
er's Explor. Tour., pp. 248-9; Kane's Wand., pp. 184-5, 188-9.
128 Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 161-3; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 253.
238 COLUMBIANS.
other tribes on the coast outside the river. "The sides
are secured by cross-bars, or round sticks, two or three
inches in thickness, which are inserted through holes
just below the gunwale, and made fast with cords. The
upper edge of the gunwale itself is about five-eighths
of an inch thick, and four or five in breadth, and folds
outwards, so as to form a kind of rim, which prevents
the water from beating into the boat. The bow and stern
are about the same height, and each provided with a
cornb, reaching to the bottom of the boat. At each end,
also, are pedestals, formed of the same solid piece, on
which are placed strange grotesque figures of men or
animals, rising sometimes to the height of five feet, and
composed of small pieces of wood, firmly united, with great
ingenuity, by inlaying and mortising, without a spike
of any kind. The paddle is usually from four feet and
a half to five feet in length ; the handle being thick for
one-third of its length, when it ^widens, and is hollowed
and thinned on each side of the centre, which forms a
sort of rib. When they embark, one Indian sits in the
stern, and steers with a paddle, the others kneel in pairs
in the bottom of the canoe, and sitting on their heels,
paddle over the gunwale next to them. In this way
they ride with perfect safety the highest waves, and ven
ture without the least concern in seas where other boats
or seamen could not live an instant." The women are
as expert as the men in the management of canoes.129
The Chinooks were always a commercial rather than
a warlike people, and are excelled by none in their
129 Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 433-5. 'Hollowed out of the cedar by
fire, and smoothed off with stone axes.' Itane's Wand., p. 189. At Cape Or-
ford ' their shape much resembled that of a butcher's tray.' Vancouver's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 204. ' A human face or a white-headed eagle, as large as life, carved
on the prow, and raised high in front.' Itoss' Adven., pp. 97-8. 'In landing
they put the canoe round, so as to strike the beach stern on.' Franchere's
ftar., p. 246. ' The larger canoes on the Columbia are sometimes propelled
by short oars.' Emmons, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. 'Finest ca
noes in the world.' Wiikes' Hist. Oan., p. 107; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 252;
Dimn'H Oregon, pp. 121-2; Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 79-82, with cuts; Irving's
Astoria, pp. 86, 324; Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 325-7; Hole's Ethnog., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 217; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 276-7; Brownells Ind.
Races, pp. 535-7; Gass' Jour., p. 279.
CHINOOK PROPERTY AND TRADE. 239
shrewdness at bargaining. Before the arrival of the
Europeans they repaired annually to the region of the
Cascades and Dalles, where they met the tribes of the
interior, with whom they exchanged their few articles of
trade — fish, oil, shells, and Wapato — for the skins, roots,
and grasses of their eastern neighbors. The coming of
ships to the coast gave the Chinooks the advantage in
this trade, since they controlled the traffic in beads,
trinkets and weapons; they found also in the strangers
ready buyers of the skins obtained from the interior in
exchange for these articles. Their original currency or
standard of value was the hiaqua shell from the north
ern coast, whose value was in proportion to its length, a
fathom string of forty shells being worth nearly double
a string of fifty to the fathom. Since the white men
came, beaver-skins and blankets have been added to their
currency. Individuals were protected in their rights to
personal property, such as slaves, canoes, and imple
ments, but they had no idea of personal property in
lands, the title to which rested in the tribe for purposes
of fishing and the chase.130
In decorative art this family cannot be said to hold a
high place compared with more northern nations, their
only superior work being the modeling of their canoes,
and the weaving of ornamental baskets. In carving
they are far inferior to the Haidahs ; the Cathlamets, ac
cording to Lewis and Clarke, being somewhat superior
to the others, or at least more fond of the art. Their
attempts at painting are exceedingly rude.131
130 Dried and pounded salmon, prepared by a method not understood ex
cept at the falls, formed a prominent article of commerce, both with coast
and interior nations. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 444-7, 413. A fathom of
the largest hiaqua shells is worth about ten beaver-skins. A dying man
gave his property to his intimate friends ' with a promise on their part to
restore them if he recovered.' Franchere' s Nar., pp. 244-5, 137; 7/o.ss' Adcen.,
pp. 8T-8, 95-6; Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 166; Irving' s Astoria, p. 322; Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 133-4; Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 333; Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol.
i., p. 392; Kane's Wand., p. 185; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii , p. '250; Gass'
Jour., p. 227; Morton's Crania Am., pp. 202-1 t; Fe'dix, 1'Ore.jon, pp. 44-5.
131 Have no idea of drawing maps on the sand. ' Their powers of computa
tion. . . .are very limited.' Emmons, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 205,
207; Lewis aul Clarke's Trav., p. 493; Ross' Adcen., pp. 88-9, 98; Kane's
Wand., p. 185.
240 COLUMBIANS.
Little can be said of their system of government ex
cept that it was eminently successful in producing peace
ful and well regulated communities. Each band or
village was usually a sovereignty, nominally ruled by a
chief, either hereditary or selected for his wealth and pop
ularity, who exerted over his tribe influence rather than
authority, but who was rarely opposed in his measures.
Sometimes a league existed, more or less permanent, for
warlike expeditions. Slight offenses against usage — the
tribal common law — were expiated by the payment of
an amount of property satisfactory to the party offended.
Theft was an offense, but the return of the article stolen
removed every trace of dishonor. Serious crimes, as the
robbery of a burial-place, were sometimes punished with
death by the people, but no special authorities or pro
cesses seem to have been employed, either for detection
or punishment.132
Slavery, common to all the coast families, is also
practiced by the Chinooks, but there is less difference
here perhaps than elsewhere between the condition of
the slaves and the free. Obtained from without the
limits of the family, towards the south or east, by war,
or more commonly by trade, the slaves are obliged to
perform all the drudgery for their masters, and their
children must remain in their parents' condition, their
round heads serving as a distinguishing mark from free
men. But the amount of the work connected with the
Chinook household is never great, and so long as the
slaves are well and strong, they are liberally fed and well
treated. True, many instances are known of slaves
murdered by the whim of a cruel and rich master, and
it was not very uncommon to kill slaves on the occasion
of the death of prominent persons, but wives and friends
are also known to have been sacrificed on similar oc-
132 The Willamette tribes, nine in number, were under four principal
chiefs. Ross' Adven., pp. 235-6, 88, 216. Casanov, a famous chief at Fort
Vancouver employed a hired assassin to remove obnoxious persons. Kane 's
Wand., pp. 173-6; Franchere's Nar., p. 250; Irving's Astoria, pp. 88, 340,
Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 322-3; Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 253; Lewis and
Clarke's Trav., p. 443.
MAKITAL RELATIONS OF THE CHINOOKS. 241
casions. No burial rights are accorded to slaves, and
no care taken of them in serious illness ; when unable to
work they are left to die, and their bodies cast into the
sea or forest as food for fish or beast. It was not a rare
occurrence for a freeman to voluntarily subject himself
to servitude in payment of a gambling-debt; nor for a
slave to be adopted into the tribe, and the privilege of
head -flattening accorded to his offspring.133
Not only were the Chinooks a peaceable people in
their tribal intercourse, but eminently so in their family
relations. The young men when they married brought
their wives to their father's home, and thus several gen
erations lived amicably in their large dwellings until
forced to separate by numbers, the chief authority being
exercised not by the oldest but by the most active and
useful member of the household. Overtures for mar
riage were made by friends of the would-be bridegroom,
who offered a certain price, and if accepted by the maid
en's parents, the wedding ceremony was celebrated sim
ply by an interchange and exhibition of presents with
the congratulations of invited guests. A man might
take as many wives as he could buy and support, and
all lived together without jealousy; but practically few,
and those among the rich and powerful, indulged in
the luxury of more than one wife. It has been noticed
that there was often great disparity in the ages of bride
and groom, for, say the Chinooks, a very young or very
aged couple lack either the experience or the activity
necessary for fighting the battles of life. Divorce or
separation is easily accomplished, but is not of frequent
occurrence. A husband can repudiate his wife for in
fidelity, or any cause of dissatisfaction, and she can marry
again. Some cases are known of infidelity punished with
133 ' Live in the same dwelling with their masters, and often intermarry
with those who are free.' Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 197, 247. 'Treat them
with humanity while their services are useful.' Franchere's Nar., p. 241.
Treated with great severity. Kane's Wand., pp. 181-2; Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., p. 447; Ross' Adven., pp. 92-3; Iruing's Astoria, p. 88; Cox's Adven.,
vol. i., pp. 305-6; Dunn's Oregon, pp.- 129-30; Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co., pp.
196-7; Stanly's Portraits, pp. 61-2.
VOL. I. 16
242 COLUMBIANS.
death. Barrenness is common, the birth of twins rare,
and families do not usually exceed two children. Child
birth, as elsewhere among aboriginals, is accompanied
with but little inconvenience, and children are often
nursed until three or five years old. They are carried
about on the mother's back until able to walk; at first in
the head-flattening cradle, and later in wicker baskets.
Unmarried women have not the slightest idea of chas
tity, and freely bestow their favors in return for a kind
ness, or for a very small consideration in property paid
to themselves or parents. When married, all this is
changed — female virtue acquires a marketable value, the
possessorship being lodged in the man and not in the
woman. Rarely are wives unfaithful to their husbands ;
but the chastity of the wife is the recognized property
of the husband, who sells it whenever he pleases. Al
though attaching no honor to chastity, the Chinook
woman feels something like shame at becoming the
mother of an illegitimate child, and it is supposed to be
partly from this instinct that infanticide and abortion
are of frequent occurrence. At her first menstruation a
girl must perform a certain penance, much less severe,
however, than among the northern nations. In some
tribes she must bathe frequently for a moon, and rub
the body with rotten hemlock, carefully abstaining from
all fish and berries which are in season, and remaining
•closely in the house during a south wind. Did she par
take of the forbidden food, the fish would leave the
.streams and the berries drop from the bushes ; or did she
,go out in a south wind, the thunder-bird would come and
shake his wings. All thunder-storms are thus caused.
Both young children and the old and infirm are kindly
treated. Work is equally divided between the sexes;
the women prepare the food which the men provide;
they also manufacture baskets and matting; they are
nearly as skillful as the men with the canoe, and are
consulted on all important matters. Their condition is
by no means a hard one. It is among tribes that live
by the chase or by other means in which women can be
CHINOOK FEASTS AND FESTIVITIES. 243
of little service, that we find the sex most oppressed and
cruelly treated.134
Like all Indians, the Chinooks are fond of feasting,
but their feasts are simply the coming together of men
and women during the fishing season with the determina
tion to eat as much as possible, and this meeting is devoid
of those complicated ceremonies of invitation, reception,
and social etiquette, observed farther north ; nor has any
traveler noticed the distribution of property as a feature
of these festivals. Fantastically dressed and gaudily
decked with paint, they are wont to jump about on cer
tain occasions in a hopping, jolting kind of dance, ac
companied by songs, beating of sticks, clapping of hands,
and occasional yells, the women usually dancing in a
separate set. As few visitors mention their dances, it is
probable that dancing was less prevalent than with others.
Their songs were often soft and pleasing, differing in style
for various occasions, the words extemporized, the tunes
being often sung with meaningless sounds, like our tra-
la-la. Swan gives examples of the music used under dif
ferent circumstances. Smoking was universal, the leaves
of the bear-berry being employed, mixed in later times
with tobacco obtained from the whites. Smoke is swal
lowed and retained in the stomach and lungs until partial
intoxication ensues. No intoxicating drink was known
to them before the whites came, and after their coming
for a little time they looked on strong drink with sus
picion, and were averse to its use. They are sometimes
sober even now, when no whisky is at hand. But the
favorite amusement of all the Chinook nations is gamb
ling, which occupies the larger part of their time when
13* Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 161, 171; Emmons, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol.
hi., pp. 211-2. 'In proportion as we approach the rapids from the sea, fe
male impurity becomes less perceptible ; beyond this point it entirely ceases. '
Cox's Adven., vol. ii., pp. 134, 159; vol. i., pp. 366-7, 318; Wells, in Harper's
Mag., vol. xiii., p. 602; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 439-43. Ceremonies of
a widow in her endeavors to obtain a new husband. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. v., p. 124; Ross' Adven., pp. 88, 92-3; Franchere's Nar., pp. 245,
254-5; Hunter's Cap., p. 70; Hines' Voy., p. 113; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii.,
pp. 16, 294-5; Irving's Astoria, p. 340; 'Dunn's Oregon, pp. 132-3; Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., pp. 231-2; Kane's Wand., pp. 175-7, 182; Oass' Jour., p. 275; Strick
land's Hist. Missions, pp. 139-40.
244 COLUMBIANS.
not engaged in sleeping, eating, or absolutely necessary
work. In their games they risk all their property, their
wives and children, and in many instances their own
freedom, losing all with composure, and nearly always
accompanying the game with a song. Two persons, or
two parties large or small, play one against the other; a
banking game is also in vogue, in which one individual
plays against all comers. A favorite method is to pass
rapidly from hand to hand two small sticks, one of which
is marked, the opponent meanwhile guessing at the hand
containing the marked stick. The sticks sometimes take
the form of discs of the size of a silver dollar, each play
er having ten ; these are wrapped in a mass of fine bark-
fibre, shuffled and separated in two portions ; the winner
naming the bunch containing the marked or trump piece.
Differently marked sticks may also be shuffled or tossed
in the air, and the lucky player correctly names the rel
ative position in which they shall fall. A favorite game
of females, called ahikia, is played with beaver-teeth,
having figured sides, which are thrown like dice; the
issue depends on the combinations of figures which are
turned up. In all these games the players squat upon
mats ; sticks are used as counters ; and an essential point
for a successful gambler is to make as much noise as pos
sible, in order to confuse the judgment of opponents.
In still another game the players attempt to roll small
pieces of wood between two pins set up a few inches apart,
at a distance of ten feet, into a hole in the floor just
beyond. The only sports of an athletic nature are shoot
ing at targets with arrows and spears, and a game of ball
in which two goals are placed a mile apart, and each
party — sometimes a whole tribe — endeavors to force the
ball past the other's goal, as in foot-ball, except that the
ball is thrown with a stick, to one end of which is fixed
a small hoop or ring.135 Children's sports are described
135 ' I saw neither musical instruments, nor dancing, among the Oregon
tribes.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 43. 'All extrava
gantly fond of ardent spirits, and are not particular what kind they have,
provided it is strong, and gets them drunk quickly.' Swan's N. W. Coast, pp.
CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS. 245
only by Swan, and as rag babies and imitated Catholic
baptisms were the favorite pastimes mentioned, they may
be supposed not altogether aboriginal.
Personal names with the Chinooks are hereditary, but
in many cases they either have no meaning or their
original signification is soon forgotten. They are averse
to telling their true name to strangers, for fear, as they
sometimes say, that it may be stolen ; the truth is, how
ever, that with them the name assumes a personality ; it
is the shadow or spirit, or other self, of the flesh and
blood person, and between the name and the individual
there is a mysterious connection, and injury cannot be
done to one without affecting the other; therefore, to
give one's name to a friend is a high mark of Chinook
favor. No account is kept of age. They are believers
in sorcery and secret influences, and not without fear of
their medicine-men or conjurers, but, except perhaps
in their quality of physicians, the latter do not exert the
influence which is theirs farther north ; their ceremonies
and tricks are consequently fewer and less ridiculous.
Inventions of the whites not understood by the natives
are looked on with great superstition. It was, for in
stance, very difficult at first to persuade them to risk
their lives before a photographic apparatus, and this for
the reason before mentioned; they fancied that their
spirit thus passed into the keeping of others, who could
torment it at pleasure.136 Consumption, liver complaint
and ophthalmia are the most prevalent Chinook maladies ;
to which, since the whites came, fever and ague have been
added, and have killed eighty or ninety per cent, of the
155-8, 197-202. 'Not addicted to intemperance.' Franchere's Nar., p. 242.
At gambling ' they will cheat if they can, and pride themselves on their suc
cess.' Kane's Wand., pp. 190, 196. Seldom cheat, and submit to their losses
with resignation. Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 332; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp.
410, 443-4; Wells, in Harper's Mag., vol. xiii., p. 601, and cut of dance at
Coos Bay; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 392-3; vol. v., p. 123;
Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 90-4, 112-13;
Dunn's Oregon, pp. 114-15, 121, 125-8, 130-1; Parker's Explor. Tour., pp.
247-8; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 242; Irving 's Astoria, p. 341; Palmer's
Jour., p. 86.
Tolndem Bora's J\at., vol.u., p. 248; Uass' Joar., pp.
Oregon, pp. 123-8; Kane's Wand., pp. 205, 255-6; Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 267;
136 Tolmiein. Lord's Nat., vol.ii., p. 248; Gass' Joar., pp. 232, 275; Dunn's
sgon, pp. 123-8; Kane's Wand., j
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 654.
246 COLUMBIANS.
whole people, utterly exterminating some tribes. The
cause of this excessive mortality is supposed to be the
native method of treatment, which allays a raging fever
by plunging the patient in the river or sea. On the
Columbia this alleviating plunge is preceded by violent
perspiration in a vapor bath; consequently the treat
ment has been much more fatal there than on the coast
where the vapor bath is not in use. For slight ills and
pains, especially for external injuries, the Chinooks em
ploy simple remedies obtained from various plants and
trees. Many of these remedies have been found to be
of actual value, while others are evidently quack nos
trums, as when the ashes of the hair of particular animals
are considered essential ingredients of certain ointments.
Fasting and bathing serve to relieve many slight internal
complaints. Strangely enough, they never suffer from
diseases of the digestive organs, notwithstanding the
greasy compounds used as food. When illness becomes
serious or refuses to yield to simple treatment, the con
clusion is that either the spirits of the dead are striving
to remove the spirit of the sick person from the troubles
of earth to a happier existence, or certain evil spirits
prefer this world and the patient's body for their dwell
ing-place. Then the doctor is summoned. Medical
celebrities are numerous, each with his favorite method
of treatment, but all agree that singing, beating of sticks,
indeed a noise, however made, accompanied by mysteri
ous passes and motions, with violent pressure and knead
ing of the body are indispensable. The patient frequently
survives the treatment. Several observers believe that
mesmeric influences are exerted, sometimes with benefit,
by the doctors in their mummeries.137
137 Doctors, if unsuccessful, are sometimes subjected to rough treatment,
but rarely killed, except when they have previously threatened the life of the
patient. Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 176-185. At the Dalles an old woman,
whose incantations had caused a fatal sickness, was beheaded by a brother
of the deceased. Ind. Life, pp. 173-4, 142-3. Whole tribes have been al
most exterminated by the small-pox. Stevens, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. i.,
pp. 82, 179. Venereal disease prevalent, and a complete cure is never ef
fected. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 440, 508. Generally succeed in curing
venereal disease even in its worst stage. Ross' Adven., p. 96-9. The unsuc-
CHINOOK BUKIAL KITES. 247
When the Chinook dies, relatives are careful to speak
in whispers, and indulge in no loud manifestations of
grief so long as the body remains in the house. The
body is prepared for final disposition by wrapping it in
blankets, together with ornaments and other property of
a valuable but not bulky nature. For a burial place an
elevated but retired spot near the river bank or on an
island is almost always selected, but the methods of dis
posing of the dead in these cemeteries differ somewhat
among the various tribes. In the region about the mouth
of the Columbia, the body with its wrappings is placed in
the best canoe of the deceased, which is washed for the
purpose, covered with additional blankets, mats, and prop
erty, again covered, when the deceased is of the richer
class, by another inverted canoe, the whole bound to
gether with matting and cords, and deposited usually on
a plank platform five or six feet high, but sometimes
suspended from the branches of trees, or even left on the
surface of the ground. The more bulky articles of prop
erty, such as utensils, and weapons, are deposited about or
hung from the platform, being previously spoiled for use
that they may not tempt desecrators among the whites or
foreign tribes ; or, it may be that the sacrifice or death of
the implements is necessary before the spirits of the imple
ments can accompany the spirit of the owner. For the
same purpose, and to allow the water to pass off, holes are
bored in the bottom of the canoe, the head of the corpse
being raised a little higher than the feet. Some travelers
have observed a uniformity in the position of the canoe,
the head pointing towards the east, or down the current
of the stream. After about a year, the bones are some
times taken out and buried, but the canoe and platform
are never removed. Chiefs' canoes are often repainted.
cessful doctor killed, unless able to buy his life. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. iv., p. 394. Flatheads more subject to apoplexy than others. Domenech's
Deserts, vol i., p. 87; Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 126-7, 307, 312-15, 335, vol. ii..
pp. 94-5; Townxend's War., pp. 158, 178-9; Franchere's Nar., p. 250; Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 115-9, 127; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 53; Parker's Ex-
plor. Tour., pp. 176, 191-2; Fitzgerald's Hud. B. Co., pp. 171-2; Strickland's
Hist. Missions, pp. 139-40.
248 COLUMBIANS.
Farther up both the Columbia and Willamette Rivers,
excavations of little depth are often made, in which
bodies are deposited on horizontal boards and covered
over with a slightly inclining roof of heavy planks or
poles. In these vaults several tiers of corpses are often
placed one above another. At the Cascades, depositories
of the dead have been noticed in the form of a roofed
inclosure of planks, eight feet long, six feet wide, and
five feet high, with a door in one end, and the whole
exterior painted. The Calapooyas also buried their dead
in regular graves, over which was erected a wrooden
head-board. Desecration of burial places is a great crime
with the Chinook ; he also attaches great importance to
having his bones rest in his tribal cemetery wherever he
may die. .For a long time after a death, relatives repair
daily at sunrise and sunset to the vicinity of the grave
to sing songs of mourning and praise. Until the bones
are finally disposed of, the name of the deceased must
not be spoken, and for several years it is spoken only
with great reluctance. Near relatives often change their
name under the impression that spirits will be. attracted
back to earth if they hear familiar names often repeated.
Chiefs are supposed to die through the evil influence of
another person, and the suspected, though a dear friend,
was formerly often sacrificed. The dead bodies of slaves
are never touched save by other slaves.138
138 A chief on the death of his daughter ' had an Indian slave bound hand
and foot, and fastened to the body of the deceased, and enclosed the two in
another mat, leaving out the head of the living one. The Indian then took the
canoe and carried it to a high rock and left it there. Their custom is to let
the slave live for three days; then another slave is compelled to strangle the
victim by a cord.' Letter, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. ii., p. 71. See also vol.
iii., pp. 217-18; vol. vi., pp. 616-23, with plate; vol. v., p. 655. 'The emblem
of a squaw's grave is generally a camass-root digger, made of a deer's horns,
and fastened on the end of a stick.' Willces' Nar. in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v.,
pp. 233-4, vol. iv., p. 394. ' I believe I saw as many as an hundred canoes
at one burying place of the Chinooks.' Gass' Jour., p. 274. ' Four stakes, in
terlaced with twigs and covered with brush, ' filled with dead bodies. Abbott,
in Pac. jR. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 88. At Goose Bay, ' formerly the body was
burned, and the wife of the corpse killed and interred.' Now the body is
sprinkled with sand and ashes, the ankles are bent up and fastened to the
neck; relatives shave their heads and put the hair on the body with shells
and roots, and the corpse is then buried and trampled on by the whole tribe.
Wells, in Harper's Mag., vol. xiii., p. 602. ' The canoe-coffins were decorated
with rude carved work.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 54. Strangers are paid
CHINOOK CHARACTER. 2tL9
There is little difference of opinion concerning the
character of the Chinooks. All agree that they are in
telligent and very acute in trade; some travelers have
found them at different points harmless and inoffensive;
and in a few instances honesty has been detected. So
much for their good qualities. As to the bad, there is
unanimity nearly as great that they are thieves and liars,
and for the rest each observer applies to them a selection
of such adjectives as lazy, superstitious, cowardly, in
quisitive, intrusive, libidinous, treacherous, turbulent,
hypocritical, fickle, etc. The Clatsops, with some authors,
have the reputation of being the most honest and moral ;
for the lowest position in the scale all the rest might
present a claim. It should however be said in their
favor that they are devotedly attached to their homes,
and treat kindly both their young children and aged
parents ; also that not a few of their bad traits originated
with or have been aggravated by contact with civiliza
tion.139
to join in the lamentations. Ross' Adven., p. 97. Children who die during
the head-flattening process are set afloat in their .cradles upon the surface of
some sacred pool, where the bodies of the old are also placed in their canoes.
Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 111. On burial and mourning see also,
Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 72-3, 153, 186-9, with cut of canoe on platform.
Mofras' Explor., vol. ii., p. 355, and pi. 18 of Atlas; Lewis and Clarke's Trav.,
pp. 423, 429, 509, Kane's Wand., pp. 176-8, 181, 202-5; Cox's Adcen., vol. i.,
pp. 124-5, 335-6, vol. ii., p. 157; Parker's Explor. Tour., pp. 144, 151-2;
Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., pp. 281-2, vol. ii., p. 53; Belcher's Voy.,
vol. i., p. 292; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 255; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 119-20,
131-2; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., pp. 149-50; Fremont's Ogn. and CaL, p. 186; Irving's
Astoria, p. 99; Franchere's JVar., p. 106; Palmer's Jour., p. 87; Ind. Life, p.
210; Totonsend's Nar., p. 180.
139 'The clumsy thief, who is detected, is scoffed at and despised.' Dunn's
Oregon, pp. 130-1, 114. ' The Kalapuya, like the Umkwa, . . . .are more regu
lar and quiet ' than the inland tribes, ' and more cleanly, honest and moral
than the ' coast tribes. The Chinooks are a quarrelsome, thievish, and
treacherous people. Hole's Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 217, 215,
198, 204. ' A rascally, thieving set.' Gass' Jour., p. 304. * When well treated,
kind and hospitable.' Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 215, 110, 152. At Cape Or-
ford 'pleasing and courteous deportment. . . .scrupulously honest.' Vancouv
er's Voy., vol. i., pp. 204-5. Laziness is probably induced by the ease with
which they obtain food. Kane's Wand., pp. 181, 185. ' Crafty and intriguing.'
Easily irritated, but a trifle will appease him. Ross' Fur Hunters., vol. i., p.
61, 70-1, 77, 88, 90-1, 124-5, 235-6. ' They possess in an eminent degree,
the qualities opposed to indolence, improvidence, and stupidity : the chiefs
above all, are distinguished for their good sense and intelligence. Generally
speaking, they have a ready intellect and a tenacious memory.' * Rarely re
sist the temptation of stealing' white men's goods. Franchere's Nar., pp.
241-2, 261. Loquacious, never gay, knavish, impertinent. Lewis and Clarke's
250 COLUMBIANS.
THE INLAND FAMILIES, constituting the fifth and last
division of the Columbians, inhabit the region between
the Cascade Range and the eastern limit of what I term
the Pacific States, from 52° 30' to 45° of north latitude.
These bounds are tolerably distinct ; though that on the
south, separating the eastern portions of the Columbian
and CaHfornian groups, is irregular and marked by no
great river, mountain chain, or other prominent physical
feature. These inland natives of the Northwest occupy,
in person, character, and customs, as well as in the loca
tion of their home, an intermediate position between the
coast people already described — to wrhom they are pro
nounced superior in most respects — and the Rocky
Mountain or eastern tribes. Travelers crossing the
Rocky Mountains into this territory from the east, or
entering it from the Pacific by way of the Columbia or
Fraser, note contrasts on passing the limits, sufficient to
justify me in regarding its inhabitants as one people for
the purposes aimed at in this volume.140 Instead, there-
Trav., pp. 416, 441-2, 504, 523-4. ' Thorough-bred hypocrites and liars.'
'The Killymucks the most roguish.' Industry, patience, sobriety and in
genuity are their chief virtues; thieving, lying, incontinence, gambling and
cruelty may be classed among their vices. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 115, 131,
296-7, 302, 304-5, 321, vol. ii., p. 133. At Wishiam ' they were a community
of arrant rogues and freebooters.' Irving' s Astoria, pp. 322, 342. 'Lying is
very common; thieving comparatively rare.' White's Ogn., p. 207. 'Do not
appear to possess a particle of natural good feeling.' Townsend's Nar., p. 183.
At Coos Bay ' by no means the fierce and warlike race found further to the
northward.' Wells, in Harper's Mag., vol. xiii., p. 601. Umqua and Goose
tribes are naturally industrious; the Suislaws the most advanced; the Alcea
not so enterprising. SyJces, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1860, p. 215. Calapooias, a
poor, cowardly, and thievish race. Miller, in Id., 1857, p. 364; Nicolay'sOgn.
Ter., p. 151; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 87, vol. ii., pp. 16, 36; Warre and
Vavasour, in Martin's Hud. B., p. 83; Palmer's Jour., pp. 84, 105; Parker's
Explor. Tour., pp. 249-50; Ind. Life, pp. 1-4, 210; Fitzgerald's Vane. Isl., p.
196; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 207, etc.
140 'They all resemble each other in general characteristics.' Parker's
Explor. Tour., p. 229. Shush waps and Salish all one race. Maym's B. C.,
p. 296-7. ' The Indians of the interior are, both physically aiid morally,
vastly superior to the tribes of the coast.' Id., p. 242. 'The Kliketat near
Mount Rainier, the Walla-Wallas, and the Okanagan .... speak kindred dia
lects.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 170. The best-supported opinion is that the
inland were of the same original stock with the lower tribes. Dunn's Oregon,
p. 316. ' On leaving the verge of the Carrier country, near Alexandria, a
marked change is at once perceptible.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p.
77. Inland tribes differ widely from the piscatorial tribes. Ross' Adven., p.
127. 'Those residing near the Rocky Mountains .... are and always have
been superior races to those living on the lower Columbia.' Alvord, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 654. 'I was particularly struck with their
THE SHUSHWAPS. 251
fore, of treating each family separately, as has been
done with the coast divisions of the group, I deem it more
convenient, as well as less monotonous to the reader, to
avoid repetition by describing the manners and customs
of all the people within these limits together, taking
care to note such variations as may be found to exist.
The division into families and nations, made according
to principles already sufficiently explained, is as follows,
beginning again at the north:
THE SHUSHWAPS, our first family division, live be
tween 52° 30' and 49° in the interior of British Colum
bia, occupying the valleys of the Fraser, Thompson, and
Upper Columbia rivers with their tributary streams and
lakes. They are bounded on the west by the Nootkas
and on the north by the Carriers, from both of which
families they seem to be distinct. As national divisions
of this family may be mentioned the Shush waps proper,
or Atnahs^1 who occupy the whole northern portion of
the territory; the Okanagans^ in the valley of the lake
and river of the same name; and the Kootenais^ who
vast superiority (on the Similkameen River, Lat. 49° 30', Long. 120° 30') in
point of intelligence and energy to the Fish Indians on the Fraser River,
and in its neighbourhood.' Palmer, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 84. Striking
contrast noted in passing up the Columbia. Hole's Ethnoy., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. vi., p. 199.
HI 'The Shewhapmuch who compose a large branch of the Saeliss
family, ' known as Nicute-much — corrupted by the Canadians into Couteaux —
below the jiinction of the Fraser and Thompson. Anderson, in Hist. Mag.,
vol. vii., p. 76-7. Atnahs is their name in the Takali language, and signifies
'strangers.' 'Differ so little from their southern neighbors, the Salish, as
to render a particular description unnecessary.' Halt's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. They were called by Mackenzie the Chin tribe, accord
ing to Prickard's Rssearches, vol. v., p. 427, but Mackenzie's Chin tribe was
north of the Atnahs, being the Nagailer tribe of the Carriers. See Macken
zie's Voy., pp. 257-8, and map.
142 'About Okanagan, various branches of the Carrier tribe.' Nicolay's
Ogn. Ter., p. 143. ' Okanagans, on the upper part of Frazer's Eiver.' Lude-
wig, Ab. Lang., p. 170.
i« Also known as Flat-bows. ' The poorest of the tribes composing the
Flathead nation.' McCormick, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 211. 'Speaking a
language of their own, it is not easy to imagine their origin; but it appears
probable that they once belonged to some more southern tribe, from which
they became shut off by the intervention of larger tribes.' Maym's B. C.,
p. 297. ' In appearance, character, and customs, they resemble more the
Indians east of the Kocky Mountains than those of Lower Oregon.' Hate's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. ' Les Arcs-k-Plats, et les Koetenais
sent connus dans le pays sous le nom de Skalzi.' De Smet, Miss, de I' Ore
gon, p. 80.
252 COLUMBIANS.
inhabit the triangle bounded by the Upper Columbia,
the Rocky Mountains, and the 49th parallel, living
chiefly on Flatbow river and lake. All three nations
might probably be joined with quite as much reason to
the Salish family farther south, as indeed has usually
been done with the Okanagans; while the Kootenais are
by some considered distinct from any of their adjoining
nations.
THE SALISH FAMILY dwells south of the Shushwaps,'
between 49° and 47°, altogether on the Columbia and its
tributaries. Its nations, more clearly defined than in
most other families, are the Flatheads^ or Salish proper,
between the Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains on Flat-
head and Clarke rivers; the Pend d'Oreilles^ who dwell
about the lake of the same name and on Clarke River,
for fifty to seventy-five miles above and below the lake ;
the Ooeurs d'Alene™ south of the Pend d'Oreilles, on
Coeur d'Alene Lake and the streams falling into it; the
Colvittes™ a term which may be used to designate the
variously named bands about Kettle Falls, and north
ward along the Columbia to the Arrow Lakes ; the Spo-
Jcanes,us on the Spokane River and plateau along the
Columbia below Kettle Falls, nearly to the mouth of the
144 The origin of the name Flathead, as applied to this nation, is not
known, as they have never been known to flatten the head. ' The mass of
the nation consists of persons who have more or less of the blood of the
Spokanes, Pend d'Oreilles, Nez Perces, and Iroquois.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1854, p. 207; Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 150; Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol.
ii., p. 108; Stuart's Montana, p. 82. G-ass applied the name apparently to
tribes on the Clearwater of the Sahaptin family. Jour., p. 224.
145 Also called Kalispelms and Ponderas. The Upper Pend d'Oreilles
consist of a number of wandering families of Spokanes, Kalispelms prop
er, and Flatheads. Suckley, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 294; Stevens, in
Id., p. 149; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 210. 'Very similar in
manners, etc., to the Flatheads, and form one people with them." De Smet,
Miss, de I' Oregon, p. 32.
146 The native name, according to Hale, is Skitsuish, and Coeur d'Alene,
' Awl heart, ' is a nickname applied from the circumstance that a chief used
these words to express his idea of the Canadian traders' meanness. Etlinog.,
in U. S, Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 210.
1*7 Quiarlpi, 'Basket People,' Chaudieres, 'Kettles,' Kettle Falls, Chualpays,
Skoielpoi, and Lakes, are some of the names applied to these bands.
143 ' Us s'appellent entre eux les Enfants du Soleil, dans leur langue Spo
kane.' De Smet, Miss, de r Oregon, p. 31. 'Differing very little from the
Indians at Colville, either in their appearance, habits, or language.' Kane's
Wand., p. 307.
THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY. 253
Okanagan^and the Pisquouse™ on the west bank of the
Columbia between the Okanagan and Priest Rapids.
THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY, the last of the Columbian
group, is immediately south of the Salish, between the
Cascade and Bitter Root mountains, reaching southward,
in general terms, to the 'forty-fifth parallel, but very ir
regularly bounded by the Shoshone tribes of the Cali-
fornian group. Of its nations, the Nez Perces™ or Sa-
haptins proper, dwell on the Clearwater and its branches,
and on the Snake about the forks; the Palouse151 occupy
the region north of the Snake about the mouth of the
Palouse; the south banks of the Columbia and Snake
near their confluence, and the banks of the lower Walla
Walla are occupied by the Walla Wallas-™ the YaJcimas
and Kliketats™ inhabit the region north of the Dalles,
wo « So much intermarried with the Yakamas that they have almost lost
their nationality.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 236.
150 'Pierced Noses,' so named by the Canadians, perhaps from the nasal
ornaments of the first of the tribe seen, although the custom of piercing the
nose has never been known to be prevalent with this people. ' Generally
known and distinguished by the name of ' ' black robes, ' ' in contradistinction
to those who live on fish.' Named Nez Perces from the custom of boring
the nose to receive a white shell, like the fluke of an anchor. Ross' Fur
Hunters, vol. i., pp. 305, 185-6. ' There are two tribes of the Pierced-Nose
Indians, the upper and the lower.' BroucnelVs Ind, Races, pp. 533-5. ' Though
originally the same people, their dialect varies very perceptibly from that of
the Tushepaws.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 341. Called Thou;a-rik-kah,
Tsoi-gah, ' Cowse-eaters, ' by the Snakes. ' Ten times better off to-day than
they were then ' — 'a practical refutation of the time-honored lie, that inter
course with whites is an injury to Indians.' Stuart's Montana, pp. 70-7. 'In
character and appearance, they resemble more the Indians of the Missouri
than their neighbors, the Salish.' Hole's Ethnog. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p.
212; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 54.
151 ' La tribu Paloose appartient a la nation des Nez-perces et leur ressem-
ble sous tous les rapports.' De Stnet, Voy., p. 31.
152 The name comes from thai of the river. It should be pronounced
Wala-Wala, very short. Pandosy's Gram., p. 9. 'Descended from slaves
formerly owned and liberated by the Nez Perces.' Parker's Explor. Tour. p.
247. 'Not unlike the Pierced-Noses in general appearance, language, and
habits.' Brownell's Ind. Races, pp. 533-5. Parts of three different nations at
the confluence of the Snake and Columbia. Gass' Jour., pp. 218-19. ' None
of the Indians have any permanent habitations ' on the south bank of the
Columbia about and above the Dalles. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 365.
' Generally camping in winter on the north side of the river.' Ind. Aff. Rent.,
1854, p. 223.
153 The name Yakima is a word meaning ' Black Bear ' in the Walla Walla
dialect. They are called Klikatats west of the mountains. Gibbs, in Pac. R.
R. Rept., vol. i., p. 407. ' The Klikatats and Yakimas, in all essential pecul
iarities of character, are identical, and their intercourse is constant.' Id., p.
403, and Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 225. ' Pshawanwappam bands,
usually called Yakamas.' The name signifies ' Stony Ground.' Gibbs, in Pan*
254 COLUMBIANS.
between the Cascade Range and the Columbia, the former
in the valley of the Yakima, the latter in the mountains
about Mt. Adams. Both nations extend in some bands
across into the territory of the Sound family. The na
tives of Oregon east of the Cascade Range, who have not
usually been included in the Sahaptin family, I will di
vide somewhat arbitrarily into the Wascos, extending
from the mountains eastward to John Day River, and
the Cayuse^ from this river across the Blue Mountains
to the Grande Ronde.
The inland Columbians are of medium stature, usu
ally from five feet seven to five feet ten inches, but some
times reaching a height of six feet; spare in flesh, but
muscular and symmetrical ; with well-formed limbs, the
legs not being deformed as among the Chinooks by con
stant sitting in the canoe ; feet and hands are in many
tribes small and well made. In bodily strength they
are inferior to whites, but superior, as might be expected
from their habits, to the more indolent fish-eaters on the
Pacific. The women, though never corpulent, are more
inclined to rotundity than the men. The Nez Perces
and Cayuses are considered the best specimens, while in
dosy's Gram., p. vii. ' Roil-roil-pam, is the Klikatat country.' ' Its meaning
is " the Mouse country." ' Id. The Yakima valley is a great national rendez
vous for these and surrounding nations. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 19,
21. Kliketats, meaning robbers, was first the name given to the "Whulwhy-
pums, and then extended to all speaking the same language. For twenty-five
years before 1854 they overran the Willamette Valley, but at that time were
forced by government to retire to their own country. Tolmie, in Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., pp. 244-7.
i j* Wasco is said to mean « basin, ' and the tribe derives its name, tradi
tionally, from the fact that formerly one of their chiefs, his wife having died,
spent much of his time in making cavities or basins in the soft rock for his
children to fill with water and pebbles, and thereby amuse themselves. Vic
tor's All over Ogn.} pp. 94-5. The word Cayuse is perhaps the French Cail-
loux, 'pebbles.' Called by Tolmie, 'Wyeilats or Kyoose.' He says their
language has an affinity to that of the Carriers and Umpquas. Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., pp. 249-50. 'Resemble the Walla- Wallas very much.' Kane's Wand.,
pp. 279-80. 'The imperial tribe of Oregon' claiming jurisdiction over the
whole Columbia region. Farnham's Trav., p. 81. The Snakes, Walla-Wallas,
and Cayuse meet annually in the Grande Ronde Valley. Thornton's Ogn. and
Cal., vol. i., p. 270. 'Individuals of the pure blood are few, the majority
being intermixed with the Nez Perces and the Wallah-Wallahs.' Stevens, in
Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 218-19. The region which I give to the Wascos and
Cayuses is divided on Hale's map between the Walla-Wallas, Waiilatpu, and
Molele.
PHYSIQUE OF:THE INLAND TRIBES. 255
the north the Kootenais seem to be superior to the other
Shush wap nations. The Salish are assigned by Wilkes
and Hale an intermediate place in physical attributes
between the coast and mountain tribes, being in stature
and proportion superior to the Chinooks, but inferior to
the Nez Perces.155 Inland, a higher order of face is ob
served than on the coast. The cheek-bones are still
high, the forehead is rather low, the face long, the eyes
black, rarely oblique, the nose prominent and frequently
aquiline, the lips thin, the teeth white and regular but
generally much worn. The general expression of the
features is stern, often melancholy, but not as a rule
harsh or repulsive. Dignified, fine-looking men, and
handsome young women have been remarked in nearly
all the tribes, but here again the Sahaptins bear off the
palm. The complexion is not darker than on the coast,
but has more of a coppery hue. The hair is black, gen
erally coarse, and worn long. The beard is very thin,
and its growth is carefully prevented by plucking.1
156
155 In the interior the ' men are tall, the women are of common stature, and
both are well formed.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 229. ' Of middle height, slen
der/ Hole's Ethnog, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 199. The inland tribes of
British Columbia, compared with those on the coast, ' are of a better cast,
being generally of the middle height.' /(/., p. 198. See also p. 206. The
Nez Perces and Cayuses 'are almost universally fine-looking, robust men.'
In criticising the person of one of that tribe ' one was forcibly reminded of
the Apollo Belvidere.' Townsend's Nar., pp. 148, 98. The Klikatat 'stature
is low, with light, sinewy limbs.' Id., p. 178; also pp. 158-174. The Walla-
Wallas are generally powerful men, at least six feet high, and the Cayuse
are still 'stouter and more athletic.' Gairdner, in Land. Geoy. Soc. Jour., vol.
xi., p. 256. The Umatillas 'may be a superior r.-ice to the " Snakes," but I
doubt it.' Barnhart, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, p. 271. The Salish are 'rather
below the average size, but are well knit, muscular, and good-looking.' St <:-
ens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 208. 'Well made and active.' Dunn's Oregon,
pp. 311, 327. 'Below t-he middle hight, with thick-set limbs.' Domenech's
Deserts, vol. i., p. 88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6, 64-5. The Cootonais are above the
medium height. Very few Shush waps reach the height of five feet nine
inches. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., pp. 155, 376, vol. i., p. 240. See also on phy
sique of the inland nations, Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 321, 340, 356. 359,
382, 527-8, 55(3-7; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 475; Dunn, in
Gal. Farmer, April 26, 1861; San Francisco Herald, June, 1858; Stevens, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 309, 414; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 151; Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., pp. 105-6, and vol. i., frontispiece, cut of a group of Spokanes.
De Smet, Voy., pp. 30, 198; Palmer's Jour., p. 54; Ross' Adven., pp. 127, 294;
Stuart's Montana, p. 82.
J56 The interior tribes have 'long faces, and bold features, thin lips, wide
cheek-bones, smooth skins, and the usual tawny complexion of the American
tribes. ' ' Features of a less exaggerated harshness ' than the coast tribes.
256 COLUMBIANS.
The custom of head-flattening, apparently of seaboard
origin and growth, extends, nevertheless, across the Cas
cade barrier, and is practiced to a greater or less extent
by all the tribes of the Sahaptin family. Among them
all, however, with the exception perhaps of the Klikc-
tats, the deformity consists only of a very slight com
pression of the forehead, which nearly or quite disap
pears at maturity. The practice also extends inland up
the valley of the Fraser, and is found at least in nearly
all the more western tribes of the Shushwaps. The Sa-
lish family do not flatten the skull.157 Other methods of
Hole's Ethnog., in II. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 198-9. 'Hair and eyes are
black, their cheek bones high, and very frequently they have aquiline noses.'
' They wear their hair long, part it upon their forehead, and let it hang in
tresses on each side, or down behind.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 229. Com
plexion 'a little fairer than other Indians.' Id. The Okanagans are 'better
featured and handsomer in their persons, though darker, than the Chinooks
or other Indians along the sea-coast.' 'Teeth white as ivory, well set and
regular.' The voices of Walla Wallas, Nez Perces, and Cayuses, are strong
and masculine. Ross' Adven., pp. 294, 127. The Flatheads (Nez Perces) are
'the whitest Indians I ever saw.' Gass' Jour., p. 189. The Shushwap 'com
plexion is darker, and of a more muddy, coppery hue than that of the true Eed
Indian.' Milton and Cheadle's N.W. Pass., p. 335. The Nez Perces darker
than the Tushepaws. Dignified and pleasant features. Would have quite
heavy beards if they shaved. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 340, 356, 359,
527-8, 556-7, 321. The inland natives are an ugly race, with 'broad faces,
low foreheads, and rough, coppery and tanned skins.' The Salish 'features
are less regular, and their complexion darker ' than the Sahaptins. Dotn-
enech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88, vol. ii., pp. 55-6. Teeth of the river tribes worn
down by sanded salmon. Anderson, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 228; Kane's
Wand., p. 273. Nez Perces and Cayuses 'are almost universally fine look
ing, robust men, with strong aquiline features, and a much more cheerful
cast of countenance than is usual amongst the race. Some of the women
might almost be called beautiful, and none that I have seen are homely.'
Some very handsome young girls among the Walla Wallas. The Kliketat
features are 'regular, though often devoid of expression.' Townscnd's Nar.,
pp. 78, 148, 158, 178. Flatheads ' comparatively very fair in complexion,
....with oval faces, and a mild, and playful expression of countenance.'
Dunn's Oregon, p. 311. The Kayulshad long dark hair, and regular features.
Morton's Crania, p. 214, pi. 48. ' The Flatheads are the ugliest, and most of
their women are far from being beauties.' Stuart's Montana, p. 82.
Coke's Rocky Mountains, p. 304. Cut and description of a Clickitat skull, in
" I pi. 48. ' The Flatheads are the u "
dng beauties.' Stuart's Montana, p. 8
157 « The Sahaptin and Walla wallas compress the head, but not so much
as the tribes near the coast. It merely serves with them to make the fore
head more retreating, which, with the aquiline nose common to these natives,
gives to them occasionally, a physiognomy similar to that represented in the
hieroglyphical paintings of Central America.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex.,
vol. vi., pp. 214, 205. All the Shushwaps flatten the head more or less.
Mayne's B. C., p. 303. 'II est a remarquer que les tribus etablies au-dessns
de la jonction de la branche sud de la Colombie, et designees sous le nom de
Tetes Plates, ont renonce depnis longtemps a cet usage.' Mofras, Explor.,
torn. ii.. p. 349. 'A roundhead Klickatat woman would be a pariah.' THn-
throp's Canoe and SaddL, p. '-04. Nc.: Perces ' seldom known to flatten the
HEAD-FLATTENING IN THE INTEKIOE. 257
deforming the person, such as tattooing and perforating
the features are as a rule not employed; the Yakimas
and Kliketats, however, with some other lower Colum
bia tribes, pierce or cut away the septum of the nose,158
and the Nez Perces probably derived their name from a
similar custom formerly practiced by them. Paint, how
ever, is used by all inland as well as coast tribes on
occasions when decoration is desired, but applied in less
profusion by the latter. The favorite color is vermilion,
applied as a rule only to the face and hair.159 Elaborate
hair-dressing is not common, and both sexes usually wear
the hair in the same style, soaked in grease, often painted,
and hanging in a natural state, or in braids, plaits, or
queues, over the shoulders. Some of the southern tribes
cut the hair across the forehead, while others farther
north tie it up in knots on the back of the head.160
The coast dress — robes or blankets of bark-fibre or
head.' Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. See Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii.,
pp. 55-6, 64-5; Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2, 249-51; Townsend's
Nar., p. 175; Kane's Wand., p. 263; Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 207-8; Wilkes'
Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 415, with cut. Walla Wallas, Skyuse, and
Nez Perces flatten the head and perforate the nose. Farnham's Trav., p. 85;
Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 374, 359; Gass' Jour., p. 224.
15* Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 38-9; Lewis and Clarke' »
Trav., pp. 362, 382-3.
1^9 The Salish 'profuse in the use of paint.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept.,
1854, pp. 207-8, and in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 309. Nez Perces painted
in colored stripes. Nine's Voy., p. 173. 'Four Indians (Nez Perces) streaked
all over with white mud.' Kane's Wand., p. 291. Walla Walla ' faces painted
red.' The Okanagan ' young of both sexes always paint their faces with red
and black bars.' Ross' Adven., pp. 127, 294-8. The inland tribes 'appear
to have less of the propensity to adorn themselves with painting, than the
Indians east of the mountains, but not unfrequently vermilion mixed with
red clay, is used not only upon their faces but upon their hair.' Parker's
Explor. Tour, p. 229. Red clay for face paint, obtained at Vermilion Forks
of the Similkaineen River, in 13. C. Palmer, in B. C. Papers, vol. iii., p. 84.
Pend d'Oreille women rub the face every morning with a mixture of red and
brown powder, which is made to stick by a coating of fish-oil. De Smet, Voy.,
p. 198.
leo The Oakinack ' women wear their hair neatly clubbed on each side of
the head behind the ears, and ornamented with double rows of the snowy
higua, which are among the Oakinackens called Shet-la-cane ; but they keep
it shed or divided in front. The men's hair is queued or rolled up into a
knot behind the head, and ornamented like that of the women; but in front
it falls or hangs down loosely before the face, covering the forehead and the
eyes, which causes them every now and then to shake the head, or use the
hands to uncover their eyes.' Ross' Adven., pp. 294-5. The head of the Nez
Perces not ornamented. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 341, 321, 351, 377, 528,
532-3; Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 304; Kane's Wand, p. 274.
VOL. I. 17
258 COLUMBIANS.
small skins — is also used for some distance inland on
the banks of the Columbia and Fraser, as among the
Nicoutamuch, Kliketats, and Wascos; but the distinctive
inland dress is of dressed skin of deer, antelope, or mount
ain sheep; made into a rude frock, or shirt, with loose
sleeves; leggins reaching half-way up the thigh, and
either bound to the leg or attached by strings to a belt
about the waist; moccasins, and rarely a cap. Men's
frocks descend half-way to the knees; women's nearly
to the ankles. Over this dress, or to conceal the want
of some part of it, a buffalo or elk robe is worn, espe
cially in winter. All garments are profusely and often
tastefully decorated with leather fringes, feathers, shells,
and porcupine quills ; beads, trinkets and various bright-
colored cloths having been added to Indian ornamenta
tion since the whites came. A new suit of this native
skin clothing is not without beauty, but by most tribes
the suit is worn without change till nearly ready to drop
off, and becomes disgustingly filthy. Some tribes clean
and whiten their clothing occasionally with white earth,
or pipe-clay. The buffalo and most of the other large
skins are obtained from the country east of the mount-
ains.161
161 The Ootlashoot women wear ' a long shirt of skin, reaching down to
the ancles, and tied round the waist.' Few ornaments. The Nez Perces
wear ' the buffalo or elk-skin robe decorated with beads, sea-shells, chiefly
mother-of-pearl, attached to an otter-skin collar and hung in the hair.'
Leggins and moccasins are painted; a plait of twisted grass is worn round
the neck. The women wear their long robe without a girdle, but to it ' are
tied little pieces of brass and shells, and other small articles.' 'The dress
of the female is indeed more modest, and more studiously so than any we
have observed, though the other sex is careless of the indelicacy of exposure.'
' The Sokulk females have no other covering but a truss or piece of leather
tied round the hips and then drawn tight between the legs.' Three fourths
of the Pisquitpaws 'have scarcely any robes at all.' The Chilluckittequaws
use skins of wolves, deer, elk, and wild cats. ' Hound their neck is put a
strip of some skin with the tail of the animal hanging down over the breast.'
Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 321, 340-1, 351, 359, 361, 377, 526, 528, 532-3.
Many of the Walla Walla, Nez Perce, and Cayuse females wore robes ' richly
garnished with beads, higuas,' etc. The war chief wears as a head-dress the
whole skin of a wolf's head, with the ears standing erect. The Okanagans
wear in winter long detachable sleeves or mittens of wolf or fox skin, also
wolf or bear skin caps when hunting. Men and women dress nearly alike,
and are profuse in the use of ornaments. Ross' Aduen., p. 127, 294-8; Id.,
Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 306. The Flatheads often change their clothing and
clean it with pipe-clay. They have no regular head-dress. From the Ya-
INLAND DWELLINGS. 259
The inland dwelling is a frame of poles, covered with
rush matting, or with the skins of the buffalo or elk.
As a rule the richest tribes and individuals use skins,
although many of the finest Sahaptin houses are covered
with mats only. Notwithstanding these nations are rich
in horses, I find no mention that horse-hides are ever
employed for this or any other purpose. The form of
the lodge is that of a tent, conical or oblong, and usually
sharp at the top, where an open space is left for light
and air to enter, and smoke to escape. Their internal
condition presents a marked contrast with that of the
Chinook and Nootka habitations, since they are by many
interior tribes kept free from vermin and filth. Their
light material and the frequency with which their loca
tion is changed contributes to this result. The lodges
are pitched by the women, who acquire great skill and
celerity in the work. Holes are left along the sides for
entrance, and within, a floor of sticks is laid, or more
frequently the ground is spread with mats, and skins
serve for beds. Dwellings are often built suilieiently
large to accommodate many families, each of which in
such case has its own fireplace on a central longitudinal
line, a definite space being allotted for its goods, but no
dividing partitions are ever used. The dwellings are
kima to the Okanagan the men go naked, and the women wear only a belt
with a slip passing between the legs. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 133, 148,
240-1, vol. ii., p. 144. Nez Perces better clad than any others, Cayuses
well clothed, Walla Wallas naked and half starved. Palmer's Jour., pp. 54,
124, 127-8. At the Dalles, women 'go nearly naked, for they wear little
else than what may be termed a breech-cloth, of buckskin, which is black
and filthy with dirt.' WUkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 409-10,
42G, 473. The Kliketat women wear a short pine-bark petticoat tied round
the loins. Townsend's Nar., pp. 78, 178, 148. ' Their buffaloe robes and other
skins they chiefly procure on the Missouri, when they go over to hunt, as
there are no buffaloe in this part of the country and very little other game.'
Gass' Jour., pp. 189, 205, 218-19, 295. Tusshepaw 'women wore caps of
willow neatly worked and figured.' Irving' s Astoria, pp. 315, 317, 319; Id.,
Bonnemlle's Adven., p. 301. The Flathead women wear straw hats, used also
for drinking and cooking purposes. De Smet, Voy., pp. 45-7, 198. The Shu-
shwaps wear in wet weather capes of bark trimmed with fur, and reaching
to the elbows. Moccasins are more common than on the coast, but they
often ride barefoot. Mayne's B. C., p. 301. Parker's Explor. Tour., pp. 229^-
30; Kane's Wand., p. 264, and cut; Fremont's Ogn. and CaL, pp. 186-7; Stev
ens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 222; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 153; Franchere's
Nar., p. 268; Dunn's Oregon, p. 311; Coke's Rocky Mis., p. 304; Hunt, in Nou-
velles Annaks des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 74-5, 78.
260 COLUMBIANS.
arranged in small villages generally located in winter on
the banks of small streams a little away from the main
rivers. For a short distance up the Columbia, houses
similar to those of the Chinooks are built of split cedar
and bark. The Walla Wallas, living in summer in the
ordinary mat lodge, often construct for winter a subter
ranean abode by digging a circular hole ten or twelve
feet deep, roofing it with poles or split cedar covered
with grass and mud, leaving a small opening at the top
for exit and entrance by means of a notched-log ladder.
The Atnahs on Eraser River spend the winter in similar
structures, a simple slant roof of mats or bark sufficing
for shade and shelter in summer. The Okanagans con
struct their lodges over an excavation in the ground
several feet deep, and like many other nations, cover
their matting in winter with grass and earth.162
!62 The Sokulk houses ' generally of a square or oblong form, varying in
length from fifteen to sixty feet, and supported in the inside by poles or
forks about six feet high.' The roof is nearly flat. The Echeloot and Chil-
luckittequaw houses were of the Chinook style, partially sunk in the ground.
The Nez Perces live in houses built ' of straw and mats, in the form of the
roof of a house.' One of these 'was one hundred and fifty-six feet long,
and about fifteen wide, closed at the ends, and having a number of doors on
each side.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 340, 351, 369-70, 381-2, 540. Nez
Perce dwellings twenty to seventy feet long and from ten to fifteen feet
wide; free from vermin. Flathead houses conical but spacious, made of
buffalo and moose skins over long poles. Spokane lodges oblong or con
ical, covered with skins or mats. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 148, 192, 200.
Nez Perce and Cayuse lodges ' composed of ten long poles, the lower ends
of which are pointed and driven into the ground; the upper blunt and drawn
together at the top by thongs ' covered with skins. ' Universally used by
the mountain Indians while travelling.' Umatillas live in 'shantys or wig
wams of driftwood, covered with buffalo or deer skins.' Klicatats 'in mis
erable loose hovels.' Townsend's Nar., pp. 104-5, 156, 174. Okanagan winter
lodges are long and narrow, ' chiefly of mats and poles, covered over with
grass and earth;' dug one or two feet below the surface; look like the roof
of a common house set on the ground. Ross' Advtn., pp. 313-4. On the
Yakima River 'a small canopy, hardly sufficient to shelter a sheep, was
found to contain four generations of human beings.' Pickering's Races, in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 34, 37. On the Clearwater 'there are not more
than four lodges in a place or village, and these small camps or villages are
eight or ten miles apart.' 'Summer lodges are made of willows and flags,
and their winter lodges of split pine.' Gass' Jour., pp. 212, 221, 223. At
Kettle Falls, the lodges are of rush mats.' 'A flooring is made of sticks,
raised three or four feet from the ground, leaving the space beneath it en
tirely open, and forming a cool, airy, and shady place, in which to hang their
salmon.' Kane's Wand., pp. 309, 272-3. The Pend d'Oreilles roll their tent-
mats into cylindrical bundles for convenience in traveling. Stevens, in Ind.
salmon.' Kam's Wand., pi
mats into cylindrical bum
Aff. EepL, 1854, pp. 215, 238, 282. Barnhart, in Id., 1862, p. 271. The Shu-
shwap den is warm but 'necessarily unwholesome, and redolent. . . .of any
thing but roses.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 77. Yakimas, 'rude
FOOD OF THE INLAND NATIONS. 261
The inland families eat fish and game, with roots and
fruit; no nation subsists without all these supplies; but
the proportion of each consumed varies greatly according
to locality. Some tribes divide their forces regularly
into bands, of men to fish and hunt, of women to cure
fish and flesh, and to gather roots and berries. I have
spoken of the coast tribes as a fish-eating, and the in
terior tribes as a hunting people, attributing in great
degree their differences of person and character to their
food, or rather to their methods of obtaining it; yet fish
constitutes an important element of inland subsistence
as well. Few tribes live altogether without salmon,
the great staple of the Northwest; since those dwelling
on streams inaccessible to the salmon by reason of in
tervening falls, obtain their supply by annual migrations
to the fishing-grounds, or by trade with other nations.
The principal salmon fisheries of the Columbia are at
the Dalles, the falls ten miles above, and at Kettle
Falls. Other productive stations are on the Powder,
Snake, Yakima, Okanagan, and Clarke rivers. On the
Fraser, which has no falls in its lower course, fishing is
carried on all along the banks of the river instead of at
regular stations, as on the Columbia. Nets, weirs, hooks,
spears, and all the implements and methods by which
fish are taken and cured have been sufficiently described
in treating of the coast region ; in the interior I find no
important variations except in the basket method in use
at the Chaudieres or Kettle Falls by the Quiarlpi tribe.
Here an immense willow basket, often ten feet in diam
eter and twelve feet deep, is suspended at the falls from
huts covered with mats.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 407. Shu-
shwaps erect rude slants of bark or matting; have no tents or houses. Milton
and Cheadle's N. W. Pass., p. 242. From the swamps south of Flatbow Lake,
* the Kootanie Indians obtain the klusquis or thick reed, which is the only
article that serves them in the construction of their lodges,' and is traded
with other tribes. Sullivan, in Palliser's Explor., p. 15. In winter the Salish
cover their mats with earth. Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 207.
Flag huts of the Walla Wallas. Farnham's Trav., p. 85; Mullan's Kept, pp.
49-50; Palmer's Jour., p. 61; Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 295; Irving's Astoria, pp.
315, 319; Id., Bonneville's Adven., p. 301; De Smet, Voy., p. 185; Id., West.
Missions, p. 284; Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 105-6. Hunt, in Nouvdles Annales
des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 74-5, 79.
262 COLUMBIANS.
strong timbers fixed in crevices of the rocks, and above
this is a frame so attached that the salmon in attempt
ing to leap the fall strike the sticks of the frame and are
thrown back into the basket, in the largest of which
naked men armed with clubs await them. Five thou
sand pounds of salmon have thus been taken in a day
by means of a single basket. During the fishing- season
the Salmon Chief has full authority; his basket is the
largest, and must be located a month before others are
allowed to fish. The small nets used in the same region
have also the peculiarity of a stick which keeps the
mouth open when the net is empty, but is removed by
the weight of the fish. Besides the salmon, sturgeon are
extensively taken in the Fraser, and in the Arrow Lakes,
while trout and other varieties of small fish abound in
most of the streams. The fishing-season is the summer,
between June and September, varying a month or more
according to locality. This is also the season of trade
and festivity, when tribes from all directions assemble
to exchange commodities, gamble, dance, and in later
times to drink and fight.163
163 Natives begin to assemble at Kettle Falls about three weeks before the
salmon begin to run; feuds are laid by; horse-racing, gambling, love-making,
etc., occupy the assembly; and the medicine-men are busy working charms
for a successful season. The fish are cut open, dried on poles over a small
fire, and packed in bales. On the Fraser each family or village fishes for
itself; near the mouth large gaff-hooks are used, higher up a net managed
between two canoes. All the principal Indian fishing-stations on the Fraser
are below Fort Hope. For sturgeon a spear seventy to eighty feet long is
used. Cut of sturgeon-fishing. Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 71-6, 181, 184-6. The
Pend d'Oreilles ' annually construct a fence which reaches across the stream,
and guides the fish into a weir or rack. ' on Clarke River, just above the
lake. The Walla Walla ' fisheries at the Dalles and the falls, ten miles above,
are the finest on the river, ' The Yakima weirs constructed ' upon horizontal
spars, and supported by tripods of strong poles erected at short distances
apart; two of the logs fronting up stream, and one supporting them below;'
some fifty or sixty yards long. The salmon of the Okanagan were ' of a small
species, which had assumed a uniform red color.' 'The fishery at the Ket
tle Falls is one of the most important on the river, and the arrangements of
the Indians in the shape of drying-scaffolds and store-houses are on a corre
sponding scale.' Ind. Aff. Sept., 1854, pp. 214, 223, 231, 238; Gibbs, in Pac. R.
R. Kept,, vol. i., pp. 407-8. The salmon chief at Kettle Falls distributes the
fish among the people, every one, even the smallest child, getting an equal
share. Kane's Wand., pp. 3li-14. On Des Chutes River ' they spear the fish
with barbed iron points, fitted loosely by sockets to the ends of poles about
eight feet long, ' to which they are fastened by a thong about twelve feet
long. Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rspt., vol. vi., p. 90. On the upper Columbia an
'Indian^ cut off a bit of his leathern shirt, about the size of a small bean;
HUNTING BY SHUSHWAPS, SALISH, AND SAHAPTINS. 263
The larger varieties of game are hunted by the natives
on horseback wherever the nature of the country will
permit. Buffalo are now never found west of the Rocky
Mountains, and there are but few localities where large
game has ever been abundant, at least since the country
became known to white men. Consequently the Flat-
heads, Nez Perces, and Kootenais, the distinctively hunt
ing nations, as well as bands from nearly every other tribe,
cross the mountains once or twice each year, penetrating
to the buffalo- plains between the Yellowstone and the
Missouri, in the territory of hostile nations. The bow
and arrow was the weapon with which buffalo and all
other game were shot. No peculiar cunning seems to
have been necessary to the native hunter of buffalo; he
had only to ride into the immense herds on his well-
trained horse, and select the fattest animals for his ar
rows. Various devices are mentioned as being practiced
in the chase of deer, elk, and mountain sheep; such as
driving them by a circle of fire on the prairie towards
the concealed hunters, or approaching within arrow-shot
then pulling out two or three hairs from his horse's tail for a line, tied the
bit of leather to one end of it, in place of a hook or fly.' Ross' Adven., pp.
132-3. At the mouth of Flatbow River ' a dike of round stones, which
runs up obliquely ag.dnst the main stream, on the west side, for more-
than one hundred yards in length, resembling the foundation of a wall.'
Similar range on the east side, supposed to be for taking fish at low water.
Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 1G5-6. West of the Rocky Mountains they fish
' with great success by means of a kind of large basket suspended from a
long cord.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 240-1. On Powder River they use
the hook as a gaff. Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 283. A Wasco spears three or' four
salmon of twenty to thirty pounds each in ten minutes. Remy and Brenchley's
Jour., vol. ii., p. 506. No salmon are taken above the upper falls of the Co
lumbia. Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. i., p. 392. Walla Walla fish-weirs
' formed of two curtains of small willow switches matted together with
withes of the same plant, and extending across the river in two parallel lines,
six feet asunder. These are supported by several parcels of poles, .... and
are either rolled up or let down at pleasure for a few feet .... A seine of fif
teen or eighteen feet in length is then dragged down the river by two per
sons, and the bottom drawn up against the curtain of willows.' Lewis and
Clarke's Trav., p. 532. Make fishing-nets of flax. Parker's Explor. Tour., p.
'live solely by fishing.' Mullan's Rept., p. 49. Salmon cannot ascend to
Coeur d'Alene Lake. Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 209-10.
Okanagan food ' consists principally of salmon and a small fish which they
call carp.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 462. The Walla Wallas
'may well be termed the fishermen of the Skyuse camp.' Farnham's Trav.,
p. 82.
264 COLUMBIANS.
by skillful manipulations of a decoy animal; or the
frightened deer are driven into an ambush by converg
ing lines of bright-colored rags so placed in the bushes
as to represent men. Kane states that about the Arrow
Lakes hunting dogs are trained to follow the deer and
to bring back the game to their masters even from very
long distances. Deer are also pursued in the winter on
snow-shoes, and in deep snow often knocked down with
clubs. - Bear and beaver are trapped in some places; and,
especially about the northern lakes and marshes, wild
fowl are very abundant, and help materially to eke out
the supply of native food.164
Their natural improvidence, or an occasional unlucky
hunting or fishing season, often reduces them to want,
and in such case the resort is to roots, berries, and mosses,
several varieties of which are also gathered and laid up
164 The Shushwaps formerly crossed the mountains to the Assinniboine
territory. The Okanagans when hunting wear wolf or bear skin caps; there is
no bird or beast whose voice they cannot imitate. War and hunting were the
Nez Perce occupation; cross the mountains for buffalo. Ross1 Fur Hunters,
vol. i., pp. 148, 219, 297-8, 305. The chief game of the Nez Perces is the
deer, ' and whenever the ground will permit, the favourite hunt is on horse
back.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 555. The Salish live by the chase, on
elk, moose, deer, big-horn and bears ; make two trips annually, spring to fall,
and fall to mid-winter, across the mountains, accompanied by other nations.
The Pend d'Oreilles hunt deer in the snow with clubs; have distinct locali
ties for hunting each kind of game. Nez Perces, Flatheads, Coeurs d'Alene,
Spokanes, Pend d'Oreilles, etc., hunt together. Yakimas formerly joined
the Flatheads in eastern hunt. Ind. Aff. Rspt., 1854, pp. 207-8, 212-15, 218,
225-6. ' Two hunts annually across the mountains — one in April, for the bulls,
from which they return in June and July; and another, after about a month's
recruit, to kill cows, which have by that time become fat.' Stevens, Gibbs,
and Suckley, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., pp. 415, 408, 296-7, vol. xii., p. 134.
Kootenais live by the chase principally. Hutching, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1863,
p. 455. Spokanes rather indolent in hunting; hunting deer by fire. Cox's
Adven., vol. i., pp. 197, vol. ii., pp. 40-7. The Kootenais 'seldom hunt;'
there is not much to shoot except wild fowl in fall. Trap beaver and carri-
boeuf on a tributary of the Kootanie River. Palliser's Explor., pp. 10, 15, 73.!
Flatheads ' follow the buffalo upon the headwaters of Clarke and Salmon
rivers.' Nez Perce women accompany the men to the buffalo-hunt. Park
er's Explor. Tour., pp. 107, 311. Kootenais cross the mountains for buffalo.
Mayne's B. C., p. 297. Coeurs d'Alene ditto. Mullan's Rcpt., p. 49. Half of
the Nez Perces ' usually make a trip to the buffalo country for three months.'
WUJces' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 494. Shushwaps 'live by hunting
the bighorns, mountain goats, and marmots.' • Milton and Cheadle's N. W.
Pass., p. 242. Buffalo never pass to west of the Rocky Mountains. Lord's
Nat., vol. ii., p. 179; Kane's Wand., p. 328; Z>e Smet, Voy., pp. 31, 45, 144-5;
Ind. Life, pp. 23-4, 34-41; Franchere's Nar., pp. 268-9; Hunt, in Noumlles
Annales des Voy., torn, x., 1821, pp. 77-82, 87; Stuart, in Id., torn, xii., pp.
26, 35-6; Joset, in Id,, torn, cxxiii., 1849, pp. 334-40.
FOOD AND ITS PKEPARATION. 265
as a part of their regular winter supplies. Chief among
the roots are the camas, a sweet, onion-like bulb, which
grows in moist prairies, the couse, which flourishes in
more sterile and rocky spots, and the bitter-root, which
names a valley and mountain range. To obtain these
roots the natives make regular migrations, as for game
or fish. The varieties of roots and berries used for food
are very numerous ; and none seem to grow in the country
which to the native taste are unpalatable or injurious,
though many are both to the European.165
Towards obtaining food the men hunt and fish; all
the other work of digging roots, picking berries, as well
as dressing, preserving, and cooking all kinds of food is
done by the women, with some exceptions among the
Nez Perces and Pend d'Oreilles. Buffalo-meat is jerked
by cutting in thin pieces and drying in the sun and over
smouldering fires on scaffolds of poles. Fish is sun-dried
on scaffolds, and by some tribes on the lower Columbia
w^ The Kliketats gather and eat peahay, a bitter root boiled into a jelly;
n'poolthla, ground into flour; mamum and scckywa, made into bitter white
cakes; karnass; calz, a kind of wild sunflower. Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol.
ii., p. 247. The Flatheads go every spring to Camass Prairie. De Smet,
Voy., p. 183. The Kootenais eat kainash and an edible moss. Id., Missions
de rOre'flOn, pp. 75-6. 'The CayOOSeS, N"0* TWmie ovl nfVior wnrlilrA frihoe
assemble (in Yakima Valley) every spring to lay in a stock of the favourite ka-
mass and pelua, or sweet potatoes.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i. p. 19. Quamash,
round, onion-shaped, and sweet, eaten by the Nez Perces. Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., p. 330. Couse root dug in April or May; camas in June and July.
Alvord, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 656. ^ The Skyuses' ' main subsist
ence is however upon roots.' The Nez Perces eat kamash, cowish or biscuit
root, jackap, aisish, quako, etc. Irviny's Bonneville's Adven., p. 301, 388.
Okanagans live extensively on moss made into bread. The Nez Perces also
eat moss. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp, 462, 494. Pend
d'Oreilles at the last extremity live on pine-tree moss; also collect camash,
bitter-roots, and sugar pears. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 211, 214-15.
' I never saw any berry in the course of my travels which the Indians scruple
to eat, nor have I seen any ill effect from their doing so.' Kane's Wand., p.
327. The Kootenai food in September ' appears to be almost entirely berries;
namely, the " sasketoom " of the Crees, a delicious fruit, and a small species
of cherry, also a sweet root which they obtain to the southward. ' Blaklston,
in Palliser's Explor., p. 73. Flatheads dig konah, ' bitter root ' in May. It
is very nutritious and very bitter. PaJiseego, camas, or ' water seego, ' is a
sweet, gummy, bulbous root. Stuart's Montana, pp. 57-8. Colvilles cut down
pines for their moss (alectoria ?). Kamas also eaten. Pickering's Races, in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 34. The Shushwaps eat moss and lichens, chiefly
the black lichen, or whyelkine. Mayne's B. G., p. 301; Parker's Explor. Tour.,
p. 127. The Salish in March and April eat popkah, an onion-like bulb; in
May, spatlam, a root like vermicelli; in June and July, itwha, like roasted
chestnuts; in August, wild fruits; in September, marani, a grain. Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., p. 312.
266 COLUMBIANS.
is also pulverized between two stones and packed in
baskets lined with fish-skin. Here, as on the coast, the
heads and offal only are eaten during the fishing-season.
The Walla Wallas are said usually to eat fish without
cooking. Roots, mosses, and such berries as are pre
served, are usually kept in cakes, which for eating are
moistened, mixed in various proportions and cooked, or
eaten without preparation. To make the cakes simply
drying, pulverizing, moistening, and sun-drying usually
suffice ; but camas and pine-moss are baked or fermented
for several days in an underground kiln by means of hot
stones, coming out in the form of a dark gluey paste of
the proper consistency for moulding. Many of these
powdered roots may be preserved for years without in
jury. Boiling by means of hot stones and roasting on
sharp sticks fixed in the ground near the fire, are the
universal methods of cooking. No mention is made of
peculiar customs in eating; to eat often and much is the
aim ; the style of serving is a secondary consideration.166
Life with all these nations is but a struggle for food,
!66 At the Dalles ' during the fishing season, the Indians live entirely on
the heads, hearts and offal of the salmon, which they string on sticks, and
roast over a small fire.' Besides pine-moss, the Okanagans use the seed of
the balsam oriza pounded into meal, called mielito. ' To this is added the
siffleurs.' Berries made into cakes by the Nez Perces. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 410, 462, 494. Quamash, ' eaten either in its natural
state, or boiled into a kind of soup, or made into a cake, which is then called
pasheco.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 330, 353, 365, 369. Women's head
dress serves the Flatheads for cooking, etc. De Smet, Voy., pp. 47, 193-9;
Id., Missions de I 'Oregon, pp. 75-6. ' The dog's tongue is the only dish-cloth
known ' to the Okanagans. Pine-moss cooked, or squill-ape, will keep for
years. 'At their meals they generally eat separately and in succession —
man, woman and child.' Ross' Adven., pp. 132-3, 295, 317-18. ' Most of their
food is roasted, and they excel in roasting fish.' Parker's Explor. Tour., pp.
231, 107. ' Pine moss, which they boil till it is reduced to a sort of glue or
black paste, of a sufficient consistence to take the form of biscuit.' Franchere's
Nar., p. 279. Couse tastes like parsnips, is dried and pulverized, and some
'
ing mashed, and pressed together, and slightly baked in the sun.' White-
root, pulverized with stones, moistened and sun-baked, tastes not unlike stale
biscuits. Townsend's Nar., pp. 126-7. Camas and sun-flower seed mixed
with salmon-heads caused in the eater great distension of the stomach.
Remy and Brenchley's Jour., vol. ii., pp. 509-11. Sowete, is the name of the
mixture last named, among the Cayuses. Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 310; Ind.
Life, p. 41; Stuart's Montana, pp. 57-8; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. ix., p. 34; Kane's Wand., pp. 272-3; Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 214-15.
PEBSONAL HABITS IN THE INTERIOR. 267
and the poorer tribes are often reduced nearly to starva
tion; yet they never are known to kill dogs or horses
for food. About the missions and on the reservations
cattle have been introduced and the soil is cultivated by
the natives to considerable extent.167
In their personal habits, as well as the care of their
lodges, the Cayuses, Nez Perces, and Kootenais, are
mentioned as neat and cleanly; the rest, though filthy,
are still somewhat superior to the dwellers on the coast.
The Flatheads wash themselves daily, but their dishes
and utensils never. De Smet represents the Pend d'O-
reille women as untidy even for savages.168 Guns,
167 Additional notes and references on procuring food. The Okanagans
breakup winter quarters in February; wander about in small bands till June.
Assemble on the river and divide into two parties of men and two of women
for fishing and dressing fish, hunting and digging roots, until October; hunt
in small parties in the mountains or the intericfr for four of six weeks; and
then go into winter quarters on the small rivers. Ross' Adven., pp. 314-16.
Further south on the Columbia plains the natives collect and dry roots until
May; fish on the north bank of the river till September, burying the fish;
dig camas on the plains till snow falls; and retire to the foot of the mount
ains to hunt deer and elk through the winter. The Nez Perces catch salmon
and dig roots in summer; hunt deer on snow-shoes in winter; and cross the
mountains for buffalo in spring. Sokulks live on fish, roots, and antelope.
Eneeshur, Echeloots, and Chilluckittequaw, on fish, berries, roots and nuts.
Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 444-5, 340-1, 352, 365, 370. Spokanes live on
deer, wild fowl, salmon, trout, carp, pine-moss, roots and wild fruit. They
have no repugnance to horse-flesh, but never kill horses for food. The Sina-
poils live on salmon, camas, and an occasional small deer. The Chaudiere
country well stocked with game, fish and fruit. Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 201,
vol. ii., p. 145. The Kayuse live on fish, game, and camass bread. De Sinet,
Voy., pp. 30-1. 'Us cultivent avec succes le ble, les patates, les pois et
plusteurs autres legumes et fruits.' Id., Miss, de I'Oregon., p. 67. Pend
d'Oreilles; fish, Kamash, and pine-tree moss. Id., West. Missions, p. 284.
' Whole time was occupied in providing for their bellies, which were rarely
full.' Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 21J. Yakimas and Kliketats; Unis or fresh
water muscles, little game, sage-fowl and grouse, kamas, berries, salmon.
The Okanagans raise some potatoes. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., pp.
404, 408, 413. Kootenais; fish and wild fowl, berries and pounded meat, have
cows and oxen. Palliser's Explor., pp. 10, 72. Palouse; fish, birds, and small
animals. Umatillas; fish, sage-cocks, prairie-hares. Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp.
97, 105-6. Tushepaws would not permit horses or dogs to be eaten. Irvine's
Astoria, p. 316. Nez Perces; beaver, elk, deer, white bear, and mountain
sheep, also steamed roots. Id., Bonmville's Adven., p. 301. Sahaptm; gather
cherries and berries on Clarke River. Gass' Jour., p. 193; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter.,
p. 151; Hints' Voy., p. 167; BrowndVs Ind. Races, pp. 533-5; Stanley's Por
traits, pp. 63-71; Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108; Kane's Wand., pp. 263-4;
Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-31, 309; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
iv., p. 474; Hale's Elhnog., lb., vol. vi., p. 206.
168 Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 383, 548; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 230,
312; Townsend's Nar., p, 148; De Smet, Voy., pp. 46-7, 198; Cox's Adven.,
vol. i., pp. 197-9, 358, vol. ii., pp. 155, 373, 375; Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 295;
Palmer's Jour., pp. 54, 58, 59.
268 COLUMBIANS.
knives and tomahawks have generally taken the place
of such native weapons as these natives may have used
against their foes originally. Only the bow and arrow
have survived intercourse with white men, and no other
native weapon is described, except one peculiar to the
Okanagans, — a kind of Indian slung-shot. This is a
small cylindrical ruler of hard wood, covered with raw
hide, which at one end forms a small bag and holds a
round stone as large as a goose-egg; the other end of
the weapon is tied to the wrist. Arrow-shafts are of
hard wood, carefully straightened by rolling between
two blocks, fitted by means of sinews with stone or flint
heads at one end, and pinnated with feathers at the
other. The most elastic woods are chosen for the bow,
and its force is augmented by tendons glued to its
back.169
The inland families cannot be called a warlike race.
Resort to arms for the settlement of their intertribal
disputes seems to have been very rare. Yet all are
brave warriors when fighting becomes necessary for de
fense or vengeance against a foreign foe ; notably so the
Cayuses, Nez Perces, Flatheads and Kootenais. The
two former waged both aggressive and defensive war
fare against the Snakes of the south; while the latter
joined their arms against their common foes, the eastern
Blackfeet, who, though their inferiors in bravery, nearly
exterminated the Flathead nation by superiority in num
bers, and by being the first to obtain the white man's
weapons. Departure on a warlike expedition is always
preceded by ceremonious preparation, including councils
of the wise, great, and old ; smoking the pipe, harangues
by the chiefs, dances, and a general review, or display of
equestrian feats and the manoeuvres of battle. The war
riors are always mounted ; in many tribes white or speck-
169 The Okanagan weapon is called a Spampt. Ross' Adven., pp. 318-19;
Id., Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 306-8. ' Us. . . .faire leurs arcs d'un bois tres-
elastique, ou de la corne du cerf.' De Sm?t, Voy., p. 48; Wilkes' Nor., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 486; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405; Town-
send's Nar., p. 98; Irvine's Astoria, p. 317; Lewis and Clarice's Tray., p. 351;
Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 106-7, 233; Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 216.
THE INLAND NATIONS AT WAR. 269
led war-horses are selected, and both rider and steed are
gaily painted, and decked with feathers, trinkets, and
bright-colored cloths. The war-party in most nations is
under the command of a chief periodically elected by
the tribe, who has no authority whatever in peace, but
who keeps his soldiers in the strictest discipline in time
of war. Stealthy approach and an unexpected attack
in the early morning constitute their favorite tactics.
They rush on the enemy like a whirlwind, with terrific
yells, discharge their guns or arrows, and retire to pre
pare for another attack. The number slain is rarely
large ; the fall of a few men, or the loss of a chief de
cides the victory. When a man falls, a rush is made for
his scalp, which is defended by his party, arid a fierce
hand-to-hand conflict ensues, generally terminating the
battle. After the fight, or before it when either party
lacks confidence in the result, a peace is made by smok
ing the pipe, with the most solemn protestations of good
will, and promises which neither party has the slightest
intention of fulfilling. The dead having been scalped,
and prisoners bound and taken up behind the victors,
the party starts homeward. Torture of the prisoners,
chiefly perpetrated by the women, follows the arrival.
By the Flatheads and northern nations captives are gen
erally killed by their sufferings; among the Sahaptins
some survive and are made slaves. In the Flathead
torture of the Blackfeet are practiced all the fiendish
acts of cruelty that native cunning can devise, all of
which are borne with the traditional stoicism and taunts
of the North American Indian. The Nez Perce system
is a little less cruel in order to save life for future slavery.
Day after day, at a stated hour, the captives are brought
out and made to hold the scalps of their dead friends
aloft on poles while the scalp-dance is performed about
them, the female participators meanwhile exerting all
their devilish ingenuity in tormenting their victims.170
170 Torture of Blackfeet prisoners; burning with a red-hot gun-barrel,
pulling out the nails, taking off fingers, scooping out the eyes, scalping,
revolting cruelties to female captives. The disputed right of the Flatheads
to hunt buffalo at the eastern foot of the mountains is the cause of the long-
270 COLUMBIANS.
The native saddle consists of a rude wooden frame,
under and over which is thrown a buffalo-robe, and which
is bound to the horse by a very narrow thong of hide
in place of the Mexican dncha. A raw-hide crupper is
used; a deer-skin pad sometimes takes the place of the
upper robe, or the robe and pad are used without the
wooden frame. Stirrups are made by binding three
straight pieces of wood or bone together in triangular
form, and sometimes covering all with raw-hide put on
wet; or one straight piece is suspended from a forked
thong, and often the simple thong passing round the foot
suffices. The bridle is a rope of horse-hair or of skin,
made fast with a half hitch round the animal's lower
jaw. The same rope usually serves for bridle and lariat.
Sharp bones, at least in later times, are used for spurs.
Wood is split for the few native uses by elk-horn wedges
driven by bottle-shaped stone mallets. Baskets and ves
sels for holding water and cooking are woven of willow,
bark, and grasses. Rushes, growing in all swampy lo
calities are cut of uniform length, laid parallel and tied
continued hostility. The wisest and bravest is annually elected war chief.
The war chief carries a long whip and secures discipline by flagellation.
Except a few feathers and pieces of red cloth, both the Flathead and Koo-
tenai enter battle perfectly naked. 'Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 232-45, vol.
ii., p. 160. The Cayuse and Sahaptin are the most warlike of all the south
ern tribes. The Nez Perces good warriors, but do not follow war as a
profession. .Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 185-6, 305, 308-12, vol. ii., pp.
93-6, 139. Among the Okanagans ' the hot bath, council, and ceremony of
smoking the great pipe before war, is always religiously observed. Their
laws, however, admit of no compulsion, nor is the chief's authority implicitly
obeyed on these occasions; consequently, eve^ one judges for himself, and
either goes or stays as he thinks proper. With a view, however, to obviate
this defect in their system, they have instituted the dance, which answers every
purpose of a recruiting service. ' ' Every man, therefore, who enters within this
ring and joins in the dance is in honour bound to assist in carrying on the
war.' Id., Adven., pp. 319-20. Mock battles and military display for the enter
tainment of white visitors. limes' Voy., pp. 173-4. The Chilluckittequaws cut
off the forefingers of a slain enemy as trophies. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp.
375-6. When scouting, ' Flathead chief would ride at full gallop so near the foe
as to flap in their faces the eagle's tail streaming behind (from his cap), yet
no one dared seize the tail or streamer, it being considered sacrilegious and
fraught with misfortune to touch it.' Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 238.
A thousand Walla Wallas came to the Sacramento Biver in 1846, to avenge
the death of a young chief killed by an American about a year before. Col-
ton's Three Years in Gal., p. 52. One Flathead is said to be equal to four
Blackfeet in battle. De Smet, Voy., pp. 31, 49; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 312-13;
Gray's Hist. Oi/n., pp. 171-4; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 233-7; Stanley's Por
traits, pp. 65-71; Ind. Life, pp. 23-5; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
iv., p. 495.
PKEPARATION OF SKINS. RIVER-BOATS. 271
together for matting. Rude bowls and spoons are some
times dug out of horn or wood, but the fingers, with
pieces of bark and small mats are the ordinary table
furniture. Skins are dressed by spreading, scraping off
the flesh, and for some purposes the hair, with a sharp
piece of bone, stone, or iron attached to a short handle,
and used like an adze. The skin is then smeared with
the animal's brains, and rubbed or pounded by a very
tedious process till it becomes soft and white, some hides
being previously smoked and bleached with white clay.171
On the lower Columbia the Wascos, Kliketats, Walla
Wallas, and other tribes use dug-out boats like those of
the coast, except that little skill or labor is expended on
their construction or ornamentation; the only requisite
being supporting capacity, as is natural in a country
where canoes play but a small part in the work of pro
curing food. Farther in the interior the mountain tribes
of the Sahaptin family, as the Cayuses and Nez Perces,
make no boats, but use rude rafts or purchase an occa
sional canoe from their neighbors, for the rare cases when
it becomes necessary to transport property across an un-
fordable stream. The Flatheads sew up their lodge-skins
into a temporary boat for the same purpose. On the
Fraser the Kootka dug-out is in use. But on the north
ern lakes and rivers of the interior, the Pend d'Oreille,
Flatbow, Arrow, and Okanagan, northward to the Ta-
171 White marl clay used to cleanse skin robes, by making it into a paste,
rubbing it on the hide and leaving it to dry, after which it is rubbed off.
Saddles usually sit uneasily on the horse's back. Parker's Explor. Tour, pp.
106, 232-4. ' Mallet of stone curiously carved ' among the Sokulks. Near
the Cascades was seen a ladder resembling those used by the whites. The
Pishquitpaws used ' a saddle or pad of dressed skin, stuffed with goats' hair.'
Levo'is and Clarke's Trav., pp. 353, 370, 375, 528. On the Fraser a rough kind
of isinglass was at one time prepared and traded to the Hudson Bay Com
pany. Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 177. ' The Sahaptins still make a kind of vase
of lava, somewhat in the shape of a crucible, but very wide; they use it as a
mortar for pounding the grain, of which they make cakes. ' Domenech's Deserts,
vol. ii., pp. 64, 243. (Undoubtedly an error.) Pend d'Oreilles; 'lesfemmes
font des nattes de joncs, des paniers, et des chapeaux sans bords.'
De Smet, Voy., p. 199. ' Nearly all (the Shushwaps) use the Spanish wooden
saddle, which they make with much skill.' Mayne's B. C., pp. 301-2. 'The
saddles for women differ in form, being furnished with the antlers of a deer,
so as to resemble the high pommelled saddle of the Mexican ladies.' Fran-
chere's Nar., pp. 269-70; Palmer's Jour., p. 129; Irving1 s Astoria, p. 317, 365;
Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 148-9.
272 COLUMBIANS.
cully territory, the natives manufacture and navigate
bark canoes. Both birch and pine are employed, by
stretching it over a cedar hoop-work frame, sewing the
ends with fine roots, and gumming the seams and knots.
The form is very peculiar; the stem and stern are
pointed, but the points are on a level with the bottom
of the boat, and the slope or curve is upward towards
the centre. Travelers describe them as carrying a heavy
load, but easily capsized unless when very skillfully man
aged.172
Horses constitute the native wealth, and poor indeed
is the family which has not for each member, young and
old, an animal to ride, as well as others sufficient to trans
port all the household goods, and to trade for the few
foreign articles needed. The Nez Perces, Cayuses and
Walla Wallas have more and better stock than other
nations, individuals often possessing bands of from one
thousand to three thousand. The Kootenais are the
most northern equestrian tribes mentioned. How the
natives originally obtained horses is unknown, although
there are some slight traditions in support of the natural
supposition thajt they were first introduced from the
south by way of the Shoshones. The latter are one
people with the Comanches, by whom horses were ob
tained during the Spanish expeditions to New Mexico
in the sixteenth century. The horses of the natives are
172 • The white-pine bark is a very good substitute for birch, but has the dis
advantage of being more brittle in cold weather.' Suckky, in Pac. R. R. Kept.,
vol. i., p. 296. Yakima boats are 'simply logs hollowed out and sloped up
at the ends, without form or finish.' Gibbs, in Id., p. 408. The Flatheads
' have no canoes, but in ferrying streams use their lodge skins, which are
drawn up into an oval form by cords, and stretched on a few twigs. These
they tow with horses, riding sometimes three abreast.' Stevens, in Id., p. 415.
In the Kootenai canoe ' the upper part is covered, except a space in the
middle.' The length is twenty-two feet, the bottom being a dead level from
end to end. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 169-70. ' The length of the bottom
of the one I measured was twelve feet, the width between the gunwales ouly
seven and one half feet.' ' When an Indian paddles it, he sits at the extreme
end, and thus sinks the conical point, which serves to steady the canoe like
a fish's tail.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 178-9, 255-7. On the Arrow Lakes
' their form is also peculiar and very beautiful. These canoes run the rapids
with more safety than those of any other shape.' Kane's Wand., p. 328. Sea
De Smet, Voy., pp. 35, 187; Irvinfs Astoria, p. 319; Lewis and Clarke's Trav.,
p. 375; Hector, in Palliser's Explor., p. 27; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854,
pp. 208, 214, 223, 238.
HOESES, PKOPERTY, AND TKADE. 273
of small size, probably degenerated from a superior stock,
but hardy and surefooted ; sustaining hunger and hard
usage better than those of the whites, but inferior to them
in build, action, and endurance. All colors are met with,
spotted and mixed colors being especially prized.173
The different articles of food, skins and grasses for
clothing and lodges and implements, shells and trinkets
for ornamentation and currency are also bartered be
tween the nations, and the annual summer gatherings
on the rivers serve as fairs for the display and exchange
of commodities; some tribes even visit the coast for
purposes of trade. Smoking the pipe often precedes and
follows a trade, and some peculiar commercial customs
prevail, as for instance when a horse dies soon after
purchase, the price may be reclaimed. The rights of
property are jealously defended, but in the Salish na
tions, according to Hale, on the death of a father his
relatives seize the most valuable property with very lit
tle attention to the rights of children too young to look
out for their own interests.174 Indeed, I have heard of
173 « The tradition is that horses were obtained from the southward, ' not
many generations back. Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 247, 177-8. In
dividuals of the Walla Wallas have over one thousand horses. Warre and
Vavasour, in Martin's Hud. Bay, p. 83. Kootenais rich in horses and cat
tle. Palliser's Explor., pp. 44, 73. Kliketat and Yakima horses sometimes
fine, but injured by early usage; deteriorated from a good stock; vicious and
lazy. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405. 'La richesse principale des
sauvages de 1'ouest consiste en chevaux.' De Smet, Voy., pp. 47, 56. At an
assemblage of Walla Wallas, Shahaptains and Kyoots, ' the plains were lit
erally covered with horses, of which there could not have been less than four
thousand in sight of the camp.' Ross' Adven., p. 127. The Kootanies about
Arrow Lake, or Sinatcheggs have no horses, as the country is not suitable
for them. Id., Fur Hunters, vol. ii., pp. 171-2. Of the Spokanes the 'chief
riches are their horses, which they generally obtain in barter from the Nez
Perces.' Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 200. A Skyuse is poor who has but fifteen
or twenty horses. The horses are a fine race, ' as large and of better form
and more activity than most of the horses of the States.' Farnham's Tray.y
p. 82. The Flatheads 'are the most northern of the equestrian tribes. 'Nico-
lay's Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Many Nez Perces 'have from five to fifteen hundred
head of horses.' Palmer's Jour., pp. 128-9. Indians of the Spokane and
Flathead tribes ' own from one thousand to four thousand head of horses
and cattle.' Stevens' Address, p. 12. The Nez Perce horses 'are principally
of the pony breed; but remarkably stout and long- winded.' Irving' s Bonne-
ville's Adven., p. 301; Hastings' Em. Guide, p. 59; /fines' Voy., p. 344; Gass'
Jour., p. 295; Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 230.
174 The Chilluckittequaw intercourse seems to be an intermediate trade
with the nations near the mouth of the Columbia. The Chopunnish trade
for, as well as hunt, buffalo-robes east of the mountains. Course of trade in
VOL. I. 18
274 COLUMBIANS.
deeds of similar import in white races. In decorative
art the inland natives must be pronounced inferior to
those of the coast, perhaps only because they have less
time to devote to such unproductive labor. Sculpture
and painting are rare and exceedingly rude. On the
coast the passion for ornamentation finds vent in carv
ing and otherwise decorating the canoe, house, and im
plements ; in the interior it expends itself on the capari
son of the horse, or in bead and fringe work on garments.
Systems of numeration are simple, progressing by fours,
fives, or tens, according to the different languages, and is
sufficiently extensive to include large numbers ; but the
native rarely has occasion to count beyond a few hun-
•dreds, commonly using his fingers as an aid to his nu
meration. Years are reckoned by winters, divided by
moons into months, and these months named from the
•ripening of some plant, the occurrence of a fishing or
hunting season, or some other periodicity in their lives,
•or by the temperature. Among the Salish the day is
•divided according to the position of the sun into nine
.parts. De Smet states that maps are made on bark or
.skins by which to direct their course on distant excur-
the Sahaptin county: The plain Indians during their stay on the river from
May to September, before they begin fishing, go down to the falls with skins,
mats, silk-grass, rushes and chapelell bread. Here they meet the mountain
tribes from the Kooskooskie (Clearwater) and Lewis rivers, who bring bear-
grass, horses, quamash and a few skins obtained by hunting or by barter
from the Tushepaws. At the falls are the Chilluckittequawrs, Eneeshurs,
Echeloots and Skilloots, the latter being intermediate traders between the
upper and lower tribes. These tribes have pounded fish for sale; and the
Chinooks bring wappato, sea-fish, berries, and trinkets obtained from the
whites. Then the trade begins; the Chopunnish and mountain tribes buy
wappato, pounded fish and beads; and the plain Indians buy wappato,
horses, beads, etc. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 341, 382, 444-5. Horse-
fairs in which the natives display the qualities of their steeds with a view to
sell. Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 86-7. The Oakinacks make trips to the Pacific
to trade wild hemp for hiaqua shells and trinkets. Boss' Adven., pp. 291, 323.
Trade conducted in silence between a Flathead and Crow. De Smet, Voy., p.
56. Kliketats and Yakimas ' have become to the neighboring tribes what the
Yankees were to the once Western States, the traveling retailers of notions.'
Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 403, 406. Cayuses, Walla Wallas, and
Nez Perces meet in Grande Konde Valley to trade with the Snakes. Thorn
ton's Ogn, and Cal., vol. i., p. 270; Hole's Etlinog. in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi.,
p. 208; Cox's Adven., vol. ii., pp. 88-9, 156; Palmer's Jour., pp. 46, 54; Dun-
niway's Capt. Gray's Comp., p. 160; Coke's Rocky Mis., p. 294; Mayne's B. C.,
p. 299; Gass' Jour., p. 205.
CHIEFS AND THEIR AUTHORITY. 275
sions, and that they are guided at night by the polar
star.175
War chiefs are elected for their bravery and past suc
cess, having full authority in all expeditions, marching
at the head of their forces, and, especially among the
Flatheads, maintaining the strictest discipline, even to
the extent of inflicting flagellation on insubordinates.
With the war their power ceases, yet they make no. effort
by partiality during office to insure re-election, and sub
mit without complaint to a successor. Except by the
war chiefs no real authority is exercised. The regular
chieftainship is hereditary so far as any system is ob
served, but chiefs who have raised themselves to their
position by their merits are mentioned among nearly
all the nations. The leaders are always men of com
manding influence and often of great intelligence. They
take the lead in haranguing at the councils of wise men,
which meet to smoke and deliberate on matters of public
moment. These councils decide the amount of fine ne
cessary to atone for murder, theft, and the few crimes
known to the native code; a fine, the chief's reprimand,
and rarely flogging, probably not of native origin, are
the only punishments ; and the criminal seldom attempts
to escape. As the more warlike nations have especial
chiefs with real power in time of war, so the fishing
tribes, some of them, grant great authority to a 'salmon
chief during the fishing-season. But the regular inland
"5 In calculating time the Okanagans use their fingers, each finger stand
ing for ten; some will reckon to a thousand with tolerable accuracy, but most
can scarcely count to twenty. Ross' Adven., p. 324. The Flatheads 'font
neamnoins avec precision, sur des ecorces d'arbres ou sur des peaux le plan,
des pays qu'ils ont parcourus, marquant les distances par journees, demi-
journees ou quarts de journees.' De Smet, Voy., p. 205. Count years by
snows, months by moons, and days by sleeps. Have names for each num
ber up to ten; then add ten to each; and then add a word to multiply by
ten. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 242. Names of the months in the Pisquouse
and Salish languages beginning with January; — 'cold, a certain herb, snow-
gone, bitter-root, going to root-ground, camass-root, hot, gathering berries,
exhausted salmon, dry, house-building, snow.' Hale's Ethnofj., in U. 8. Ek.
Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. ' Menses computant lunis, ex spkanf, sol vel lima et dies
per ferias. Hebdomadam unicam per splchaskat, septem dies, plures vero
hebdomadas per s'chaxeus, id est, vexillum quod a duce maximo qualibet die
dominica suspendebatur. Dies autem in novem dividitur partes.' Mengarini,
Grammatiea Linguae Selicae, p. 120; Sproat's Scenes, p. 270; Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., p. 374.
276 COLUMBIANS.
chiefs never collect taxes nor presume to interfere with
the rights or actions of individuals or families.176 Pris
oners of war, not killed by torture, are made slaves, but
they are few in number, and their children are adopted
into the victorious tribe. Hereditary slavery and the
slave-trade are unknown. The Shushwaps are said to
have no slaves.177
In choosing a helpmate, or helpmates, for his bed and
board, 'the inland native makes capacity for work the
standard of female excellence, and having made a selec
tion buys a wife from her parents by the payment of
an amount of property, generally horses, which among
the southern nations must be equaled by the girl's par
ents. Often a betrothal is made by parents while both
176 The twelve Oakinack tribes ' form, as it were, so many states belonging
to the same union, and are governed by petty chiefs.' The chieftainship
descends from father to son; and though merely nominal in authority, the
chief is rarely disobeyed. Property pays for all crimes. Ross' Adven., pp.
289-94, 322-3, 327. The Chualpays are governed by the ' chief of the earth '
and ' chief of the waters, ' the latter having exclusive authority in the fishing-
season. Kane's Wand., pp. 309-13. The Nez Perces offered a Flathead the
position of head chief, through admiration of his qualities. De Smet, Voy.,
pp. 50, 171. Among the Kalispels the chief appoints his successor, or if he
fails to do so, one is elected. De Smet, Western Miss., p. 297. The Flathead war
chief carries a long whip, decorated with scalps and feathers to enforce strict
discipline. The principal chief is hereditary. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 241-2,
vol. ii., p. 88. The 'camp chief of the Flatheads as well as the war chief
was chosen for his merits. Ind. Life, pp. 28-9. Among the Nez Perces and
Wascos ' the form of government is patriarchal. They acknowledge the he
reditary principle — blood generally decides who shall be the chief.' Alvord, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 652-4. No regularly recognized chief among
the Spok'anes, but an intelligent and rich man often controls the tribe by his
influence. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 475-6. 'The Salish
can hardly be said to have any regular form of government. ' Hale's Ethnog., in
U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 207-8. Every winter the Cayuses go down to the
Dalles to hold a council over the Chinooks ' to ascertain their misdemeanors
and punish them therefor by whipping '! Farnham's Trav., p. 81-2. Among
the Salish ' criminals are sometimes punished by banishment from their tribe.'
' Fraternal union and the obedience to the chiefs are truly admirable.' Dom-
enech's Deserts, vol.jii., pp. 343-4; Nines' Voy., p. 157 -^Stanley's Portraits, p. 63;
Dunn's Oregon, pp. 311-12; White's Oregon, p. 189; Pickering's Races, in U. 8.
Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108; Joset, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., torn, cxxiii, 1849,
pp. 334-40.
177 ' Slavery is common with all the tribes.' Warre and Vavasour, in Mar
tin's Hud. B., p. 83. Sahaptins always make slaves of prisoners of war. The
Cayuses have many. Alvord, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 654; Palmer's
Jour., p. 56. Among the Okanagans ' there are but few slaves . . . and these few
are adopted as children, and treated in all respects as members of the family.'
Ross' Adven., p. 320. The inland tribes formerly practiced slavery, but long
since abolished it. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 247. ' Not practised in the in
terior.' Mayne's S. C., p. 243. Not practiced by the Shushwaps. Anderson,
in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 78.
FAMILY RELATIONS. 277
parties are yet children, and such a contract, guaranteed
by an interchange of presents, is rarely broken. To
give away a wife without a price is in the highest degree
disgraceful to her family. Besides payment of the price,
generally made for the suitor by his friends, courtship
in some nations includes certain visits to the bride before
marriage ; and the Spokane suitor must consult both the
chief and the young lady, as well as her parents ; indeed
the latter may herself propose if she wishes. Runaway
matches are not unknown, but by the Nez Perces the
woman is in such cases considered a prostitute, and the
bride's parents may seize upon the man's property. Many
tribes seem to require no marriage ceremony, but in others
an assemblage of friends for smoking and feasting is
called for on such occasions; and among the Flatheads
more complicated ceremonies are mentioned, of which
long lectures to the couple, baths, change of clothing,
torch-light processions, and dancing form a part. In the
married state the wife must do all the heavy work and
drudgery, but is not otherwise ill treated, and in most
tribes her rights are equally respected with those of the
husband.
When there are several wives each occupies a separate
lodge, or at least has a separate fire. Among the Spo-
kanes a man marrying out of his own tribe joins that of
his wife, because she can work better in a country to
which she is accustomed; and in the same nation all
household goods are considered as the wife's property.
The man who marries the eldest daughter is entitled to
all the rest, and parents make no objection to his turn
ing off one in another's favor. Either party may dis
solve the marriage at will, but property must be equita
bly divided, the children going with the mother. Dis
carded wives are often reinstated. If a Kliketat wife
die soon after marriage, the husband may reclaim her
price ; the Nez Perce may not marry for a year after her
death, but he is careful to avoid the inconvenience of
this regulation by marrying just before that event. The
Salish widow must remain a widow for about two years;
278 COLUMBIANS.
and then must marry agreeably to her mother-in-law's
taste or forfeit her husband's property.178 The women
make faithful, obedient wives and affectionate mothers.
Incontinence in either girls or married women is ex
tremely rare, and prostitution almost unknown, being
severely punished, especially among the Nez Perces. In
this respect the inland tribes present a marked contrast
their coast neighbors.179 At the first appearance of
e menses the woman must retire from the sight of all,
\to
kh
husband. Brawls constantly occur when several wives meet. The women
are chaste, and attached to husband and children. At the age of fourteen
or fifteen the young man pays his addresses in person to the object of his
love, aged eleven or twelve. After the old folks are in bed, he goes to her
wigwam, builds a fire, and if welcome the mother permits the girl to come
and sit with him for a short time. These visits are several times repeated,
and he finally goes in the day-time with friends and his purchase money.
Ross' Adven., pp. 295-302. The Spokane husband joins his wife's tribe;
•women are held in great respect; and much affection is shown for chil
dren. Among the Nez Perces both men and women have the power of
dissolving the marriage tie at pleasure. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
iv., pp. 410, 475-6, 486, 495. The Coeurs d'Alene 'have abandoned po
lygamy.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 149, 309; Gibbs, in Puc.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 406. Pend d'Oreille women less enslaved than in
the mountains, but yet have much heavy work, paddle canoes, etc. Gen
erally no marriage among savages. De Smet, Voy., pp. 198-9, 210. The Nez
Perces generally confine themselves to two wives, and rarely marry cousins.
No wedding ceremony. Alvord, in Sehoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 655. Po
lygamy not general on the Eraser; and unknown to Kootenais. Cox's Adven.,
vol. ii., pp. 155, 379, vol. i., pp. 256-9. Nez Perces have abandoned polyg
amy. Palmer's Jour., pp. 129, 56. Flathead women do everything but hunt
and fight. 2nd. Life, p. 41. Flathead women 'by no means treated as slaves,
but, on the contrary, have much consideration and authority.' Hole's Ethnog.,
in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 207. 'Karely marry out of their own nation,'
and do not like their women to marry whites. Dunn's Oregon, pp. 313-14.
The Sokulk men ' are said to content themselves with a single wife, with
whom .... the husband shares the labours of procuring subsistence much more
than is usual among savages.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 351; Dunniway's
Capt. Gray's Comp., p. 161; Gray's Hist. Ogn., p. 171; Tolmie and Anderson,
in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-5; Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 208; De Smet's
West. Miss., p. 289.
179 The wife of a young Kootenai left him for another, whereupon he shot
himself. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 169. Among the Flatheads ' conjugal
infidelity is scarcely known.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 311. The Sahaptins 'do not
exhibit those loose feelings of carnal desire, nor appear addicted to the com
mon customs of prostitution.' Gass' Jour., p. 275. Inland tribes have a
reputation for chastity, probably due to circumstances rather than to fixed
principles. Mayne's R. C., p. 300. Spokanes 'free from the vice of incon
tinence.' Among the Walla Wallas prostitution is unknown, 'and I believe
no inducement would tempt them to commit a breach of chastity. ' Prostitu
tion common on the Eraser. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 145, 199-200. Nez
Perce women remarkable for their chastity. Alvord, in Sehoolcraft's Arch..
vol. v., p. 655.
WOMEN AND CHILDBEN. 279
especially men, for a period varying from ten days to a
month, and on each subsequent occasion for two or three
days, and must be purified by repeated ablutions before
she may resume her place in the household. Also at the
time of her confinement she is deemed unclean, and must
remain for a few weeks in a separate lodge, attended
generally by an old woman. The inland woman is not
prolific, and abortions are not uncommon, which may
probably be attributed in great measure to her life of
labor and exposure. Children are not weaned till be
tween one and two years of age; sometimes not until
they abandon the breast of their own accord or are sup
planted by a new arrival ; yet though subsisting on the
mother's milk alone, and exposed with slight clothing to
all extremes of weather, they are healthy and robust,
being carried about in a rude cradle on the mother's
back, or mounted on colts and strapped to the saddle
that they may not fall off when asleep. After being
weaned the child is named after some animal, but the
name is changed frequently later in life180 Although
children and old people are as a rule kindly cared for,
yet so great the straits to which the tribes are reduced
by circumstances, that both are sometimes abandoned if
not put to death.181
iso In the Salish family on the birth of a child wealthy relatives make
presents of food and clothing. The Nez Perce mother gives presents but
receives none on such an occasion. The Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles
bandage the waist and legs of infants with a view to producing broad-shoul
dered, small-waisted and straight-limbed adults. Tohnie and Anderson, in
Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 231-2. Among the Walla Wallas ' when traveling
a hoop, bent over the head of the child, protects it from injury.' The con
finement after child-birth continues forty days. At the first menstruation
the Spokane woman must conceal herself two days in the forest; for a man
to see her would be fatal; she must then be confined for twenty days longer
in a separate lodge. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 426-8, 485.
The Okanagan mother is not allowed to prepare her unborn infant's swad
dling clothes, which consist of a piece of board, a bit of skin, a bunch of
moss, and a string. Ross' Adven., pp. 324-30. ' Small children, not more
than three years old, are mounted alone and generally upon colts.' Younger
ones are carried on the mother's back ' or suspended from a high knob upon
the forepart of their saddles.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 98. Houses among
the Chopunnish ' appropriated for women who are undergoing the opera
tion of the menses.' 'When anything is to be conveyed to these deserted
females, the person throws it to them forty or fifty paces off, and then re
tires.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 539; Townsend's Nar., p. 78; Alvord, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 655.
!8i With the Pend d'Oreilles 'it was not uncommon for them to bury th-
280 COLUMBIANS.
The annual summer gathering on the river banks for
fishing and trade, and, among the mountain nations, the
return from a successful raid in the enemy's country, are
the favorite periods for native diversions.182 To gamb
ling they are no less passionately addicted in the interior
than on the coast,183 but even in this universal Indian
vice, their preference for horse-racing, the noblest form
of gaming, raises them above their stick- shuffling breth
ren of -the Pacific. On the speed of his horse the native
stakes all he owns, and is discouraged only when his
animal is lost, and with it the opportunity to make up
past losses in another race. Foot-racing and target-
shooting, in which men, women and children participate,
also afford them indulgence in their gambling propensi
ties and at the same time develop their bodies by exer
cise, and perfect their skill in the use of their native
^weapon.184 The Colvilles have a game, alkollock, played
very old and the very young alive, because, they said, "these cannot take care
of themselves, and we cannot take care of them, and they had better die."
Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 211; Buckley, in Pac. It. fi. Kept., vol. i.,
p. 297; Domemch's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 328; White's Ogn., p. 96; Cox's Adven.,
,vol. i., pp, 148-9.
182 In the Yakima Valley ' we visited every street, alley, hole and corner
of the camp .... Here was gambling, there scalp-dancing ; laughter in one
place, mourning in another. Crowds were passing to and fro, whooping, yell
ing, dancing, drumming, singing. Men, women, and children were huddled
together; flags flying, horses neighing, dogs howling, chained bears, tied
wolves, grunting and growling, all pell-mell among the tents.' Ross' Fur
[Hunters, vol. i., p. 28. At Kettle Falls 'whilst awaiting the coming salmon,
the scene is one great revel: horse-racing, gambling, love-making, dancing,
and diversions of all sorts, occupy the singular assembly; for at these an
nual gatherings. . . .feuds and dislikes are for the time laid by.' Lord's Nat.,
vol. i., pp. 72-3.
183 The principal amusement of the Okanagans is gambling, ' at which
they are not so quarrelsome as the Spokans and other tribes, ' disputes be
ing settled by arbitration. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 88. A young man
at Kettle Falls committed suicide, having lost everything at gambling.
j Kane's Wand., pp. 309-10. ' Les Indiens de la Colombie ont porte les jeux
de hasard au dernier exces. Apres avoir perdu tout ce qu'ils ont, ils se met-
tent eux-memes sur le tapis, d'abord une main, ensuite 1'autre; s'ils les
perdent, les bras, et ainsi de suite tous les membres du corps; la tete suit,
et s'ils la perdent, ils deviennent esclaves pour la vie avec leurs femmes et
leurs enfants.' De Smet, Voy., pp. 49-50. Many Kooteneais have abandoned
gambling. DeSmet, West. M iss., p. 300. ' Whatever the poor Indian can call
his own, is ruthlessly sacrificed to this Moloch of human weakness.' Ind.
Life, p. 42; Irving' s Bonneville's Adven., p. 102-3.
184 Spokanes; 'one of their great amusements is horse-racing.' Wilkes'
\Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 487. Kliketats and Yakimas; ' the racing
season is the grand annual occasion of these tribes. A horse of proved repu
tation is a source of wealth or ruin to his owner. On his speed he stakes his
GAMES IN THE INTERIOR. 281
with spears. A wooden ring some three inches in diam
eter is rolled over a level space between two slight stick
barriers about forty feet apart ; when the ring strikes the
barrier the spear is hurled so that the ring will fall over
its head ; and the number scored by the throw depends
on which of six colored beads, attached to the hoop's
inner circumference, falls over the spear's head.185 The
almost universal Columbian game of guessing which hand
contains a small polished bit of bone or wood is also a
favorite here, and indeed the only game of the kind
mentioned; it is played, to the accompaniment of songs
and drumming, by parties sitting in a circle on mats, the
shuffler's hands being often wrapped in fur, the better to
deceive the players.186 All are excessively fond of danc
ing and singing; but their songs and dances, practiced
on all possible occasions, have not been, if indeed they
can be, described. They seem merely a succession of
sounds and motions without any fixed system. Found
ing on rude drums of hide accompanies the songs, which
are sung without words, and in which some listeners have
detected a certain savage melody. Scalp-dances are per
formed by women hideously painted, who execute their
diabolical antics in the centre of a circle formed by the
rest of the tribe who furnish music to the dancers.187
whole stud, his household goods, clothes, and finally his wives; and a single
heat doubles his fortune, or sends him forth an impoverished adventurer.
The interest, however is not confined to the individual directly concerned;
the tribe share it with him, and a common pile of goods, of motley descrip
tion, apportioned according to their ideas of value, is put up by either party,
to be divided among the backers of the winner.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,
vol. i., pp. 401, 412. ' Running horses and foot-races by men, women and
children, and they have games of chance played with sticks or bones;' do
not drink to excess. Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 237, 406. Lewis and Clarke's
Trav, pp. 557; Franchere's Nar., p. 269.
18^ Kane's Wand., pp. 310-11.
186 The principal Okanagan amusement is a game called by the voyageurs
' jeu de main,' like our odd and even. Wilkes' Nor., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., p. 463.
It sometimes takes a week to decide the game. The loser never repines.
Ross' Adven., pp. 308-11; Stuart's Montana, p. 71.
187 Among the Wahowpums ' the spectators formed a circle round the
dancers, who, with their robes drawn tightly round the shoulders, and di
vided into parties of five or six men, perform by crossing in a line from one
side of the circle to the other. All the parties, performers as well as spec
tators, stag, and after proceeding in this way for some time, the spectators
join, and the whole concludes by a promiscuous dance and song.' The
Walla Wallas ' were formed into a solid column, round a kind of hollow
282 COLUMBIANS.
All are habitual smokers, always inhaling the smoke in
stead of puffing it out after the manner of more civilized
devotees of the weed. To obtain tobacco the native will
part with almost any other property, but no mention is
made of any substitute used in this region before the
white man came. Besides his constant use of the pipe
as an amusement or habit, the inland native employs it
regularly to clear his brain for the transaction of im
portant business. Without the pipe no war is declared,
no peace officially ratified; in all promises and contracts
it serves as the native pledge of honor; with ceremonial
whiffs to the cardinal points the wise men open and
close the deliberations of their councils; a commercial
smoke clinches a bargain, as it also opens negotiations of
trade.188
The use of the horse has doubtless been a most
powerful agent in molding inland customs ; and yet the
introduction of the horse must have been of compara
tively recent date. What were the customs and charac
ter of these people, even when America was first discov
ered by the Spaniards, must ever be unknown. It is by
no means certain that the possession of the horse has ma
terially bettered their condition. Indeed, by facilitating
the capture of buffalo, previously taken perhaps by strat
agem, by introducing a medium with which at least the
wealthy may always purchase supplies, as well as by ren
dering practicable long migrations for food and trade, the
square, stood on the same place, and merely jumped up at intervals, to keep
time to the music.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 526, 531. Nez Perces
dance round a pole on Sundays, and the chiefs exhort during the pauses.
Irving's Bonnemlle's Adven., pp. 101-2, 245. In singing 'they use hi, ah, in
constant repetition,. . . .and instead of several parts harmonizing, they only
take eighths one above another, never exceeding three.' Parker's Explor.
Tour, pp. 242-3. ' The song was a simple expression of a few sounds, no
intelligible words being uttered. It resembled the words ho-ha-ho-ha-ho-ha-
ha-ha, commencing in a low tone, and gradually swelling to a full, round,
and beautifully modulated chorus.' Townsend's Nar., p. 106. Chualpay
scalp-dance. Kane's Wand., p. 315. Religious songs. Dunn's Oregon, pp.
338-40; Palmer's Jour., p. 124.
188 De Smet thinks inhaling tobacco smoke may prevent its injurious
effects. Voy., p. 207. In all religious ceremonies the pipe of peace is smoked.
Ross' Adven., pp. 288-9. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 286; Nines' Voy., p. 184.
'The medicine-pipe is a sacred pledge of friendship among all the north
western tribes.' Stevens, in Lid. Aff. EepL, 1854, p. 220.
TREATMENT OF HOUSES. 283
horse may have contributed somewhat to their present
spirit of improvidence. The horses feed in large droves,
each marked with some sign of ownership, generally by
clipping the ears, and when required for use are taken by
the lariat, in the use of which all the natives have some
skill, though far inferior to the Mexican vaqueros. The
method of breaking and training horses is a quick and
an effectual one. It consists of catching and tying the
animal; then buffalo-skins and other objects are thrown
at and upon the trembling beast, until all its fear is
frightened out of it. When willing to be handled,
horses are treated with great kindness, but when re
fractory, the harshest measures are adopted. They are
well trained to the saddle, and accustomed to be mount
ed from either side. They are never shod and never
taught to trot. The natives are skillful riders, so far as
the ability to keep their seat at great spaed over a rough
country is concerned, but they never ride gracefully, and
rarely if ever perform the wonderful feats of horseman
ship so often attributed to the western Indians. A loose
girth is used under which to insert the knees when rid
ing a wild horse. They are hard riders, and horses in
use always have sore backs and mouths. Women ride
astride, and quite as well as the men; children also
learn to ride about as early as to walk.189 Each nation
has its superstitions; by each individual is recognized
the influence of unseen powers, exercised usually through
the medium of his medicine animal chosen early in life.
The peculiar customs arising from this belief in the
supernatural are not very numerous or complicated, and
belong rather to the religion of these people treated else
where. The Pend d'Oreille, on approaching manhood,
189 In moving, the girls and small boys ride three or four on a horse with
their mothers, while the men drive the herds of horses that run loose ahead.
Lord's Nat., vol. i., pp. 71-3, 306. Horses left for months without a guard,
and rarely stray far. They call this 'caging' them. De Srnet, Voy., pp. 187,
47, 56. ' Babies of fifteen months old, packed in a sitting posture, rode
along without fear, grasping the reins with their tiny hands.' Stevens, in Pac.
R. R. Kept., vol. xii., pt. ii., p. 130, with plate; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept.,
vol. i., pp. 404-5; Palliser's Kept., p. 73; Farnham's Trar., pp. 81-2; Lorn-
enech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64; Irving' s Astoria, p. 365; Franchere's Nar., pp.
269-71; Cox's Adven., vol. ii., pp. 110-11.
284 COLUMBIANS.
was sent by his father to a high mountain and obliged
to remain until he dreamed of some animal, bird, or fish,
thereafter to be his medicine, whose claw, tooth, or feather
was worn as a charm. The howling of the medicine-wolf
and some other beasts forebodes calamity, but by the
Okanagans the white- wolf skin is held as an emblem of
royalty, and its possession protects the horses of the
tribe from evil-minded wolves. A ram's horns left in
the trunk of a tree where they were fixed by the mis
directed zeal of their owner in attacking a native, were
much venerated by the Flatheads, and gave them power
over all animals so long as they made frequent offerings
at the foot of the tree. The Nez Perces had a peculiar
custom of overcoming the mawish or spirit of fatigue,
and thereby acquiring remarkable powers of endurance.
The ceremony is performed annually from the age of
eighteen to forty, lasts each time from three to seven
days, and consists of thrusting willow sticks down the
throat into the stomach, a succession of hot and cold
baths, and abstinence from food. Medicine-men acquire
or renew their wonderful powers by retiring to the
mountains to confer with the wolf. They are then in
vulnerable ; a bullet fired at them flattens on their breast.
To allowing their portraits to be taken, or to the opera
tions of strange apparatus they have the same aversion
that has been noted on the coast.190 Steam baths are
universally used, not for motives of cleanliness, but some
times for medical purposes, and chiefly in their supersti
tious ceremonies of purification. The bath-house is a
hole dug in the ground from three to eight feet deep,
and sometimes fifteen feet in diameter, in some locality
where wood and water are at hand, often in the river
bank. It is also built above ground of willow branches
covered with grass and earth. Only a small hole is left
wo 'L'aigle est le grand oiseati cle medecine.' De Smet, Voy., pp. 46,
205; Wilkes' Nar., in U. IS. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp. 494-5; Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1 '
R. li.
Ross'
1, 318.
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. 285
for entrance, and this is closed up after the bather en
ters. Stones are heated by a fire in the bath itself, or
are thrown in after being heated outside. In this oven,
heated to a suffocating temperature, the naked native
revels for a long time in the steam and mud, mean
while singing, howling, praying, and finally rushes out
dripping with perspiration, to plunge into the nearest
stream.191 Every lodge is surrounded by a pack of worth
less coyote-looking curs. These are sometimes made to
carry small burdens on their backs when the tribe is
moving; otherwise no use is made of them, as they are
never eaten, and, with perhaps the exception of a breed
owned by the Okanagans, are never trained to hunt. I
give in a note a few miscellaneous customs noticed by
travelers.192
These natives of the interior are a healthy but not a
very long-lived race. Ophthalmia, of which the sand,^
smoke of the lodges, and reflection of the sun's rays on
the lakes are suggested as the causes, is more or less
prevalent throughout the territory ; scrofulous complaints
and skin-eruptions are of frequent occurrence, especially
in the Sahaptin family. Other diseases are compara
tively rare, excepting of course epidemic disorders like
191 Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 343-4; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 241-2;
Ross' Adven., pp. 311-12.
W2 The Walla Wallas receive bad news with a howl. The Spokanes ' cache '
their salmon. They are willing to change names with any one they esteem.
' Suicide prevails more among the Indians of the Columbia Eiver than in any
other portion of the continent which I have visited.' Kane's Wand., pp. 282-3,
307-10. ' Preserve particular order in their movements. The first chief leads
the way, the next chiefs follow, then the common men, and after these the
women and children.' They arrange themselves in similar order in coming
forward to receive visitors. Do not usually know their own age. Parker's
Explor. Tour, pp. 87, 133-4, 242. Distance is calculated by time; a day's
ride is seventy miles on horseback, thirty-five miles on foot. Ross' Adven.,
p. 329. Natives can tell by examining arrows to what tribe they belong. Ross'
Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 167. Kliketats and Yakimas often unwilling to tell
their name. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 405. 'D'apres toutes les
observations que j'ai faites, leur journee equivaut a peu pres a cinquante ou
soixante milles anglais lorsqu'ils voyagent seuls, et a quinze ou vingt millesl
seulement lorsqu'ils levent leur camps.' De Smet, Voy., p. 205. Among the1
Nez Perces everything was promulgated by criers. ' The office of crier is
generally filled by some old man, who is good for little else. A village has
generally several.' Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 286. Habits of worship
of the Flatheads in the missions. Dunn's Oregon, pp. 315-6. ' A pack of prick-
eared curs, simply tamed prairie wolves, always in attendance.' Lord's Nat.,
vol. i., pp. 71-3.
286 COLUMBIANS.
small-pox and measles contracted from the whites, which
have caused great havoc in nearly all the tribes. Hot
and cold baths are the favorite native remedy for all
their ills, but other simple specifics, barks, herbs, and
gums are employed as well. Indeed, so efficacious is
their treatment, or rather, perhaps, so powerful with
them is nature in resisting disease, that when the lo
cality or cause of irregularity is manifest, as in the case
of wounds, fractures, or snake-bites, remarkable cures
are ascribed to these people. But here as elsewhere, the
sickness becoming at all serious or mysterious, medical
treatment proper is altogether abandoned, and the pa
tient committed to the magic powers of the medicine
man. In his power either to cause or cure disease at
will implicit confidence is felt, and failure to heal indi
cates no lack of skill ; consequently the doctor is respon
sible for his patient's recovery, and in case of death is
liable to, and often does, answer with his life, so that a
natural death among the medical fraternity is extremely
rare. His only chance of escape is to persuade relatives
of the dead that his ill success is attributable to the evil
influence of a rival physician, who is the one to die; or
in some cases a heavy ransom soothes the grief of mourn
ing friends and avengers. One motive of the Cayuses
in the massacre of the Whitman family is supposed to
have been the missionary's failure to cure the measles in
the tribe. He had done his best to relieve the sick, and
his power to effect in all cases a complete cure was un
questioned by the natives. The methods by which the
medicine-man practices his art are very uniform in all
the nations. The patient is stretched on his back in the
centre of a large lodge, and his friends few or many sit
about him in a circle, each provided with sticks where
with to drum. The sorcerer, often grotesquely painted,
enters the ring, chants a song, and proceeds to force the
evil spirit from the sick man by pressing both clenched
fists with all his might in the pit of his stomach, knead
ing and pounding also other parts of the bodj^, blowing
occasionally through his own fingers, and sucking blood
MEDICAL PKACTICE. 287
from the part supposed to be affected. The spectators
pound with their sticks, and all, including doctor, and
often the patient in spite of himself, keep up a continual
song or yell. There is, however, some method in this
madness, and when the routine is completed it is again
begun, and thus repeated for several hours each day un
til the case is decided. In many nations the doctor
finally extracts the spirit, in the form of a small bone or
other object, from the patient's body or mouth by some
trick of legerdemain, and this once secured, he assures
the surrounding friends that the tormentor having been
thus removed, recovery must soon follow.193
193 The Nez Perces ' are generally healthy, the only disorders \vhich we
have had occasion to remark being of scrophulous kind.' With the Sokulks
'a bad soreness of the eyes is a very common disorder.' 'Bad teeth are
very general.' The Chilluckittequaws' diseases are sore eyes, decayed teeth,
and tumors. The Walla Wallas have ulcers and eruptions of the skin, and
occasionally rheumatism. The Chopunnish had 'scrofula, rheumatism, and
sore eyes,' and a few have entirely lost the use of their limbs. Lewis and
Clarke's Trav., pp. 3il, 332, 382, 531, 519. The medicine-man uses a medicine-
bag of relics in his incantations. Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 240-1. The Okan-
agan medicine-men are called tlaquilkiughs, and ' are men generally past the
meridian of life; in their habits grave and sedate.' 'They possess a good
knowledge of herbs and roots, and their virtues.' I have often 'seen him
throw out whole ruouthfuls of blood, and yet not the least mark would appear
on the skin.' ' I once saw an Indian who had been nearly devoured by a griz
zly bear, and had his skull split open in several places, and several pieces of
bone taken out just above the brain, and measuring three-fourths of an inch
in length, cured so effectually by one of these jugglers, that in less than two
months after he was riding on his horse again at the chase. I have also seen
them cut open the belly with a knife, extract a large quantity of fat from the
inside, sew up the part again, and the patient soon after perfectly recovered.'
The most frequent diseases are ' indigestion, fluxes, asthmas, and consump
tions. ' Instances of longevity rare. Ross' Adven., pp. 302-8. A desperate case
of consumption cured by killing a dog each day for thirty-two days, ripping
it open and placing the patient's legs in the warm intestines, administering
some barks meanwhile. The Flatheads subject to few diseases; splints used
for fractures, bleeding with sharp flints for contusions, ice-cold baths for ordi
nary rheumatism, and vapor bath with cold plunge for chronic rheumatism.
Cox's Adven., vol. ii., pp. 90-3, vol. i., pp. 248-51. Among the Walla Wallas
convalescents are directed to sing some hours each day. The Spokanes re
quire all garments, etc., about the death-bed to be buried with the body,
hence few comforts for the sick. Willces' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., pp.
426-7, 485. The Flatheads say their wounds cure themselves. De Smet, Voy.t
pp. 198-200. The Wascos cure rattlesnake bites by salt applied to the wound
or by whisky taken internally. Kane's Wand., pp. 265, 273, 317-18. A fe
male doctor's throat cut by the father of a patient she had failed to cure.
Hines' Voy., p. 190. The office of medicine-men among the Sahaptins is
generally hereditary. Men often die from fear of a medicine-man's evil
glance. Kival doctors work on the fears of patients to get each other killed.
Murders of doctors somewhat rare among the Nez Perces. Alvord, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 652-3, 655. Small-pox seems to have come among
the Yakimas and Kliketats before direct intercourse with whites. Gibbs, in
288 COLUMBIANS.
Grief at the death of a relative is manifested by cut
ting the hair and smearing the face with black. The
women also howl at intervals for a period of weeks or
even months; but the men on ordinary occasions rarely
make open demonstrations of sorrow, though they some
times shed tears at the death of a son. Several instances
of suicide in mourning are recorded; a Walla Walla
chieftain caused himself to be buried alive in the grave
with the last of his five sons. The death of a wife or
daughter is deemed of comparatively little consequence.
In case of a tribal disaster, as the death of a prominent
chief, or the killing of a band of warriors by a hostile
tribe, all indulge in the most frantic demonstrations,
tearing the hair, lacerating the flesh with flints, often in
flicting serious injury. The sacrifice of human life, gen
erally that of a slave, was practiced, but apparently no
where as a regular part of the funeral rites. Among the
Flatheads the bravest of the men and women ceremo
nially bewail the loss of a warrior by cutting out pieces
of their own flesh and casting them with roots and other
articles into the fire. A long time passes before a dead
person's name is willingly spoken in the tribe. The
corpse is commonly disposed of by wrapping in or
dinary clothing and burying in the ground without a
coffin. The northern tribes sometimes suspended the
body in a canoe from a tree, while those in the south
formerly piled their dead in wooden sheds or sepulchres
above ground. The Okanagans often bound the body
upright to the trunk of a tree. Property was in all
cases sacrificed; horses usually, and slaves sometimes,
killed on the grave. The more valuable articles of wealth
were deposited with the body; the rest suspended on
poles over and about the grave or left on the surface of
the ground ; always previously damaged in such manner
as not to tempt the sacrilegious thief, for their places of
Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 408. A Nez Perce doctor killed by a
brother of a man who had shot himself in mourning for his dead relative ;
the brother in turn killed, and several other lives lost. Ross' Fur Hunters,
vol. i., p. 239.
CHARACTER OF THE INLAND TRIBES. 289
burial are held most sacred. Mounds of stones sur
mounted with crosses indicate in later times the conver
sion of the natives to a foreign religion.194
In character and in morals,195 as well as in physique, the
194 The Sokulks wrap the dead in skins, bury them in graves, cover with
earth, and mark the grave by little pickets of wood struck over and about it.
On the Columbia below the Snake was a shed-tomb sixty by twelve feet, open
at the ends, standing east and west. Recently dead bodies wrapped in leather
and arranged on boards at the west end. About the centre a promiscuous
heap of partially decayed corpses ; and at eastern end a mat with twenty-one
skulls arranged in a circle. Articles of property suspended on the inside
and skeletons of horses scattered outside. About the Dalles eight vaults of
boards eight feet square, and six feet high, and all the walls decorated with
pictures and carvings. The bodies were laid east and west. Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., pp. 344-5, 359-60, 379-80, 557-8. Okanagans observe silence about
the death-bed, but the moment the person dies the house is abandoned, and
clamorous mourning is joined in by all the camp for some hours; then dead
silence while the body is wrapped in a new garment, brought out, and the
lodge torn down. Then alternate mourning and silence, and the deceased is
buried in a sitting posture in a round hole. Widows must mourn two years,
incessantly for some months, then only morning and evening. Ross' Adven.,
pp. 321-2. Frantic mourning, cutting the flesh, etc., by Nez Perces. Ross'
Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 234-5, 238-9, vol. ii., p. 139. Destruction of horses
and other property by Spokanes. Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 200-1. A shush-
wap widow instigates the murder of a victim as a sacrifice to her husband.
The horses of a Walla Walla chief not used after his death. Kane's Wand.,
pp. 178-9, 264-5, 277, 289. Hundreds of Wasco bodies piled in a small
house on an island, just below the Dalles. A Walla Walla chief caused him
self to be buried alive in the grave of his last son. Hines1 Voy., pp. 159,
184-8. Among the Yakimas and Kliketats the women do the mourning, liv
ing apart for a few days, and then bathing. Okanagan bodies strapped to a
tree. Stone mounds over Spokane graves. Gibbs and Stevens, in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 413, vol. xii., pt. i., p. 150. Pend d'Oreilles buried old
and young alive when unable to take care of them. Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp.
211, 238. 'High conical stacks of drift-wood' over Walla Walla graves.
Townsend's Nar., p. 157. Shushwaps often deposit dead in trees. If in the
ground, always cover grave with stones. Mayne's B. C., p. 304. Killing a
slave by Wascos. White's Oyn., pp. 260-3. Dances and prayers for three
days at Nez Perce chief's burial. Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 283. Bury
ing infant with parents by Flatheads. De Smet, Voy., p. 173. Light wooden
palings about Shush wap graves. Milton and Cheadle's Northw. Pass., p. 242;
Alvord, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 655; Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 104;
Palmer, in B. C. Papers, pt. iii., p. 85; Gass' Jour., p. 219; Ind. Life, p. 55;
Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 237-8, 260-J.
195 Sokulks 'of a mild and peaceable disposition,' respectful to old age..
Chilluckittequaws ' unusually hospitable and good humoured.' Chopunnish
' the most amiable we have seen. Their character is placid and gentle, rarely
moved into passion.' ' They are indeed selfish and avaricious.' Will pilfer
small articles. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 338, 341, 351, 376, 556-8, 564.
The Flatheads 'se distinguent par la civilite, I'honnetete, et la bonte.' De
Smet, Voy., pp. 31-2, 38-40, 47-50, 166-74, 202-4. Flatheads 'the best In
dians of the mountains and the plains, — honest, brave, and docile.' Koote-
nais ' men of great docility and artlessness of character.' Stevens and Hoecken,
in De Smet's West. Miss., pp. 281, 284, 290, 300. Coeurs d'Alene selfish and
poor-spirited. De Smet, Miss, de I' Oregon, p. 329. In the Walla Wallas ' an
air of open unsuspecting confidence, ' ' natural politeness, ' no obtrusive fa
miliarity. Flatheads 'frank and hospitable.' Except cruelty to captives
VOL. I. 19
290 COLUMBIANS.
inland native is almost unanimously pronounced supe
rior to the dweller on the coast. The excitement of the
chase, of war, and of athletic sports ennobles the mind
as it develops the body ; and although probably not by
nature less indolent than their western neighbors, yet
are these natives of the interior driven by circumstances
to habits of industry, and have much less leisure time
for the cultivation of, the lower forms of vice. As a
race, "and compared with the average American aborigi
nes, they are honest, intelligent, and pure in morals.
Travelers are liable to form their estimate of national
•character from a view, perhaps unfair and prejudiced,
•of the actions of a few individuals encountered ; conse
quently qualities the best and the worst have been given
•by some to each of the nations now under consideration.
For the best reputation the Nez Perces, Flatheads and
Kootenais have always been rivals; their good qualities
have been praised by all, priest, trader and tourist.
Honest, just, and often charitable; ordinarily cold and
reserved, but on occasions social and almost gay ; quick
tempered and revengeful under what they consider in-
have 'fewer failings than any of the tribes I ever met.' Brave, quiet, and
:amenable to their chiefs. Spokanes 'quiet, honest, inoffensive,' but rather
indolent. 'Thoughtless and improvident.' Okanagans 'Indolent rascals;'
' an honest and quiet tribe. ' Sanspoils dirty, slothful, dishonest, quarrelsome,
etc. Coeurs d'Alene. ' uniformly honest;' 'more savage than their neigh
bours.' Kootenais honest, brave, jealous, truthful. Kamloops 'thieving and
quarrelling.' Cox's Adven., vol. i., pp. 145, 148, 192, 199, 239-40, 262-3, 344,
vol. ii., pp. 44, 87-8, 109, 145-60. Okanagans active and industrious, re
vengeful, generous and brave. Ross' Adven., pp. 142, 290-5, 327-9. Skeen
'a hardy, brave people.' Cayuses far more vicious and ungovernable than
the Walla Wallas. Nez Perces treacherous and villainous. Kane's Wand.,
pp. 263, 280, 290, 307-8, 315. Nez Perces ' a quiet, civil, people, but proud
and haughty.' Palmer's Jour., pp. 128, 48, 53, 59, 61, 124-7. 'Kind to each
other.' ' Cheerful and often gay, sociable, kind and affectionate, and anxious
to receive instruction.' 'Lying scarcely known. ' Parker's Explor. Tour, pp.
97, 105, 232, 239, 303-4, 311-12. Of the Nicutemuchs 'the habitual vin-
dictiveness of their character is fostered by the ceaseless feuds.' 'Nearly
every family has a minor vendetta of its own.' 'The races that depend en
tirely or chiefly on fishing, are immeasurably inferior to those tribes who,
with nerves and sinews braced by exercise, and minds comparatively en
nobled by frequent excitement, live constantly amid war and the chase.'
Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., pp. 77-80. Inland tribes of British Co
lumbia less industrious and less provident than the more sedentary coast
Indians. Mayne's B. C., pp. 301, 297. Sahaptins 'cold, taciturn, high-
tempered, warlike, fond of hunting.' Palouse, Yakimas, Kliketats, etc., of
a 'less hardy and active temperament' than the Nez Perces. Hole's Ethnog.,
in U. ~S> Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 199, 210-13. Cayuses ' dreaded by their neigh-
INLAND MOEALITY. 291
justice, but readily appeased by kind treatment; cruel
only to captive enemies, stoical in the endurance of tor
ture; devotedly attached to home and family; these
natives probably come as near as it is permitted to flesh-
and-blood savages to the traditional noble red man of
the forest, sometimes met in romance. It is the pride
and boast of the Flathead that his tribe has never shed
the blood of a white man. Yet none, whatever their
tribe, could altogether resist the temptation to steal
horses from their neighbors of a different tribe, or in
former times, to pilfer small articles, wonderful to the
savage eye, introduced by Europeans. Many have been
nominally converted by the zealous labors of the Jesuit
Fathers, or Protestant missionaries ; and several nations
seem to have actually improved, in material condition if
not in character, under their change of faith. As Mr
Alexander Ross remarks, " there is less crime in an In
dian camp of five hundred souls than there is in a civ
ilized village of but half that number. Let the lawyer
or moralist point out the cause."
bors on account of their courage and warlike spirit. ' Walla Wallas ' notori
ous as thieves since their first intercourse with whites.' 'Indolent, super
stitious, drunken and debauched. Character of Flatheads, Pend d'Oreilles,
Umatillas. Ind. A/. Rept., 1854, pp. 207-9, 211, 218, 223, 282, 1861, pp. 164-5.
Yakimas and Kliketats 'much superior to the river Indians.' Stevens, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 405, 298, 403, 416, vol. xii., pt. i., p. 139. Wascos ' ex
ceedingly vicious.' Hines' Voy., pp.159, 169. The Nez Perces 'are, certainly,
more like a nation of saints than a horde of savages. ' Skyuses, Walla Wallas.
Irving's Bonnevitte's Adven., pp. 101, 287, 289-90, 300. Tushepaws; Irving' s
Astoria, p. 316. Thompson River Indians rather a superior and clever race.
Victoria Colonist, Oct., 1860. ' Indians from the Rocky mountains to the falls
of Columbia, are an honest, ingenuous, and well disposed people,' but ras
cals below the falls. Gass' Jour., p. 304. Flathead ' fierceness and barbarity in
•war could not be exceeded.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Flatheads, Walla
Wallas and Nez Perces; Gray's Ifist. Ogn.,'pp. 171, 219. Kootenais; Palliser's
Explor., pp., 44, 73. Salish, Walla Wallas; fiomenech's Deserts, vol.' i., p.
88, vol. ii., p. 64. Walla Wallas, Cayuses, and Nez Perces; White's Oregon,
p. 174. Walla Wallas, Kootenais; Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 85, 178. Flat-
88, vol. ii., p. 64. Walla Wallas, Cayuses, and Nez Perces; Whitens Oregon,
alia Wallas, Kootenais; Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pj
heads, Nez Perces; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 311, 315, 326-8. Nez Perces; Catlin's
N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 109; Franchere's Nar., p. 268. Kayuses, Walla
Wallas; Townsend's Nar., p. 156. Sahaptins; Wilkes' Hist. Ogn., p. 106.
Nez Perces; Htastings' Emigrants' Guide, p. 59. Flatheads; Ind. Life, pp. ix.,
x., 25. At Dalles;' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 412. Shush-
waps; Grant's Ocean to Ocean, pp. 288-304, 313. At Dalles; Hunt, in Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 82; Stuart, in Id., 1821, torn, xii., p. 43.
Pend d'Oreilles; Joset, in Id., 1849, torn, cxxiii., pp. 334-40.
292 COLUMBIANS.
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Columbian Group comprises the tribes inhabiting the territory imme
diately south of that of the Hyperboreans, extending from the fifty-fifth to
the forty-third parallel of north latitude.
IN THE HAIDAH FAMILY, I include all the coast and island nations oi
British Columbia, from 55° to 52 J, and extending inland about one hundred
miles to the borders of the Chilcoten Plain, the Haidah nation proper hav
ing their home on the Queen Charlotte Islands. ' The Haidah tribes of the
Northern Family inhabit Queen Charlotte's Island. ' ' The Massettes, Skitte-
gas, Cumshawas, and other (Haidah) tribes inhabiting the eastern shores of
Queen Charlotte's Island.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 219.
'The principal tribes upon it (Q. Char. Isl.) are the Sketigets, Massets, and
Comshewars.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 292. 'Tribal names of the principal tribes
inhabiting the islands: — Klue, Skiddan, Ninstence or Cape St. James,
Skidagate, Skidagatees, Gold-Harbour, Cumshewas, and four others
Hydah is the generic name for the whole.' Poole's Q. Char. IsL, p. 309. ' The
Cumshewar, Massit, Skittageets, Keesarn, and Kigarnee, are mentioned
as living on the island.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 157. The following bands,
viz.: Lulanna, (or Sulanna), Nightan, Massetta, (orMosette), Necoon, Ase-
guang, (or Asequang), Skittdegates, Cumshawas, Skeedans, Queeah, Cloo,
Kishawin, Kowwelth, (or Kawwelth), and Too, compose the Queen Char
lotte Island Indians, ' beginning at N. island, north end, and passing round by
the eastward.' Schoolcraft'sArch., vol. v., p. 489; and Kane's Wand., end of vol.
' The Hydah nation which is divided into numerous tribes inhabiting the
island and the mainland opposite.' Heed's Nar. ' Queen Charlotte's Island
and Prince of Wales Archipelago are the country of the Haidahs; includ
ing the Kygany, Massett, Skittegetts, Hanega, Cumshewas, and other septs.'
Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. 'Les Indiens Koumchaouas, Ha'i-
das, Massettes, et Skidegats, de 1'ile de la Keine Charlotte.' Mofras, Explor.,
torn, ii., p. 337. My Haidah Family is called by Warre and Vavaseur Qua-
cott, who with the Newette and twenty-seven other tribes live, ' from Lat.
54° to Lat. 50 J, including Queen Charlotte's Island; North end of Vancouver's
Island, Millbank Sound and Island, and the Main shore.' Martin's Hudson's
Bay, p. 80.
The Massets and thirteen other tribes besides the Quacott tribes occupy
Queen Charlotte Islands. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. Bay, p. 80.
The Ninstence tribe inhabits ' the southernmost portions of Moresby Isl
and.' Poole's Q. Char. IsL, pp. 122, 314-15.
The Crosswer Indians live on Skiddegate Channel. Downie, in B. Col.
Papers, vol. iii., p. 72.
The Kaiganies inhabit the southern part of the Prince of Wales Archipela
go, and the northern part of Queen Charlotte Island. The Kygargeys or
Kygarneys are divided by Schoolcraft and Kane into the Youahnoe, Clictass
(or Clictars), Quiahanles, Houaguan, (orWonagan), Shouagan, (or Show-
THE HAIDAH FAMILY. 293
gan), Chatcheenie, (or Chalchuni). Archives, vol. v., p. 489;. Wanderings,
end of vol. The Kygani ' have their head-quarters on Queen Charlotte's
Archipelago, but there are a few villages on the extreme southern part of
Prince of Wales Archipelago.' Doll's Alaska, p. 411. A colony of the Hy-
dahs ' have settled at the southern extremity of Prince of Wales 's Archipela
go, and in the Northern Island.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi.,
p. 219. ' Die Kaigani (Kigarnies, Kigarnee, Kyganies der Englander) bewoh-
nen den sudlichen Theil der Inseln (Archipels) des Prinzen von Wales.'
Radloff, Sprache der Kaiganen, in Melanges Russes, torn, iii., livrais. v., p. 569.
' The Kegarnie tribe, also in the Russian territory, live on an immense island,
called North Island.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 287. The Hydahs of the south
eastern Alexander Archipelago include 'the Kassaaus, the Chatcheenees,
and the Kaiganees.' Bendel's Alex. Arch., p. 28. 'Called Kaiganies and
Kliavakans; the former being near Kaigan Harbor, and the latter near the
Gulf of Kliavakan scattered along the shore from Cordova to Tonvel's Bay.'
Halleck and Scott, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 562-4. ' A branch of this tribe,
the Kyganies (Kigarnies) live in the southern part of the Archipel of the
Prince of Wales.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 80.
' To the west and south of Prince of Wales Island is an off-shoot of the
Hydah,' Indians, called Anega or Hennegas. Mahony, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869,
p. 575.
The Chimsyans inhabit the coast and islands about Fort Simpson. Ten
tribes of Chymsyans at ' Chatham Sound, Portland Canal, Port Essington,
and the neighbouring Islands.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's
Bay, p. 80. 'The Chimsians or Fort Simpson Indians.' Tolmie, in Lord's
Nat., vol. ii., p. 231. 'Indians inhabiting the coast and river mouth known
by the name of Chyniseyans.' Ind. Life, p. 93. The Tsimsheeans live ' in
the Fort Simpson section on the main land.' Poole's Q. Char. Isl., p. 257.
Chimpsains, 'living on Chimpsain Peninsula.' Scott, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869,
p. 563. The Chimmesyans inhabit ' the coast of the main land from 55°
30' N., down to 53° 30' N.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 202;
Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 40. The Chimseeans ' occupy the country from Doug-
las' Canal to Nass River.' Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206. Di
vided into the following bands; Kispachalaidy, Kitlan (or Ketlane) , Kee-
ches (orKeechis), Keenathtoix, Kitwillcoits, Kitchaclalth, Kelutsah (orKet-
utsah), Kenchen Kieg, Ketandou, Ketwilkcipa, who inhabit 'Chatham's
Sound, from Portland Canal to Port Essington (into which Skeena River
discharges) both main land and the neighboring islands.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane's Wand., end of vol. The Chymsyan connection
' extending from Milbank Sound to Observatory Inlet, including the Sebas-
sas, Neecelowes, Nass, and other offsets.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii.
p. 74. Mr. Duncan divides the natives speaking the Tsimshean language
into four parts at Fort' Simpson, Nass River, Skeena River, and the islands of
Milbank Sound. Mayne's B. C., p. 250.
The Keethratlah live 'near Fort Simpson.' Id., p. 279.
The Nass nation lives on the banks of the Nass River, but the name is often
applied to all the mainland tribes of what I term the Haidah Family. The
nation consists of the Kithateen, Kitahon, Ketoonokshelk, Kinawalax (or
294 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Kinaroalax), located in that order from the mouth upward. Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane's Wand., end of vol. Four tribes, 'Nass River
on the Main land,' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 80.
' On Observatory Inlet, lat. 55°.' Bryant, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact, vol. ii.,
p. 302. Adjoin the Sebassa tribe. Cornwall^' N. Eldorado, p. 107. About
Fort Simpson. Dunn's Oregon, p. 279. The Hailtsa, Haeeltzuk, Billechoola,
and Chimmesyans are Nass tribes. Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 130. See Busch-
mann, Brit. Nordamer, pp. 398-400.
' There is a tribe of about 200 souls now living on a westerly branch of
the Naas near Stikeen River; they are called " Lackweips " and formerly
lived on -Portland Channel.' Scott, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1869, p. 563.
The Skeenas are on the river of the same name, ' at the mouth of the
Skeena River.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 80. They
are the ' Kitsalas, Kitswingahs, Kitsiguchs, Kitspayuchs, Hagulgets, Kitsag-
as, and Kits winscolds.' Scott, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 563.
Keechumakarlo (or Keechumakailo) situated 'on the lower part of the
Skeena River.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane's Wand., end of
vol.
The Kitswinscolds live ' betweer^the Nass and the Skeena.' Scott, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 563. The Kitatels live ' on the islands in Ogden's Chan
nel, about sixty miles below Fort Simpson. ' Id.
The Sebassas occupy the shores of Gardner Channel and the opposite
islands. Inhabit Banks Island. Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 206.
The Labassas in five tribes are situated on ' Gardner's Canal, Canal de Prin
cipe, Canal de la Reida.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 80.
Keekheatla (or Keetheatla), on Canal de Principe; Kilcatah, at the entrance
of Gardner Canal; Kittamaat (or Kittamuat), on the north arm of Gard
ner Canal; Kitlope on the south arm; Neeslous on Canal de la Reido
(Reina). Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 487; Kane's Wand., end of vol. 'In
the neighbourhood of Seal Harbour dwell the Sebassa tribe.' Cornwallis' N.
Eldorado, p. 106. ' The Shebasha, a powerful tribe inhabiting the numerous
islands of Pitt's Archipelago.' Bryant, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii.,
p. 302.
The Millbank Sound tribes are the Onieletoch, Weitletoch (or Weetletoch) ,
and Kokwaiytoch, on Millbank Sound; Eesteytoch, on Cascade Canal; Kui-
muchquitoch, on Dean Canal; Bellahoola, at entrance of Salmon River of
Mackenzie; Guashilla, on River Canal; Nalalsemoch, at Smith Inlet, and
Weekemoch on Calvert Island. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 487-8; Kane's
Wand., end of vol. ' The Millbank Indians on Millbank Sound.' Bryant, in
Am. Antiq. Soc. Transact., vol. ii., p. 302.
The Bellacoolas live about the mouth of Salmon River. ' ' ' Bentick's Arms ' '
—inhabited by a tribe of Indians— the Bellaghchoolas. Their village is near
Salmon River.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 267. The Billechoolas live on Salmon
River in latitude 53° 30'. Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 384. The Bella-
hoolas 'on the banks of the Salmon river.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 258.
'The Indians at Milbank Sound called Belbellahs.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 271.
' Spread along the margins of the numerous canals or inlets with which this
part of the coast abounds.' Scouler, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224.
THE NOOTKA FAMILY. 295
' In the neighbourhood of the Fort (McLoughlin) was a village of about five
hundred Ballabollas.' Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 202.
The Hailtzas, Hailtzuks, or Haeelzuks ' dwell to the south of the Bille-
choola, and inhabit both the mainland and the northern entrance of Van
couver's Island from latitude 53° 30' N. to 50 J 30' N.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog.
Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224. ' The Hailtsa commencing in about latitude 51° N.,
and extending through the ramifications of Fitzhugh and Milbank Sounds.'
Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 74. 'An diesem Sunde (Milbank) woh-
nen die Hailtsa-Indianer.' Buschmann, Brit, Nordamer., p. 383; Tolmie, in
Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 230.
THE NOOTKA FAMILY dwells south of the Haidah, occupying the coast of
British Columbia, from Bentinck Arms to the mouth of the Fraser, and the
whole of Vancouver Island. By other authors the name has been employed
to designate a tribe at Nootka Sound, or applied to nearly all the Coast tribes
of the Columbian Group. ' The native population of Vancouver Island. . . .
is chiefly composed of the following tribes: — North and East coasts (in order
in which they stand from North to South) — Quackolls, Newittees, Comuxes,
Yukletas, Suanaimuchs, Cowitchins, Sanetchs, other smaller tribes;— South
Coast ( . . .from East to West) — Tsomass, Tsclallums, Sokes, Patcheena, Sen-
natuch; — West Coast (from South to North) — Nitteenats, Chadukutl,
Oiatuch, Toquatux, Schissatuch, Upatsesatuch, Cojuklesatuch, Uqluxlatuch,
Clayoquots, Nootkas, Nespods, Koskeemos, other small tribes.' Grant, in
Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 293. 'In Barclay Sound: Pacheenett,
Nittinat, Ohiat, Ouchuchlisit, Opecluset, Shechart, Toquart, TJcletah, Tso
mass; — Clayoquot Sound: Clayoquot, Kilsamat, Ahouset, Mamiawousut, Ish-
quat; — Nootka Sound: Matchclats, Moachet, Neuchallet, Ehateset.' Mayne's
B. C., p. 251. 'About Queen Charlotte Sound; — Naweetee, Quacolth, Quee-
havuacolt (or Queehaquacoll), Marmalillacalla, Clowetsus (or Clawetsus),
Murtilpar (or Martilpar), Nimkish, Wewarkka, Wewarkkuni, Clallueis (or
Clalluiis), Cumquekis, Laekquelibla, Clehuse (or Clehure), Soiitinu (or
Soiilenu), Quicksutinut (or Quicksulinut), Aquamish, Clelikitte, Narkock-
tau, Quainu, Exenimuth, (or Cexeninuth), Tenuckttau, Oiclela.' Schoolcraft'sr
Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane's Wand., end of vol. On the seabord, south of
Nitinaht Sound, and on the Nitinaht Kiver, the Pacheenaht and Niti-
naht tribes; on Barclay, otherwise Nitinaht Sound, the Ohyaht, Howchu-
klisaht, Opechisaht, Seshaht, Youclulaht, and Toquaht tribes; on Klahoh-
quaht Sound, the Klahohquaht, Killsmaht, Ahousaht and Manohsaht
tribes; on Nootkah Sound, the Hishquayaht, Muchlaht, Moouchat (the
so-called Nootkahs), Ayhuttisaht and Noochahlaht; north of Nootkah
Sound, the Kyohquaht, Chaykisaht, and Klahosaht tribes. Sproat's Scenes,
p. 308. Alphabetical list of languages on Vancouver Island: Ahowzarts,
Aitizzarts, Aytcharts, Cayuquets, Eshquates (or Esquiates), Klahars, Klaiz-
zarts, Klaooquates (or Tlaoquatch), Michlai'ts, Mowatchits, Neuchadlits, Neu-
witties, Newchemass, (Nuchimas), Savinnars, Schoomadits, Suthsetts, Tlao
quatch, Wicananish. Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 349. 'Among those
from the north were the Aitizzarts. Schoomadits, Neuwitties, Savinnars,
Ahowzarts, Mowatchits, Suthsetts, Neuchadlits, Michlaits, and Cayuquets;
the most of whom were considered as tributary to Nootka. From the South
296 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
the Aytcharts, and Esquiates also tributary, with the Klaooquates and the
Wickaiininish, a large and powerful tribe, about two hundred miles distant.'
Jewitt's Nar., pp. 36-7. ' Tribes situated between Nanaimo and Fort Rupert,
on the north of Vancouver Island, and the mainland Indians between
the same points .... are divided into several tribes, the Nanoose, Comoux,
Nimpkish, Quawguult, &c., on the Island; and the Squawmisht, Sechelt,
Clahoose, Ucletah, Mamalilaculla, &c., on the coast, and among the small
islands off it.' Mayne's B. C., p. 243. List of tribes on Vancouver Island:
' Songes, Sanetch, Kawitchin, Uchulta, Nimkis, Quaquiolts, Neweetg, Quack-
toe, Nootka, Nitinat, Klayquoit, Soke.' Findlay's Directory, pp. 391-2. The
proper name of the Vancouver Island Tribes is Yucuatl. Ludewig, Ab. Lang.,
p. 135. The Nootka Territory ' extends to the Northward as far as Cape Saint
James, in the latitude of 52° 20' N. . .and to the Southward to the Islands. . .
of the Wicananish.' Meares' Voy., p. 228. ' The Cawitchans, Ucaltas, and Co-
quilths, who are I believe of the same family, occupy the shores of the Gulf
of Georgia and Johnston's Straits.' Anderson, in Hist. Mac/., vol. vii., p. 74.
' Twenty-four tribes speaking the Challam and Cowaitzchim languages, from
latitude 50° along the Coast South to Whitby Island in latitude 48°; part of
Vancouver's Island, and the mouth of Franc's River.' Also on the Strait of
Juan de Fuca and Vancouver Islands, the Sanetch, three tribes; Hallarns,
eleven tribes; Sinahomish; Skatcat; Cowitchici, seven tribes; Soke; Cowit-
ciher, three tribes. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 81; also
in HazliWs B. C., pp. 66-7. Five tribes at Fort Rupert;— Quakars, Qual-
quilths, Kumcutes, Wanlish, Lockqualillas. Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 165.
' The Chicklezats and Ahazats, inhabiting districts in close proximity on the
west coast of Vancouver.' Barret-Lennard 's Trav., p. 41. 'North of the dis
trict occupied by the Ucletahs come the Nimkish, Mamalilacula, Matelpy
and two or three other smaller tribes. The Mamalilaculas live on the main
land.' Mayne's B. C., p. 249. The population of Vancouver Island 'is di
vided into twelve tribes; of these the Kawitchen, Quaquidts and Nootka are
the largest.' Cornwallis' N. Eldorado, p. 30. ' Ouakichs, Grande ile de
Quadra et Van Couver.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335.
In naming the following tribes and nations I will begin at the north and
follow the west coast of the island southward, then the east coast and main
land northward to the starting-point.
The Udenus inhabit Scott Island. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v"., p. 488;
Kane's Wand., end of vol.
The Quanes dwell at Cape Scott. Id.
The Quactoe are found in the ' woody part N.W. coast of the island.' Find-
lay's Directory, p. 391.
The .Koskiemos and Quatsinos live on ' the two Sounds bearing those
names.' Mayne's B. C., p. 251. Kuskema, and Quatsinu, 'outside Van
couver's Island south of C. Scott.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane's
Wand., end of vol.
The Kycucut, ' north of Nootka Sound, is the largest tribe of the West
coast.' Mayne's B. C., p. 251.
The Aitizzarts are ' a people living about thirty or forty miles to the North
ward ' of Nootka Sound. Jewitt's Nar., pp. 63, 77.
NATIONS INHABITING VANCOUVEE ISLAND. 297
The Ahts live on the west coast of the island. ' The localities inhabited
by the Aht tribes are, chiefly, the three large Sounds on the west coast of
Vancouver Island, called Isitinaht (or Barclay) Klahohquaht, and Nootkah.'
Sproat's Scenes, p. 10.
The ChicklezaMs and Ahazats inhabit districts in close proximity on the
west coast of Vancouver. Barrett- Lennard's Trav., p. 41.
The Clayoquots, or Klahohquahts, live at Clayoquot Sound, and the Moo-
uchats at Nootka Sound. Sproat's Scenes, pp. 22, 25. North of the Wick-
ininish. JewitVs Nar., p. 76.
The Toquahts are a people ' whose village is in a dreary, remote part of
Nitinaht (or Barclay) Sound.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 104.
The Seshats live at Alberni, Barclay Sound. Sproat's Scenes, p. 3.
The Pachcenas, or ' Pacheenetts, which I have included in Barclay Sound,
also inhabit Port San Juan.' Mayne's B. C., p. 251.
The Tlaoquatch occupy the south-western part of Vancouver. ' Den Siid-
westen der Quadra-und Vancouver-Insel nehmen die Tlaoquatch ein, deren
Sprache mit der vom Nutka-Sunde verw'andt ist.' Buschmann, Brit. Nordamer.,
p. 372. Tlaoquatch, or Tloquatch, on ' the south-western coast of Vancouver's
Island.' Ludewiy, Ab. Lang., p. 188.
The Sokes dwell 'between Victoria and Barclay Sound.' Mayne's B. C., p.
251. 'East point of San Juan to the Songes territory.' Findlay's Directory,
p. 392.
•The Wickinniniith live about two hundred miles south of Nootka. Jewitt's
Nar., p. 76.
The Son;ihies are ' a tribe collected at and around Victoria.' Mayne's B. C.,
p. 243. 'The Songhish tribe, resident near Victoria.' Macfie's Vane. IsL, p.
430. Songes, 'S.E. part of the island.' Findlay's Directory, p. 391.
The Sanetch dwell ' sixty miles N.W. of Mount Douglas.' Findlay's Direct
ory, p. 391.
The Cowichins live ' in the harbour and valley of Cowitchen, about 40 miles
north of Victoria.' Mayne's B. C., p. 243. ' Cowichin river, which falls into
that (Haro) canal about 20 miles N. of Cowichin Head, and derives its
name from the tribe of Indians which inhabits the neighbouring country.'
Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 246. Kawitchin, 'country
N.W. of Sanetch territory to the entrance of Johnson's Straits.' Findlay's
Directory, p. 391. 'North of Eraser's Kiver, and on the opposite shores of
Vancouver's Island.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 224.
1 North of Eraser's River, on the north-west coast.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 91.
The Comux, or Komux, ' live on the east coast between the Kowitchan
and the Quoquoulth tribes.' Sproat's Scenes, p. 311. Comoux, south of John
ston Straits. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane's Wand., end of vol.
The Comoux ' extend as far as Cape Mudge.' Mayne's B. C., p. 243.
The Kwantlums dwell about the mouth of the Eraser. ' At and about the
entrance of the Eraser River is the Kuantlun tribe : they live in villages which
extend along the banks of the river as far as Langley.' Mayne's B. C., pp.
243, 295.
The Teets live on the lower Frazer River. ' From the falls (of the Eraser)
downward to the seacoast, the banks of the river are inhabited by several
208 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
branches of the Haitlin or Teet tribe.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p.
73. 'Extending from Langley to Yale, are the Smess, Chillwayhook, Pal-
lalts, and Teates The Smess Indians occupy the Smess Eiver and lake,
and the Chillwayhooks the river and lake of that name.' Mayne's B. C., p.
295. Teate Indians. See Bancroft's Mop of Pac. States.
The Nanaimos are 'gathered about the mouth of the Fraser.' Mayne's
B. C., p. 243. — Chiefly on a river named the Nanaimo, which falls into Wen-
tuhuysen Inlet. Douglas, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 247.
The Squawmishts 'live in Howe Sound.' Mayne's B. C., p. 243.
The Sechelts live on Jervis Inlet. Mayne's B. C., pp. 243-4.
The Clahoose, or Klahous, 'live in Desolation Sound.' Mayne's B. C., pp.
243-4.
The Nanoose ' inhabit the harbour and district of that name, which lies 50
miles north of Nanaimo.' Mayne's B. C., p. 243.
The Tacultas, or Tahcultahs, live at Point Mudge on Valdes Island. Lord's
Nat., vol. i., p. 155.
The Ucletas are found 'at and beyond Cape Mudge.' 'They hold pos
session of the country on both sides of Johnstone Straits until met 20 or
30 miles south of Fort Eupert by the Nimpkish and Mamalilacullas.'
Mayne's B. C., p. 244. Yougletats— ' line partie campe sur File Vancouver
elle-meme, le reste habite sur le continent, au nord de la Biviere Fraser.'
De Smet, Miss, de V Oregon, p. 340. Yongletats, both on Vancouver Island,
and on the mainland above the Fraser Kiver. Bolduc, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1845, torn, cviii., pp. 366-7.
The Nimkish are ' at the mouth of the Nimpkish river, about 15 miles be
low Fort Kupert.' Mayne's, B. C., p. 249; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 158.
The Necultas and Queehanicultas dwell at the entrance of Johnston Straits.
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 488; Kane's Wand., end of vol.
The Quackolls and ' two smaller tribes, live at Fort Eupert.' Mayne's B. C.,
pp. 244, 249. 'On the north-east side of Vancouver's Island, are to be
found the Coquilths.' Cornwallis' N. Eldorado, p. 98. Coquilths, a numer
ous tribe living at the north-east end. Dunn's Oregon, p. 239. The Cogwell
Indians live around Fort Eupert. Barret-Lennard's Trav., p. 68.
The Newittees ' east of Cape Scott .... meet the Quawguults at Fort Eu
pert.' Mayne's B. C., p. 251. Neweetg, 'at N.W. entrance of Johnson's
Straits.' Findlay's Directory, p. 391. 'At the northern extremity of the
island the Newette tribe.' Cornwallis' N. Eldorado, p. 98. Newchemass came
to Nootka ' from a great way to the Northward, and from some distance in-*
land.' Jewitt's Nar., p. 77.
The Saukaulutucks inhabit the interior of the northern end of Vancouver
Island. Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 158. 'At the back of Barclay Sound,....
about two days' journey into the interior, live the only inland tribe....
They are called the Upatse Satuch, and consist only of four families.' Grant,
in. Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 287.
THE SOUND FAMILY includes all the tribes about Puget Sound and Ad
miralty Inlet, occupying all of Washington west of the Cascade Eange, ex
cept a narrow strip along the north bank of the Columbia. In locating the
nations of this family I begin with the extreme north-east, follow the eastern
THE SOUND FAMILY. 299
shores of the sound southward, the western shores northward, and the coast
of the Pacific southward to Gray Harbor. List of tribes between Olympia
and Nawaukum River. ' Staktamish, Squaks'narnish, Sehehwanrish, Squal-
liamish, Puyallupamish, S'homaniish, Suquamish, Sinahoinish, Snoqual-
mook, Sinaahmish, Nooklummi.' Tolmie, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 251;
Stevens, in Pac. R. JR. Rept., vol. i., p. 434. A Canadian trapper found the
following tribes between Fort Nisqually and Fraser River; ' Sukwames, Su-
nahiimes, Tshikatstat, Puiale, and Kawftshin.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. vi., pp. 220-1. Cheenales, west; Cowlitz, south; and Nisqually,
east of Puget Sound. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map.
The Shimiahmoos occupy the 'coast towards Frazer's river.' 'Between
Lummi Point and Frazer's River.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 247,
250. 'Most northern tribe on the American side of the line.' Gibbs, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 491.
The Lummis 'are divided into three bands— a band for each mouth of
the Lummi River.' Fitzhugh, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 327. ' On the north
ern shore of Bellingham Bay.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 244. ' Lum
mi river, and peninsula.7 Id., p. 250. ' On a river emptying into the north
ern part of Bellingham bay and on the peninsula.' Id., p. 247, and in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433.
The Nooksaks are ' on the south fork of the Lummi River.' Stevens, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250. Nooksahk, ' on the main fork of the river.' Id., p. 247.
Nooksahk, ' above the Lummi, on the main fork of the river.' Gibbs, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433. 'South fork Lummi river.' Id., p. 435. Noot-
saks ' occupy the territory from the base of Mount Baker down to within five
miles of the mouth of the Lummi.' Coleman, in Harper's Mag., vol. xxxix., p.
799. Neuksacks 'principally around the foot of Mount Baker.' Fitzhugh, in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 328. The Neukwers and Siamanas, or Stick Indians
' live on lakes back of Whatcom and Siamana lakes and their tributaries.' Id.,
p. 329. Three tribes at Bellinghani Bay, Neuksack, Samish, and Lummis,
with some Neukwers and Siamanas who live in the back country. Id., p. 326.
Neuksacks, a tribe inhabiting a country drained by the river of the same
name taking the name Lummi before emptying into the Gulf of Georgia.
Simmons, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1860, p. 188. Nooklummie, ' around Bellingham's
bay.' Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 389; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 714.
The Samish live on Samish River and southern part of Bellingham Bay.
Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 247, 250. 'They have several islands
which they claim as their inheritance, together with a large scope of the
main land.' Fitzhugh, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 327.
The Skagits ' live on the main around the mouth of Skagit river, and own
the central parts of Whidby's island, their principal ground being the neigh
borhood of Penn's cove.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 433, and in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 246. Whidby's Island ' is in the possession of the Sa
chet tribe. ' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 300. The Sachets inhabit Whid
by's Island. Wilkes' Nar.,in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 510. Sachets, ' about
Possession Sound.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 143. Skadjets, 'on both sides of
the Skadjet river, and on the north end of Whidby's Island.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. The Skagit, 'on
300 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Skagit river, and Perm's cove,' the N'quachamish, Srnalehhu, Miskaiwlm,
Sakumehu, on the branches of the same river. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1854, p. 250; Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 435. Sockamuke, 'headwaters of
Skagit Kiver,' Neutubvig, 'north end of Whidby's Island, and county be
tween Skagit's river and Belliiigham's bay.' Cowewachin, Noothum, Mie-
missouks, north to Frazer Kiver. SchoolcrafV 's Arch., vol. iv., p. 598.
The Kildallis occupy the banks of 'Kikiallis river and Whitby's island.'
Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 246, 250.
The Skeysehamish dwell in the ' country along the Skeysehamish river and
the north branch of the Sinahemish.' Schoolcrqft's Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am.
Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388.
The Snohomish reside on 'the southern end of Whidby's island, and
the country on and near the mouth of the Sinahomish river* Stevens,
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 435. 'The Sinahemish 'live on the
Sinahemish river (falling into Possession Sound).' SchoolcrafV s Arch., vol. v.,
p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. ' Sinahoumez (en 12 tribus) de la
riviere Fraser a la baie de Puget.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. ' N'quutl-
mamish, Skywhamish, Sktahlejuin, upper branches, north side, Sinahomish
river.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 245, 250. Neewamish, 'Nee-
wamish river, bay and vicinity ;' Sahma mish, ' on a lake between Neewamish
and Snohomish river;' Snohomish, ' South end of Whitney's Island, Sno
homish river, bay and vicinity;' Skeawamish, 'north fork of the Snohomish
river, called Skeawamish river;' Skuckstanajumps, ' Skuckstanajumps river,
a branch of Skeawamish river;' Stillaquamish, ' Stillaquamish river and vi
cinity;' Kickuallis, 'mouth of Kickuallis river and vicinity.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Stoluchwamish, on Stoluchwamish river, also called
Steilaquamish. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 435, also in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 246, 250. . Squinamish, Swodamish, Sinaahmish,
'north end of Whitby's island, canoe passage, and Sinamish river.' Id.,
pp. 247, 250. 'Southern end of Whidby's island and Sinahomish river.'
Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 432-3.
The Snoqualmooks ' reside on the south fork, north side of the Sinahomish
river.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 436, and in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854,
p. 250. Snoqualimich, ' Snoqualimich river and the south branch of the
Sinahemish.' Harley, in Schoolcraft' 's Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Reg
ister, vol. iii., p. 388.
The Dwamish are 'living on and claiming the lands on the D'Wamish
river.' Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 329. Dwamish Biver and Lake,
White and Green Bivers. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 491. On D'wamish
lake etc reside the Samamish and S'Ketehlmish tribes. ' The D'wamish
tribe have their home on Lake Fork, D'Wamish river.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., pp. 432, 436. Dwamish, 'Lake Fork, Dwamish Biver;' Sama
mish, S'Ketehlmish, 'Dwamish Lake;' Smelkamiah, 'Head of White Biver;'
Skopeahmish, 'Head of Green Biver;' Stkamish, 'main White Biver.' Stev
ens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250.
The Skopeahmish have their home at the 'head of Green river.' Stevens,
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 436. The Sekamish band ' on the main White
river;' the Smulkamish tribe ' at the head of White river.' Ib.
SOUND INDIANS. 301
The Seattks, a tribe of the Snowhomish nation, occupied as their principal
settlement, ' a slight eminence near the head of what is now known as Port
Madison Bay.' Overland Monthly, 1870, vol. iv., p. 297.
The Suquamish ' claim all the land lying on the west side of the Sound, be
tween Apple Tree cove on the north, and Gig harbor on the south.' Paige, in
Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 329. Soquamish, ' country about Port Orchard and
neighbourhood, and the west side of Widby's Island.' Harley, in. Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 700; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. 'Peninsula be
tween Hood's canal and Admiralty inlet.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854,
p. 250, and in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. i., p. 435. Snoquamish, ' Port. Orchard,
Elliott's Bay, and their vicinity.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 598. Shoma-
mish, 'on Vashon's Island.' Ib. 'Vashon's Island.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1854, p. 250. S'slomamish, ' Vaston's island.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., p. 435. 'The Indians frequenting this port (Orchard) call
themselves the Jeachtac tribe.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 510.
The Puyallupamish live 'at the mouth of Puyallup river;' T'quaquamish,
' at the heads of Puyallup river.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250, and
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Squallyamish and Pugallipamish, 'in
the country about Nesqually, Pugallipi, and Sinnomish rivers.' Harley, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 701; Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Pual-
lipawmish or Pualliss, 'on Pualliss river, bay, and vicinity.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Puyyallapamish, 'Puyallop Biver.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 491.
The Nisquallies, or Skwall, 'inhabit the shores of Puget's Sound.' Hole's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. 'Nesquallis, de la baie de Puget
a la pointe Martinez.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Nasqually tribes,
' Nasqually Biver and Puget's Sound.' Warre and Vavaseurl in Martin's
Hudson Say, p. 81. Squallyamish, 'at Puget Sound.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang.,
p. 177. The Squalliahmish are composed of six bands, and have their resi
dence on Nisqually Biver and vicinity. Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i.,
p. 435. Squallyamish or Nisqually, Nisqually Biver and vicinity. School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Fort Nisqually is frequented by the ' Squallies,
the Clallams, the Paaylaps, the Scatchetts, the Checaylis, ' and other tribes.
Simpson's Overland Journey, vol. i., p. 181.
The Steilacoomish dwell on ' Stalacom Creek;' Loquamish, ' Hood's Beef.'
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 491. Stitcheosawmish, ' Budd's inlet and South
bay,' in the vicinity of Olympia. Id., vol. iv., p. 598. Steilacoomamish,
' Steilacoom creek and vicinity.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 250, and
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435.
The Sawamish have their residence on 'Totten's inlet.' Stevens, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Sayhaymamish, ' Totten inlet.' Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iv., p. 598. ' Srootlemamish, Quackenamish at Case's inlet.' Ib. Quak-
s'namish, ' Case'sinlet;' S'Hotlemamish, ' Carr's inlet;' Sahehwamish, 'Ham-
inersly's inlet;' Sawamish, 'Totten's inlet;' Squaiaitl, 'Eld's inlet;' Steh-
chasamish, 'Budd's inlet;' Noosehchatl, 'South bay.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1854, p. 250.
The Skokomish live at the upper end of Hood Canal. Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 598; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 244, 250. Toan-
302 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
hooch and Shokomish on Hood's Canal. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p.
491. Tuanoh and Skokomish 'reside along the shores of Hood's Canal.'
Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Toankooch, 'western shore of Hood's
canal. They are a branch of the Nisqually nation.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1854, p. 244; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 431. Tuanooch,
'mouth of Hood's Canal.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. 'The region
at the head of Puget Sound is inhabited by a tribe called the Toandos.'
WilkesJ Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 140. Homamish, Hotlimamish,
Squahsinawmish, Sayhaywamish, Stitchassamish, 'reside in the country
from the Narrows along the western shore of Puget's Sound to New Mark
et.' Mitchell and Ilarley, in Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388.
The Noosdalums, or Nusdalums, 'dwell on Hood's Channel.' Ludewig,
Ab. Lang., p. 135. 'Die Noosdalum, wohnen am Hood's-Canal;' Buschmann,
Brit. Nordamer., p. 373. ' Noostlalums, consist of eleven tribes or septs liv
ing about the entrance of Hood's canal, Dungeness, Port Discovery, and the
coast to the westward.' Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388; Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 700.
The Chimakum, or Chinakum, ' territory seems to have embraced the
shore from Port Townsend to Port Ludlow.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854,
pp. 242-244. ' On Port Townsend Bay.' Id., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp.
431, 435; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 598.
The Clallams, or Clalams, are ' about Port Discovery.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p.
143. ' Their country stretches along the whole southern shore of the Straits
to between Port Discovery and Port Townsend. ' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
i., p. 429; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 242, 244. Southern shore of the
Straits of Fuca east of the Classets. Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p.
220. At Port Discovery. Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 319. Sklal-
lum, ' between Los Angelos and Port Townsend.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv.,
p. 598. Sklallams, ' at Cape Flattery.' Id., vol. v., p. 491. ' Scattered along
the strait and around the bays and bights of Admiralty Inlet, upon a shore
line of more than a hundred miles.' Scammon, in Overland Monthly, 1871, vol.
vii., p. 278. ' S'Klallams, Chemakum, Toanhooch, Skokomish, and bands of
the same, taking names from their villages, .... and all residing 011 the shores
of the straits of Fuca and Hood's Canal.' Webster, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862,
p. 407. Kahtai, Kaquaith, and Stehllum, at Port Townsend, Port Discov
ery, and New Dungeness. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 491; Stevens, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 249. Stentlums at New Dungeness. Id., in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., p. 435.
The Makahs, or Classets, dwell about Cape Flattery. Macaw, ' Cape Flat
tery to Neah Bay.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 598. Pistchin, 'Neah Bay
to Los Angelos Point.' Ib. 'Country about Cape Flattery, and the coast
for some distance to the southward, and eastward to the boundary of the
Halam or Noostlalum lands.' Id., vol. v., p. 700; Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1854, pp. 241, 249; Hale, in Id., 1862, p. 390; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,
vol. i., pp. 429, 435. 'At Neah Bay or Waadda, and its vicinity.' Simmons,
in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 231. Tatouche, a tribe of the Classets. Wttkes'
Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 516. Classets 'reside on the south side
of the Straits of Fuca.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 220;
INDIANS OF THE COAST OF WASHINGTON. 303
Mitchell and Harley, in Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 388. Tatouche or
Classets, 'between the Columbia and the strait of Fuca.' Nicolay's Ogn. Tier.,
p. 143. 'Clatset tribe.' Cornwallis' N. Eldorado, p. 97. 'Classets, on the
Strait of Fuca.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 30; Stevens' Address, p. 10. Ma-
kahs, ' inhabiting a wild broken peninsula circumscribed by the river Wy-
atch, the waters of the Strait and the Pacific.' Scammon, in Overland Monthly,
1871, vol. vii., p. 277. Klaizzarts, 'living nearly three hundred miles to the
South ' of Nootka Sound. Jewitt's Nar., p. 75. The Elkwhahts have a village
on the strait. Sproat's Scenes, p. 153.
List of tribes between Columbia River and Cape Flattery on the Coast;
Calasthocle, Chillates, Chiltz, Clamoctomichs, Killaxthocles, Pailsh, Poto-
ashs, Quieetsos, Quinnechart, Quiniiilts. Morse's Kept., p. 371.
The Quillehute and Queniult, or Quenaielt, ' occupy the sea-coast between
Ozelt or old Cape Flattery, on the north, and Qninaielt river on the south.'
Simmons, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1860, p. 195. Quinaielt, Quillehute, Queets, and
Hoh, live on the Quinaielt river and ocean. Smith, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870,
p. 21. The Queniult live 'at Point Grenville.' Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 210.
' On the banks of a river of the same name.' Id., p. 78. The Wilapahs 'on
the Wilapah River.' Id., p. 211. The Copalis 'on the Copalis River,
eighteen miles north of Gray's Harbor.' Id., p. 210. Quinaitle, north of
Gray's Harbor. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 249. Quinaik, ' coast from
Gray's harbor northward.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 435. Ehi-
halis, Quinailee, Grey's Harbor and north. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 490.
South of the Classets along the coast come the Quinnechants, Calasthortes,
Chillates, Quinults, Pailsk, etc. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 428. The Ka-
liouches and Konnichtchates, spoken of as dwelling on Destruction Island
and the neighboring main. Tarakanov, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1823,
torn, xx., p. 336, et seq.
The CJiehalis, or Chickeeles, ' inhabit the country around Gray's Harbour.'
Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 140. On the Chehalis river.
Nesmith, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 8. Frequent also Shoalwater Bay.
Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 240, 249. On the Cowelits. 'Among
the Tsihailish are included the Kwaiantl and Kwenaiwitl who live
near the coast, thirty or forty miles south of Cape Flattery.' Hale's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 211-12. 'In the vicinity of the
mouth of the Columbia.' Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. « Cheki-
lis, et Quinayat. Pres du havre de Gray et la riviere Chekilis.' Mofras, Ex-
plor., torn, ii., p. 335; Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 210; Stevens, in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., p. 435; Starling, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 599. 'A
quarante milles au nord, (from the Columbia) le long de la cote, habitent les
Tcheilichs.' Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 90. The
Whiskkah and Wynooche tribes on the northern branches of the Chihailis.
Stevens, in Ind. Aff, Rept., 1854, p. 240. Sachals 'reside about the lake of
the same name, and along the river Chickeeles.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S.-Ex.
Ex., vol. v., p. 140.
The Cowlitz live on the upper Cowlitz River. Occupy the middle of the
peninsula which lies west of Puget Sound and north of the Columbia. Hale's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 211. On the Cowlitz River. The
304 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Taitinapams have their abode at the base of the mountains on the Cowlitz.
Stevens, in Pac. E. E. EepL, vol. i., p. 435; and in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp.
240, 249; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 599, vol. v., p. 490. Cowlitsick, ' on
Columbia river, 62 miles from its mouth.' Morse's Rept., p. 3G8. There are
three small tribes in the vicinity of the Gowlitz Farm, ' the Cowlitz, the Che-
caylis and the Squally.' Simpson's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 179. The Stak-
tomish live ' between Nisqually and Cowlitz and the head waters of Chehaylis
river.' Am. Quar. Register, vol. iii., p. 389; Harley, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
v., p. 701.
THE CHINOOK FAMILY includes, according to my division, all the tribes
of Oregon west of the Cascade Range, together with those on the north bank
of the Columbia river. The name has usually been applied only to the tribes
of the Columbia Valley up to the Dalles, and belonged originally to a small
tribe on the north bank near the mouth. 'The nation, or rather family, to
which the generic name of Chinook has attached, formerly inhabited both
banks of the Columbia River, from its mouth to the Grand Dalles, a distance
of about a hundred and seventy miles.' ' On the north side of the river, first
the Chinooks proper (Tchi-nuk), whose territory extended from Cape Disap
pointment up the Columbia to the neighborhood of Gray's Bay (not Gray's
Harbor, which is on the Pacific), and back to the northern vicinity of Shoal-
water Bay, where they interlocked with the Chihalisof the coast.' Gibbs' Chi
nook Vocab., pp. iii., iv. The name Watlalas or Upper Chinooks ' properly be
longs to the Indians at the Cascades, ' but is applied to all ' from the Multno-
ma Island to the Falls of the Columbia.' Sale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
vi., pp. 214-5. ' The principal tribes or bands were the Wakafkam (known as
the Wahkyekum), the Katlamat ( Cathlamet) , the Tshinuk (Chinook), and the
Tlatsap (Clatsop).' Ib. ' The natives, who dwell about the lower parts of the
Columbia, may be divided into four tribes — the Clotsops, who reside around
Point Adams, on the south side ; . . . the Chinooks ; Waakiacums ; and the Cath-
lamets; who live on the north side of the river, and around Baker's Bay and
other inlets.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 114. The tribes may be classed: ' Chinooks,
Clatsops, Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Kil-
limux, Moltnomas, Chickelis.' EossJ Adven., p. 87. Tribes on north bank of
the Columbia from mouth; Chilts, Chinnook, Cathlamah, Wahkiakume, Skil-
lute, Quathlapotle. Lewis and Clarke's Map. 'All the natives inhabiting the
southern shore of the Straits (of Fuca), and the deeply indented territory as
far as and including the tide-waters of the Columbia, may be comprehended
under the general term of Chinooks.' Pickering's Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol.
ix., p. 25. ' The Chenook nation resides along upon the Columbia river, from
the Cascades to its confluence with the ocean.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 261.
'Inhabiting the lower parts of the Columbia.' Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii.,
p. 110. ' Hauts-Tchinouks, pres des cascades du Rio Colombia. Tchi-
nouks d'en-bas, des Cascades jusqu'a la mer, Bas-Tchinouks.' Mofras, Ex
plor., torn, ii., pp. 335, 350-1. ' On the right bank of the Columbia.' Lude-
wig, Ab. Lang., p. 40. The Cheenooks and Kelussuyas, 4 tribes, live at
' Pillar Rock, Oak Point, the Dallas, the Cascades, Cheate River, Takama
River, on the Columbia. ' ' Cheenooks, Clatsops and several tribes near the
THE CHINOOK FAMILY. 305
entrance df the Columbia Kiver.' Warre and Vo.vaseur, in Martin's Hud. B.,
p. 81. Upper and Lower Chinooks on the Columbia Kiver, Lower Chinooks
at Shoalwater Bay. Schooler aft' s Arch., vol. v., p. 490. Chinooks, ' north of
the Columbia.' Id., p. 492. 'Upper Chinooks, five bands, Columbia Kiver,
above the Cowlitz. Lower Chinooks, Columbia Kiver below the Cowlitz,
and four other bands on Shoalwater Bay.' Stevens, in Id., p. 703. 'Mouth
of Columbia river, north side, including some 50 miles interior.' Emmons,
in Id., vol. iii., p. 201. The Chinnooks 'reside chiefly along the banks of a
river, to which we gave the same name ; and which, running parallel to the
sea coast empties itself into Haley's Bay.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p.
425, and map; Irving' s Astoria, p. 335. 'To the south of the mouth of the
Columbia.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 15. ' Chenooks on the Columbia.'
Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 210. North side of the Columbia. Morse's Report,
p. 368; Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 286. Tshinuk south of the Columbia at
mouth. Watlala on both sides of the river from the Willamette to Dalles.
They properly belong to the Indians at the Cascades. Hale's Ethnog., in V. 8.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 2J4-5, and map, p. 197. Banks of the Columbia from
Dalles to the mouth. Farnham's Trav., p. 85. The Upper Chinooks were
the Shalala and Echeloots of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept,
vol. i., p. 417. In the vicinity of the mouth of the Columbia, there are, be
sides the Chinooks, the Klickatacks, Cheehaylas, Naas, and many other
tribes. Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113.
' The Flathead Indians are met with on the banks of the Columbia Kiver,
from its mouth eastward to the Cascades, a distance of about 150 miles; they
extend up the Walhamette Kiver's mouth about thirty or forty miles, and
through the district between the Walhamette and Fort Astoria.' Kane's
Wand., p. 173. ' The Flatheads are a very numerous people, inhabiting the
shores of the Columbia River, and a vast tract of country lying to the south
of it.' Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. 'The Cathlascon tribes, which
inhabit the Columbia River.' Scoider, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p.
225. Cathlascos on the Columbia River, S. side 220 miles from its mouth.
Morse's Rept., p. 368.
Shoalwater Bay Indians: Whilapah on Whilapah river; Necomanchee, or
Nickornin, on Nickomin river, flowing into the east side of the bay; Quelap-
tonlilt, at the mouth of Whilapah river; Wharhoots, at the present site of
Bruceport; Querqueltin, at the mouth of a creek; Palux, on Copahix or
Palux river; Marhoo, Nasal, on the Peninsula. Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 211.
'Karweewee, or Artsmilsh, the name of the Shoalwater Bay tribes.' Id., p.
210. Along the coast north of the Columbia are the Chinnooks, Killax-
thockle, Chilts, Clamoitomish, Potoashees, etc. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p.
428. Quillequeoquas at Shoalwater Bay. Map in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., .
p 200. Kwalhioqua, north of the Columbia near the mouth. Hole's Ethnog.
in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 204, and map, p. 197. Klatskauai, 'on the
upper waters of the Nehalem, a stream running into the Pacific, on those of
Young's River, and one bearing their own name, which enters the Columbia
at Oak Point.' Gibbs' Chinook Vocab., p. iv. Willopahs, 'on the Willopah
River, and the head of the Chihalis.' Ib.
The Chilts inhabit the ' coast to the northward of Cape Disappointment.
VOL. I. 20
306 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Cox's Adven., vol. i., 302. ' North of the mouth of the Columbia and Chealis
rivers.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 261, and map. 'On the sea-coast near
Point Lewis.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav , p. 401.
Miscellaneous bands on the Columbia; Aleis, on the north side of the
Columbia. Gass' Jour., p. 285. Cathlacumups 'on the main shore S.W. of
Wappatoo Isl.' Morse's Rept., p. 371. Cathlakamaps, 'at the mouth of the
Wallaumut. ' Id., p. 368. Cathlanamenarnens, ' On the island in the mouth
of the Wallaumut.' Id., p. 368. Cathlanaquiahs, 'On the S.W. side of
Wappatoo Isl.' Id., p. 371. Cathlapootle, eighty miles from mouth of the
Columbia opposite the mouth of the Willamette. Id , p. 368. Cathlathlas,
'at the rapids, S. side.' Id., p. 368. Clahclellah, 'below the rapids.' Morse's
Rept., p. 370. Clannarminnamuns, 'S.W. side of Wappatoo Isl.' Id., p. 371.
•Clanimatas, 'S.W. side of Wappatoo Isl.' Ib. Clockstar, ' S.E. side of
"Wappattoo Isl.' Ib. Cooniacs, 'of Oak Point (Kahnyak or Kukhiiyak, the
'Kreluits of Franchere and Skilloots of Lewis and Clarke).' Gibbs' Chinook
Vocab., p. iv. Hellwits, ' S. side 39 miles from mouth.' Morse's Rept., p. 368.
Katlagakya, ' from the Cascades to Vancouver.' Framboise, in Land. Geog. Soc.
.Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. Katlaminimim, on Multnomah Island. Ib. Katla-
portl, river of same name, and right bank of Columbia for five miles above
its mouth. Ib. Ketlakaniaks, at Oak Point, formerly united with Kolnit.
Ib. Klakalama, between Kathlaportle and Towalitch rivers. Ib. Mamnit,
•'Multnomah Isl.' Ib. Nechakoke, ' S. side, near Quicksand river, opposite
Diamond Isl.' Morse's Rept., p. 370. Neerchokioon, south side above the
Wallaumut river. Ib. Shalala at the grand rapids down to the Wlllaniet. Ib.
Quathlapotle, between the Cowlits and Chahwahnahinooks (Cathlapootle ?)
river. Lewis and Clarke's Map. Seamysty, 'at the mouth of the Towalitch
River.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. Shoto, W. side
'back of a pond and nearly opposite the entrance of the Willamut. Morse's
Rept., p. 370. Skillutes, ' about junction of Cowlitz.' Lewis and Clarke's Map.
Skiloots on the Columbia on each side, from the lower part of the Columbia
Valley as low as Sturgeon Island, and on both sides of the Coweliskee River.
Morse's Rept., p. 371. Smockshop. Id., p. 370. Trile Kalets, near Fort Van-
•couver. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. B., p. 81. Wahclellah, 'below
.all the rapids.' Morse's Rept., p. 370. Wakamass, 'Deer's Isle to the lower
branch of the Wallamat.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255.
Wyampams, at the narrows. Ross' Adven., pp. 117-19. Tchilouits on the
'Columbia, south bank, below the Cowlitz. Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1821, torn, x., p. 112. Cathlakaheckits and Cathlathlalas in vicinity
-of the Cascades. Id., torn, xii., 1821, p. 23.
The Clatsops live on Point Adams. Ilines' Voy., 88. ' South side of the
^(Columbia) river at its mouth.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., pp. 30, 286. ' Southern
shore of the bay at the mouth of the Columbia, and along the seacoast on
both sides of Point Adams.' Morton's Crania, p. 211; Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., pp. 401, 426, and map. 12 miles from mouth, south side. Morse's
Rept., p. 368. 'South side of the river.' Gass' Jour., p. 244. 'From near
Tillamook Head to Point Adams and up the river to Tongue Point.' Gibbs'
Chinook Vocab., p. iv. Klakhelnk, ' on Clatsop Point, commonly called Clat
sops.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255; Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 201, vol. v., p. 492.
COAST TRIBES OF OREGON. 307
The Wakiakum, or ' Wakaikum, live on the right bank of the Columbia;
on a small stream, called Cadet River.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour.,
vol. xi., p. 255. Wakiakums (Wakaiakum) 'towards Oak Point.' Gibbs' Chi
nook Vocab., p. iv. Wahkiacums, adjoining the Cathlamahs on the south
east and the Skilloots on the north-west. Lewis and Clarke's Map. Waaki-
curns, thirty miles from the mouth of the Columbia, north side. Morse's
Kept., p. 368.
The Cathlamets extend from Tongue Point to Puget's Island. Gibbs' Chi
nook Vocab., p. iv. ' Opposite the lower village of the Wahkiacums.' Irving's
Astoria, p. 33 J. '30 miles from the mouth of Columbia.' Morse's Kept., p.
368. ' On a river of same name.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol.
xi., p. 255; Lewis and Clarke's Map.
'Along the coast south of the Columbia river are the Clatsops, Killa-
mucks, Lucktons, Kahunkle, Lickawis, Youkone, Necketo, Ulseah, Youitts,
Shiastuckle, Killawats, Cookoose, Shalalahs, Luckasos, Hannakalals.' Lewis
and Clarke's Trav., pp. 427-8. 'Along the coast S. of Columbia river, and
speak the Killamucks language,' Youicone, Neekeetoos, Ulseahs, Youitts,
Sheastukles, Killawats, Cookkoooose, Shallalah, Luckkarso, Hannakallal.
Morse's Kept., p. 371. Naelim, 'on a river on the sea-coast, 30 miles S. of
Clatsop Point,' and the following tribes proceeding southward. Nikaas,
Kowai, Neselitch,Tacoon, Aleya, Sayonstla, Kiliwatsal, Kaons, Godamyou (!),
Stotonia, at the mouth of Coquin river. Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour.,
vol. xi., pp. 255-6.
The Killamooks dwell along the coast southward from the mouth of the
Columbia. ' Near the mouth of the Columbia.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 262.
Callimix, '40 miles S. of Columbia.' Morse's Eept., p. 368. Killamucks,
'along the S.E. coast for many miles.' Id., p. 371. Tillamooks, 'along the
coast from Umpqua River to the Neachesna, a distance of one hundred and
twenty miles.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 256, 259. Kilamukes,
' south and east of mouth of the Columbia, extending to the coast.' Emmons,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 201. Nsietshawus, or Killamuks, 'on the
sea-coast south of the Columbia.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi.,
p. 211, and map, p. 197. 'Between the river Columbia and the Umpqua.'
Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. B., p. 81. 'Country about Cape
Lookout.' Palmer's Jour., p. 105. ' On comprend sous le nom general de
Killimous, les Indiens du sud du Rio Colombia, tels que les Nahelems, les
Nikas, les Kaouais, les Alsiias, les Umquas, les Toutounis et les Sastes. Ces
deux dernieres peuplades se sont jusqu'a present montrees hostiles aux car-
avanes des blancs.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 335, 357. Killamucks, next
to the Clatsops. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 426. ' Callemeux nation.' Gass'
Jour., p. 260. Callemax on the coast forty leagues south of the Columbia.
Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., torn, x., p. 90.
The Lucktons are found ' adjoining the Killamucks, and in a direction S
S.E.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 427.
The Jakon, or Yakones, dwell south of the Killamooks on the coast. Hale's
Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218, and map, p. 197.
The Tlatskanai are farther inland than the Killamooks. Id., p. 204.
The Umpquas live ' on a river of that name.' Framboise, in Lond. Geog. Soc.
308 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Jour., vol. xi., p. 256. 'In a valley of the same name. They are divided
into six tribes; the Sconta, Chalula, Palakahu, Quattamya, and Chasta.'
Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 262. Umbaquas. Id., p. 262. ' Umpquas (3 tribus)
sur la riviere de ce nom, et de la riviere aux Vaches.' Mofras, Explor., torn,
ii., p. 335. 'The Umkwa inhabit the tipper part of the river of that name,
having the Kalapuya on the north, the Lutuami (Clamets), on the east, and
the Sainstkla between them and the sea.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. vi., p. 204, and map, p. 197. Two hundred and twenty-five miles south
of the Columbia. Hines' Voy., p. 94. 'The country of the Umpquas is bound
ed east by the Cascade mountains, west by the Umpqua mountains and the
ocean, north by the Calipooia mountains and south by Grave Creek and
Rogue River mountains.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 255; Emmons,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 201, vol. v., p. 492.
The Saiustkla reside ' upon a small stream which falls into the sea just
south of the Umqua River.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221,
map, p. 197. Sinselaw, ' on the banks of the Sinselaw river. ' Harvey, in Ind.
Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 80. Sayousla, ' near the mouth of Sayousla bay.' Brooks,
in Id., 1862, p. 299, Saliutla, ' at the mouth of the Umbaqua river.' Parker's
Explor. Tour, p. 262.
The Katlawotsetts include the Siuslaw and Alsea bands on Siuslaw River;
the Scottsburg, Lower Umpqua, and Kowes Bay bands on Umpqua River.
Drew, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p. 359. Kiliwatshat, ' at the mouth of the
Umpqua.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221.
The Alseas, or Alseyas, live on Alsea Bay. Brooks, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1862, p. 299; Harvey, in Id., 1863, p. 80. Chocreleatan, 'at the forks of the
Coquille river.' Quahtomahs, between Coquille River and Port Orford.
Nasomah, ' near the mouth of the Coquille River.' Parrish, in Ind. Aff. Eept.,
1854, p. 287.
Willamette Valley Nations : ' The nations who inhabit this fertile neigh
bourhood are very numerous. The Wappatoo inlet extends three hund
red yards wide, for ten or twelve miles to the south, as far as the hills near
which it receives the waters of a small creek, whose sources are not far from
those of the Killamuck river. On that creek resides the Clackstar nation, a
numerous people of twelve hundred souls, who subsist on fish and wappatoo,
and who trade by means of the Killamuck river, with the nation of that
name on the sea-coast. Lower down the inlet, towards the Columbia, is the
tribe called Cathlacumup. On the sluice which connects the inlet with the
Multnomah, are the tribes Cathlanahquiah and Cathlacomatup; and on Wap
patoo island, the tribes of Clannahminamun and Clahnaquah. Immedi
ately opposite, near the Towahnahiooks, are the Quathlapotles, and higher
up, on the side of the Columbia, the Shotos. All these tribes, as well as
the Cathlahaws, who live somewhat lower on the river, and have an old vil
lage on Deer island, may be considered as parts of the great Multnomah
nation, which has its principal residence on Wappatoo island, near the mouth
of the large river to which they give their name. Forty miles above its junc
tion with the Columbia, it receives the waters of the Clackamos, a river which
may be traced through a woody and fertile country to its sources in Mount
Jefferson, almost to the foot of which it is navigable for canoes. A nation
NATIVES OF THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 309
of the same name resides in eleven villages along its borders : they live chiefly
on fish and roots, which abound in the Clackamos and along its banks, though
they sometimes descend to the Columbia to gather wappatoo, where they can
not be distinguished by dress or manners, or language, from the tribes of
Multnomahs. Two days' journey from the Columbia, or about twenty miles
beyond the entrance of the Clackamos, are the falls of the Multnomah. At
this place are the permanent residences of the Cushooks and Chaheowahs,
two tribes who are attracted to that place by the fish, and by the convenience
of trading across the mountains and down Killamuck river, with the nation
of Killamucks, from whom they procure train oil. These falls were occa
sioned by the passage of a high range of mountains; beyond which the
country stretches into a vast level plain, wholly destitute of timber. As far
as the Indians, with whom we conversed, had ever penetrated that country,
it was inhabited by a nation called Calahpoewah, a very numerous people,
whose villages, nearly forty in number, are scattered along each side of the
Multnomah, which furnish them with their chief subsistence, fish, and the
roots along its banks.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 507-8. Calapooyas, Moo-
lallels, and Clackamas in the Willamette Valley. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii.,
p. 200, map. Cathlakamaps at the mouth of the Ouallamat; Cathlapoutles
opposite; Cathlanaminimins on an island a little higher up; Mathlanobes on
the upper part of the same island; Cathlapouyeas just above the falls; the
Cathlacklas on an eastern branch farther up; and still higher the Chochonis.
Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., pp. 115, 117.
The Cathlathlas live * 60 miles from the mouth of the Wallaumut.' Morse's
Kept., p. 368.
The Cloughewallhah are ' a little below the falls.' Parker's Explor. Tour,
p. 177.
The Katlawewalla live ' at the falls of the Wallamat.' Framboise, in Lond.
Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 256.
The Leeshtelosh occupy the 'headwaters of the Multnomah.' Hunter's
Captivity, p. 73.
The Multnomahs (or Mathlanobs) dwell ' at upper end of the island in
the mouth of the Wallaumut.' Morse's Kept., p. 368.
The Nemalquinner lands are *N.E. side of the Wallaumut river, 3 miles
above its mouth.' Morse's Kept., p. 370.
The Newaskees extend eastward of the headwaters of the Multnomah, on
a large lake. Hunter's Captivity, p. 73.
The Yamkallies dwell ' towards the sources of the Wallamut Kiver.' Scou-
ler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225.
The Calapooyas live in the upper Willamette Valley. Callipooya, ' Wil
lamette Valley.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 492, vol. iii., p. 201. Kala-
puya, 'above the falls.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 217.
Callawpohyeaas, Willamette tribes sixteen in number. Ross' Fur Hunters,
vol. i., p. 108. Calapooah, seventeen tribes on the Willamette and its branch
es. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 261. Callappohyeaass nation consists of Wa-
comeapp, Nawmooit, Chillychandize, Shookany, Coupe, Shehees, Long-
tonguebuff, Lamalle, and Pecyou tribes. Boss' Adven., pp. 236-6. Kalapoo-
yahs, 'on the shores of the Oregon.' Morton's Crania, p. 213. 'Willamat
310 TKIBAL BOUNDABIES.
Plains.' Scouler, in Land. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Kalapuyas,
'above the falls of the Columbia.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 36. '50
miles from the mouth of the "Wallaumut, W. side.' Morse's Sept., p. 368.
Vule Puyas, Valley of the Willamette. Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's
Hud. B., p. 81.
The Clackamas are on the 'Clackama River.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v.,
p. 492. 'Clakemas et Kaoulis, sur le Ouallamet et la riviere Kaoulis.'
Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 'Valley of the Clakamus and the Willa-
muta Falls.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. B., p. 81. Klackamas,
4 three miles below the falls.' /fines' Voy., p. 144. Clackamis. Palmer's Jour.,
p. 84. Clarkamees. Morse's Eept., p. 372. Clackamus. Lewis and Clarke's
Map.
The Mollaks are found in 'Willamettee Valley.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
v., p. 492. ' At the mouth of the Wallamet, and the Wapatoo Islands. Tuck
er's Oregon, p. 71. ' Upon the west side of the Willamette and opposite Ore
gon City.' Palmer's Jour., p. 84.
THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY comprises all the inland tribes of British Co
lumbia, south of lat. 52° 30'.
The AtnaJis, Strangers, Niccoutamuch, or Shushwaps proper, inhabit the
Fraser and Thompson valleys. ' At Spuzzum .... a race very different both in
habits and language is found. These are the Nicoutamuch, or Nicouta-
meens, a branch of a widely-extended tribe. They, with their cognate septs,
the Atnaks, or Shuswapmuch, occupy the Frazer River from Spuzzum to
the frontier of that part of the country called by the Hudson Bay Company
New Caledonia, which is within a few miles of Fort Alexandria.' Mayne's
B. C., p. 296. ' Shushwaps of the Rocky Mountains inhabit the country in
the neighbourhood of Jasper House, and as far as Tete Jaune Cache on the
western slope. They are a branch of the great Shush wap nation who dwell
near the Shushwap Lake and grand fork of the Thompson River in British
Columbia.' Thompson River and Lake Kamloops. Milton and Cheadle's
Northw. Pass., pp. 241, 335. ' On the Pacific side, but near the Rocky Mount
ains, are the Shoushwaps who, inhabiting the upper part of Frazer 's River,
and the north fork of the Columbia.' Blakiston, in Palliser's Explor., p. 44.
'The Shooshaps live below the Sinpauelish Indians.' Parker's Explor. Tour,
,p. 313. 'The Shushwaps possess the country bordering on the lower part
of Frazer's River, and its branches.' Bale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
-vi.,- p. 205. The Atnahs or Soushwap, 'live in the country on the Fraser's
and Thompson's Rivers.' ' They were termed by Mackenzie the Chin tribe.'
.(See p. 251, note 141 of this vol.) Prichard's Researches, vol. v., p. 427; Busch-
•mann, Brit. Nordamer., p. 320. Shooshaps, south of the Sinpavelist. De Smet,
Voy., pp. 50-1. 'The Atnah, or Chin Indian country extends about one
hundred miles,' from Fort Alexander. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 361. Shoo-
shewaps inhabit the region of the north bend of the Columbia, in 52°. At
nahs, in the region of the Fraser and Thompson rivers. Macdonald's Lecture
.on B. C., p. 10; Hector, in Palliser's Explor., p. 27. 'The Shewhapmuch
.(Atnahs of Mackenzie). .. .occupy the banks of Thompson's River; and
along Frazer's River from the Rapid village, twenty miles below Alexandria,
THE SHUSHWAP FAMILY. 311
to the confluence of these two streams. Thence to near the falls the tribe
bears the name of Nicutemuch.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag., vol. vii., p. 76.
' The Stta Llimuh, natives of Anderson Lake, speak a dialect of the She-
swap language.' Skowhomish, in the same vicinity. McKay, in B. C. Papers,
vol. ii., p. 32.
' The Loquilt Indians have their home in the winter on Lake Anderson,
and the surrounding district, whence they descend to the coast in Jervis
Inlet in the summer.' Mayne's B. C., p. 299.
The Kamloops dwell about one hundred and fifty miles north-west of
Okanagan. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 156.
The Clunsus are east of Fraser River, between Yale and latitude 50°;
Skowtous, on the fiftieth parallel south of Lake Kamloops and west of Lake
Okanagan; Sockatcheenum, east of Fraser and north of 51°. Bancroft's Map
of Pac. States.
The Kootenais live in the space bounded by the Columbia River, Rocky
Mountains, and Clarke River. The Kitunaha, Coutanies, or Flatbows, 'wander
in the rugged and mountainous tract enclosed between the two northern forks
of the Columbia. The Flat-bow River and Lake also belong to them.' Hate's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 204-5, map, p. 297. ' Inhabit the country
extending along the foot of the Rocky mountains, north of the Flatheads, for
a very considerable distance, and are about equally in American and in Brit
ish territory.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 416. Kootooiiais, ' on Mc-
Gillivray's River, the Flat Bow Lake, etc." Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's
If ml. B., p. 82. Kootonais, on ' or about the fiftieth parallel at Fort Koo-
tonie, east of Fort Colville.' Simpson's Overland Joum.t vol. i., p. 138. 'Be
tween the Rocky Mountains, the Upper Columbia and its tributary the Kil-
luspehn or Pend'oreille, and watered by an intermediate stream called the
Kootanais River is an angular piece of country peopled by a small, isolated
tribe bearing the same name as the last-mentioned river, on the banks of
v hich they principally live.' Mayne's B. C., p. 297. The lands of the Cot-
tonois 'lie immediately north of those of the Flatheads.' Irving's Bonneville's
Adven., p. 70. Kutanke, Kiitani, Kitunaha, Kutneha, Coutanies, Flatbows,
'near the sources of the Mary River, west of the Rocky Mountains.' Ludewig,
Ab. Lang., p. 98. ' Inhabit a section of country to the north of the Ponderas,
along M'Gillivray's river.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 312. 'Koutanies ou
Arcs-Plats, Pres du fort et du lac de ce nom.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335.
'In the Kootanie Valley.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 178. Kootonays, south of
the Shushwaps. Palliser's Explor., p. 44. 'Great longitudinal valley ' of the
Kootanie river. Hector, in Id., p. 27. ' The Tobacco Plains form the country
of the Kootaiiies.' Blakiston, in Id., p. 73. 'About the northern branches
of the Columbia.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 30. Kootanais, 'angle between
the Saeliss lands and the eastern heads of the Columbia.' Anderson, in Hist.
Mag., vol. vii., p. 79. About the river of the same name, between the Co
lumbia and Rocky Mountains. Nicolay's Oyn. Ter., p. 143. A band called
Sinatcheggs on the upper Arrow Lake. Ross' Fur Hunters, vol, ii., p. 190.
The Kootenais were perhaps the Tushepaws of Lewis and Clarke.
The Tushepaws are ' a numerous people of four hundred and fifty tents,
residing on the heads of the Missouri and Columbia rivers, and some of
312 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
them lower down the latter river/ Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 321, and
map; Bullfinch's Ogn., p. 134. 'On a N. fork of Clarke's River.' Morse's
Rept., p. 372. Ootlashoots, Micksucksealton (Pend d'Oreilles?), Hohilpos
(Flatheads?), branches of the Tushepaws. Id., and Lewis and Clarke's Map.
The Tushepaw nation might as correctly be included in the Salish family or
omitted altogether. According to Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol., i., p. 417,
they were the Kootenais.
The Okanagans, or Okinakanes, ' comprise the bands lying on the river
of that name, as far north as the foot of the great lake. They are six in
number, viz: the Tekunratum at the mouth; Koiiekonep, on the creek of
that name"; Kluckhaitkwee, at the falls; Kinakanes, near the forks; and Mi-
laketkun, on the west fork. With them may be classed the N'Pockle, or Sans
Puelles, on the Columbia river, though these are also claimed by the Spo-
kanes. The two bands on the forks are more nearly connected with the
Schwogelpi than with the ones first named.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854,
p. 237, and in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 412. Oakinackens, Priests' Rapids,
northward over 500 miles, and 100 miles in width, to the Shewhaps, branch
ing out into 12 tribes, as follows, beginning with the south: ' Skamoynu-
machs, Kewaughtchemmaughs, Pisscows, Incomecanetook, Tsillane, Inti-
etook, Battlelemuleemauch, or Meatwho, Inspellum, Sinpohellechach, Sin-
whoyeippetook, Samilkanuigh and Oakinacken, which is nearly in the centre.'
Ross' Adven., pp. 289-90. ' On both sides the Okanagan River from its mouth
up to British Columbia, including the Sennelkameen River.' Ross, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1870, p. 22. ' Pres du fort de ce nom.' Mofras, Explor. torn, ii., p. 335.
' On the Okanagan and Piscour Rivers.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's
Hud. B., p. 82. ' Composed of several small bands living along the Okina-
kane river, from its confluence with the Columbia to Lake Okinakane. . . . A
majority of the tribe live north of the boundary line.' Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1865, p. 99. ' Columbia Valley.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 490. North
east and west of the Shoopshaps. De Smet, Voy., p. 51. Junction of the Okan
agan and Columbia. Parker's Map. 'Upper part of Eraser's River and its
tributaries.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Principal
family called Conconulps about 9 miles up stream of the same name. Ross'
Adven., pp. 289-90. The Similkameen live on S. river, and 'are a portion
of the Okanagau tribe.' Palmer, in B. Col. Papers, vol. iii., p. 85. The Okan
agans, called Catsanim by Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
i., p. 417. Cutsahnim, on the Columbia above the Sokulks, and on the north
ern branches of the Taptul. Morse's Rept., p. 372.
THE SALISH FAMILY includes all the inland tribes between 49° and 47°.
The Salish, Saalis, Selish, or Flatheads, ' inhabit the country about the up
per part of the Columbia and its tributary streams, the Flathead, Spokan,
and Okanagan Rivers. The name includes several independent tribes or
bands, of which the most important are the Salish proper, the Kullespelm,
the Soayalpi, the Tsakaitsitlin, and the Okinakan.' Kale's Ethnog., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 205. 'The Saeliss or Shewhapmuch race, whose limits
may be defined by the Rocky Mountains eastward; on the west the line of
Frazer's river from below Alexandria to Kequeloose, near the Falls, in about
THE SALISH FAMILY. 313
latitude 49° 50'; northward by the Carrier offset of the Chippewyans; and
south by the Sahaptins or Nez Perces of Oregon.' Anderson, in Hist. Mag.,
vol. vii., p. 73. 'From Thompson's River other septs of this race — the
Shuswaps, Skowtous, Okanagans, Spokans, Skoielpoi (of Colville), Pend'o-
reilles, and Coeurs d'Aleines— occupy the country as far as the Flathead
Passes of the Eocky Mountains, where the Saelies or Flatheads form the
eastern portion of the race.' Mayne's B. C., pp. 296-7. 'About the northern
branches of the Columbia.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 30; Domenech's Deserts,
vol. ii., p. 55. Tribes mentioned in Lewis and Clarke's Trav., and map: Tushe-
paw (Kootenai), Hopilpo (Flathead), Micksucksealtom (Pend d'Oreilles),
Wheelpo, (Chualpays), Sarlisto and Sketsomish (Spokanes), Hehighenimmo
(Sans Poils), according to Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 41J. See
Morse's Rept., p. 372; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. "55. 'Between the two
great branches of the Columbia and the Rocky Mountains are only five
petty tribes: the Kootanais and Selish, or Flatheads, at the foot of the
mountains, and the Pointed Hearts, Pend d'Oreilles, and Spokanes lower
down.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 190. 'Divided into several tribes, the
most important of which are the Selishes, the Kullespelms, the Soayalpis,
the Tsakai'tsitlius, and the Okinakans.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 55-6.
The Flatheads, or Salish proper, reside on the river, valley, and lake of
the same name. ' Inhabit St. Mary's or the Flathead Valley and the neigh
borhood of the lake of the same name.' Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i.,
p. 415, and in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 207. ' Occupying the valleys between
the Bitter Root and Rocky mountains.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854,
p. 282. 'South of the Flathead Valley on the Bitter Root.' Sully, in Id.,
1870, p. 192. St. Mary's River. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 490. ' East
and south-east (of the Coeurs d'Alene) and extends to the Rocky Mountains.'
Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 311, and map. De Smet, Miss, de I'Ore'gon, p. 31.
Saalis ou faux Tetes-Plates. Sur la riviere de ce noin au pied des Mon-
tagnes Rocheuses. Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. ' Along the foot of
the mountains.' Ross' Adven., p. 213. ' In New Caledonia, W. of the Rocky
Mountains.' Morse's Rept., p. 371. Bitter Root valley. Hutchins, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 455, 1865, p. 246; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 153. Hopilpo,
of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417. ' Us occupent
le pays compris entre le Lewis-River et la branche nord-ouest ou la Co
lumbia, et borne en arriere par les Monts-Rocailleux. Stuart, in Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 43.
The Pend d'Oreilles occupy the vicinity of the lake of the same name.
* On the Flathead or Clarke River.' Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. B., p.
82. ' At Clark's Fork.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 490. Lower Pend d 'O-
reilles, ' in the vicinity of the St. Ignatius Mission.' Paige, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1865, p. 98. ' The Kalispelms or Pend d'Oreilles of the Lower Lake, inhabit
the country north of the Coeur d'Alenes and around the Kalispelm lake.'
Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 415. Calispels, or Calispellum, 'on
Fool's Prairie at the head of Colville Valley, and on both sides of the Pend
d'Oreille River, from its mouth to the Idaho line, but principally at the Camas
Prairie.' Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, pp. 22, 25, 192. Situated to the
east of Fort Colville, adjoining the Kootonais on their eastern border. Simp-
314 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
son's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 146. ' Pend'oreilles ou Kellespem. Au-
dessous du fort Colville.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Skatkmlschi, or
Pend d'Oreilles of the upper lake. A tribe who, by the consent of the Se-
lish, occupy jointly with them the country of the latter. Gibbs, in Pac. R. It.
Kept., vol. i., p. 415. Kullas-Palus, 'on the Flathead or Clarke River.'
Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. B., p. 82. Ponderas, 'north of
Clarke's river and on a lake which takes its name from the tribe.' Parker's
Explor. Tour, p. 312 and map; De Smet, Voy., p. 32. The Pend'oreilles were
probably the Micksucksealtom of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R.
Rept., vol. i., p. 417.
Tribes" baptized by De Smet: Thlishatkmuche, Stietshoi, Zingomenes,
Shaistche, Shuyelpi, Tschilsoloini, Siur Poils, Tinabsoti, Yinkaceous, Yej-
ak-oun, all of same stock.
Tribes mentioned by Morse as living in the vicinity of Clarke River:
Coopspellar, Lahama, Lartielo, Hihighenimmo, Wheelpo, Skeetsomish. Sept.,
p. 372.
The Coeurs d'Alene 'live about the lake which takes its name from them.'
Hate's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 209. East of the Spokanes, at
headwaters of the Spokane River. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 310, and map.
* The Skitswish or Coeur d'Alenes, live upon the upper part of the Coeur
d'Alene river, above the Spokanes, and around the lake of the same name.'
Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 415. Their mission is on the river
ten miles above the lake and thirty miles from the mountains. Stevens, in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 216. Stietshoi, or Coeur d'Alenes on the river, and
about the lake. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map, vol. v., p. 490.
Pointed Hearts, ' shores of a lake about fifty miles to the eastward of Spo-
kan House.' Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 150; Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 143; De
Smet, Miss, de I' Oregon, p. 31. ' St. Joseph's river.' Mullan's Rept., p. 49.
The Colvilles include the tribes about Kettle Falls, and the banks of the
Columbia up to the Arrow Lakes. ' Colville valley and that of the Colum
bia river from Kettle Falls to a point thirty miles below.' Paige, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1865, p. 98. 'The Colvilles, whose tribal name is Swielpree, are lo
cated in the Colville Valley, on the Kettle River, and on both sides of the
Columbia River, from Kettle Falls down to the mouth of the Spokane.'
Winans, in Id., 1870, p. 22. Colvilles and Spokanes, 'near Fort Colville.'
Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hud. S., p. 82.
The Lakes, ' whose tribal name is Senijextee, are located on both sides of
the Columbia River, from Kettle Falls north to British Columbia.' Winans,
in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 22. ' So named from their place of residence,
which is about the Arrow Lakes.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 312. 'Les sau-
vages des Lacs resident sur le Lac-aux-fleches. ' De Smet, Voy., p. 50.
The Chaudieres, or Kettle Falls, reside 'about Colville.' Parker's Ex
plor. Tour, p. 313. The village of Les Chaudieres ' is situated on the north
side just below the fall.' Cox's Adven., vol. i., p. 358. Chaudieres ' live south
of the Lake Indians.' De Smet, Voy., p. 50. 'Fort Colville is the principal
ground of the Schwoyelpi or Kettle Falls tribe.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept.t
vol. i., p. 413. ' The tribe in the vicinity (of Fort Colville) is known as the
Chaudiere, whose territory reaches as far up as the Columbia Lakes.' Simp-
THE SPOKANE NATION. 315
son's Overland Journ., vol. i., p. 151. 'Gens des Chaudieres. Pres du lac
Schouchouap au-dessous des Dalles.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335.
'Called in their own language, Chualpays.' Kane's Wand., pp. 308-9.
' Called Quiarlpi (Basket People).' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv.,
p. 472. The Chualpays called "Wheelpo by Lewis and Clarke, and by
Morse. Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 417.
The Spokanes live on the Spokane river and plateau, along the banks of
the Columbia from below Kettle Falls, nearly to the Okanagan. ' The Spo-
kilmish, or Spokanes, lie south of the Schrooyelpi, and chiefly upon or
near the Spokane river. The name applied by the whites to a number of
small bands, is that given by the Coeur d'Alene to the one living at the
forks. They are also called Sinkoman, by the Kootonies. These bands
are eight in number: the Sinslihhooish, on the great plain above the cross
ings of the Coeur d'Alene river; the Sintootoolish, on the river above the
forks; the Smahoomenaish (Spokehnish), at the forks; the Skaischilt'nish,
at the old Chemakane mission; the Skecheramouse, above them on the
Colville trail; the Scheeetstish, the Sinpoilschne, and Sinspeelish, on the
Columbia river; the last-named band is nearly extinct. The Sinpoilschne
(N'pochle, or San» Puelles) have always been included among the Okin-
akanes, though, as well as the Sinspeelish below them, they are claimed by
the Spokanes. The three bands on the Columbia all speak a different
language from the rest.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, pp. 220, 236; and
Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., pp. 414-15. 'This tribe claim as their
territory the country commencing on the large plain at the head of the Slawn-
tehus — the stream entering the Columbia at Fort Colville; thence down the
Spokane to the Columbia, down the Columbia half way to Fort Okina-
kane, and up the Spokane and Coeur d'Alene, to some point between the
falls and the lake, on the latter.' Id., p. 414. 'Inhabit the country on the
Spokane river, from its mouth to the boundary of Idaho.' Paige, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1865, p. 99. 'At times on the Spokane, at times on the Spokane
plains.' Midlaris Eept., pp. 18, 49. 'Principally on the plains.' Lord's Nat.,
vol. ii., p. 157. 'North-east of the Palooses are the Spokein nation.' Park
er's Explor. Tour, p. 310, and map. « Au-dessous du fort Okanagam a 1'Est.'
Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. ' Au nord-ouest des Palooses se trouve la
nation des Spokanes.' De Smet, Voy., p. 31. 'Have a small village at the
entrance of their river, but their chief and permanent place of residence
is about forty miles higher up .... where the Pointed-heart River joins
the Spokan from the south-east.' Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 147. 'The Spo
kanes, whose tribal names are Sineequomenach, or Upper, Sintootoo, or
Middle Spokamish, and Chekasschee, or Lower Spokanes, living on the
Spokane Biver, from the Idaho line to its mouth.' Winans, in Ind. Aff. Eept.,
1870, p. 23. Spokane, the Sarlilso and Sketsomish of Lewis and Clarke.
Gibbs, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. i., p. 417.
The Sans Polls (Hairless), or ' Sanpoils, which includes the Nespeelum
Indians, are located on the Columbia, from the mouth of the Spokane down
to Grand Coulee Con the south of the Columbia), and from a point opposite
the mouth of the Spokane down to the mouth of the Okanagan on the north
side of the Columbia, including the country drained by the Sanpoil, and
316 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Nespeehim Creeks.' Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 22. Sinpoilish,
west of the Columbia between Priest Rapids and Okanagan. Schoolcrajt' 's
Arch., vol. iii., p. 200, map. Sinpauelish, west of the Kettle Falls Indians.
Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 313. ' Sinipouals. Pres des grands rapides du Rio
Colombia.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Sinpavelist, west of the Chau-
dieres. De Smet, Voy., p. 50. Sinapoils, 'occupy a district on the northern
banks of the Columbia, between the Spokan and Oakinagan rivers.' Cox's
Adven., vol. ii., p. 145. Hehighenimmo of Lewis and Clarke. Gibbs, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417.
The Pisquouse inhabit the west bank of the Columbia between the Okan
agan and Priest Rapids. Piskwaus, or Piscous; 'name properly belongs
to the tribe who live on the small river which falls into the Columbia on the
west side, about forty miles below Fort Okanagan. But it is here extended
to all the tribes as far down as Priest's Rapids.' The map extends their ter
ritory across the Columbia. Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 210,
and map, p. 197. Pisquouse, 'immediately north of that of the Yakamas.'
' On the Columbia between the Priest's and Ross Rapids.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1854, p. 236; and Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 412. ' Piscaous.
Sur la petite riviere de ce nom a 1'Ouest de la Colombia.' Mofras, Explor.,
torn, ii., p. 335.
The Skamoynumacks live on the banks of the Columbia, at Priest
Rapids, near the mouth of the Umatilla. Thirty miles distant up the river
are the Kewaughtohenemachs. Ross' Adven., pp. 134, 137.
' The Mithouies are located on the west side of the Columbia River, from
the mouth of the Okanagan down to the Wonatchee, and includes the
country drained by the Mithouie, Lake Chelan, and Enteeatook Rivers.'
Winans, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 23.
' The Isle de Pierres, whose tribal name is Linkinse, are located on the
east and south side of the Col. Riv. from Grand Coulee down to Priests'
Rapids, which includes the peninsula made by the great bend of the Col.' Ib.
THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY is situated immediately south of the Salish. Only
six of the eight nations mentioned below have been included in the Family
by other authors. ' The country occupied by them extends from the Dalles
of the Columbia to the Bitter-Root mountains, lying on both sides of the
Columbia and upon the Kooskooskie and Salmon Forks of Lewis' and Snake
River, between that of the Selish family on the north, and of the Snakes on
the south.' Gibbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vii. ' The first and more northern
Indians of the interior may be denominated the Shahaptan Family, and com
prehends three tribes; the Shahaptan, or Nez Perces of the Canadians; the
Kliketat, a scion from the Shahaptans who now dwell near Mount Rainier,
and have advanced toward the falls of the Columbia; and the Okanagan,
who inhabit the upper part of Eraser's River and its tributaries.' Scouler, in
Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. Hale's map, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi.,
p. 197, divides the territory among the Nez Perces, Walla- Wallas, Waiilaptu,
and Molele. ' The Indians in this district (of the Dalles) are Dog River, Was-
cos, Tyicks, Des Chutes, John Day, Utilla, Cayuses, Walla- Walla, Nez Perces,
Mountain Snakes and Bannacks.' Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 435.
SAHAPTIN FAMILY. 317
' The different tribes attached to Fort Nez Perces, and who formerly went by
that cognomen, are the Shamooinaugh, Skamnaminaugh, E'yackiinah, Ispipe-
whumaugh, and Inaspetsum. These tribes inhabit the main north branch
above the Forks. On the south branch are the Palletto Pallas, Shawhaapten
or Nez Perces proper, Pawluch, and Cosispa tribes. On the main Columbia,
beginning at the Dallas, are the Necootimeigh, Wisscopam, Wisswhams,
"Wayyampas, Lowhim, Sawpaw, and Youmatalla bands.' Ross' Fur Hunters,
vol. i., p. 185-6. Cathlakahikits, at the rapids of Columbia river, N. side;
Chippanchickchicks, ' N. side of Columbia river, in the long narrows, a lit
tle below the falls.' Hellwits, 'at the falls of Columbia river;' Ithkyema-
mits, 'on Columbia river, N. side near Chippanchickchicks;' Yehah, 'above
the rapids.' Morse's Rept., pp. 368-70.
The Nez Perces ' possess the country on each side of the Lewis or Snake
River, from the Peloose to the Wapticacoes, about a hundred miles — together
with the tributary streams, extending, on the east, to the foot of the Rocky
Mountains.' Sale's Ethnoy., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 212; Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 551. ' On both sides of the Kooskooskia and north fork of
Snake river.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 416; and Stevens, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 217. ' A few bands of the Nez Perces Indians occupy the
Salmon river and the Clearwater.' Thompson, in Id., p. 282. ' The Nez Perces
country is bounded west by the Palouse river and the Tucannon; on the
north by the range of mountains between Clear Water and the Coeur d'A-
lene; east by the Bitter Hoot mountains; on the south they are bounded
near the line dividing the two Territories.' Craig, in Id., 1857, p. 353. The
Buffalo, a tribe of the Nez Perces, winter in the Bitter Root Valley. Owen, in
Id., 1859, p. 424. 'Upper waters and mountainous parts of the Columbia.'
Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 108. ' Country lying along Lewis river and
its tributaries from the eastern base of the Blue Mountains to the Columbia.'
Palmer's Jour., p. 55. Nez Perces or Sahaptins, ' on the banks of the Lewis
Fork or Serpent River.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 54. ' Chohoptins,
or Nez-Perces, on the banks of Lewis River.' Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p.
143. 'Rove through the regions of the Lewis branch.' Greenhow's Hist.
Ogn., p. 30. 'The Lower Nez Perces range upon the Wayleeway, Immahah,
Yenghies, and other of the streams west of the mountains.' Irving' s Bon-
neville's Adven., p. 301. Some Flatheads live along the Clearwater River
down to below its junction with the Snake. Gass' Jour., p. 212. Country
'drained by the Kooskooskie, westward from the Blackfoot country, and
across the Rocky Mountains.' Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 533. 'Pres du fort
de ce nom, a la jonction des deux branches du fleuve.' Mofras, Explor., torn,
ii., p. 335. Junction of Snake and Clearwater. Parker's Explor. Tour, Map.
Chopunnish. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 331, and map. Copunnish. Bui-
finch's Oregon, p. 144. 'The Nez-Perces are divided into two classes, the
Nez-Perces proper, who inhabit the mountains, and the Polonches, who in
habit the plain country about the mouth of the Snake River.' Gairdner, in
Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 256. Chopunnish, ' on Lewis river below
the entrance of the Kooskooskee, on both sides.' 'On the Kooskooskee
river below the forks, and on Cotter's creek.' Bands of the Chopunnish;
Pelloatpallah, Kiinrnooenim, Yeletpoo, Willewah, Soyennom. Morse's Rept.,
p. 369.
318 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Palouse, or 'the Pains, usually written Paloose, live between the
Columbia and the Snake.' Gibbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vi. 'The Peloose
tribe has a stream called after it which empties into Lewis River.' Hole's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. Upon the Peloose River. 'En
trance of Great Snake River and surrounding country.' Tolmie, in Lord's
Nat., vol. ii., pp. 105, 245. ' Properly a part of the Nez Perces. Their resi
dence is along the Nez Perce river and up the Pavilion.' Parker's Explor.
Tour, p. 310. In three bands; at the mouth of the Pelouse River; on the
north bank of Snake River, thirty miles below the Pelouse; and at the mouth
of the Snake River. Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, pp. 222-3, and in Pac.
E. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 150-1. Palouse, or Pelouse, ' reside on the banks
of the Palouse and Snake rivers.' Mullan's Rept., pp. 18, 49. 'Latribu
Paloose appartient a la nation des Nez-Perces .... elle habite les bords des
deux rivieres des Nez-perces et du Pavilion.' De Smet, Voy., p. 31. Selloat-
pallah, north of the Snake, near its confluence with the Columbia. Lewis
and Clarke's Map. Same as the Sewatpalla. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
i., p. 417.
The Walla- Wallas f occupy the country south of the Columbia and about
the river of that name.' Gibbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vii. 'A number of
bands living usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on the Snake
river to a little east of the Peluse.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 402.
'Are on a small stream which falls into the Columbia near Fort Nez-perces.'
Hole's Ethnog., in V. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. ' Inhabit the country about
the river of the same name, and range some distance below along the Co
lumbia.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 310. 'Upon the banks of the Columbia,
below the mouth of the Lewis Fork are found the Walla-wallas.' BrowndVs
Ind. Races, p. 535. ' Oualla-Oualla, au-dessus du fort des Nez Perces.' Mo-
fras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. ' Under this term are embraced a number of
bands living usually on the south side of the Columbia, and on the Snake
river, to a little east of the Pelouse; as also the Klikatats and Yakamas,
north of the former.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 223. ' On both
sides of the Columbia river between Snake river and Hudson Bay fort, Wal
la-Walla.' Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 374. Walla Wallapum.
Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-7. ' Les Walla-walla habitent, sur la
riviere du merne nom, 1'un des tributaires de la Colombie, et leur pays
s'etend aussi le long de ce fleuve.' De Smet, Voy., p. 30. Wollaw Wollah.
South side of the Snake, at junction with the Columbia. Lewis and Clarke's
Map. Wollaolla and Wollawalla, ' on both sides of Col., as low as the Mus-
cleshell rapid, and in winter pass over to the Taptul river.' Morse's Rept.,
pp. 369-70. ' Country south of the Columbia and about the river of that
name.' QiJbbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vii. Walawaltz nation about the junc
tion of the Snake and Columbia. On Walla Walle River. Gass' Jour., pp.
294-8. ' On both banks of the Columbia, from the Blue Mountains to the
Dalles.' Farnham's Trav., p. 151. Wallah Wallah. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p.
142. 'About the river of that name.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., pp. 143, 151.
Wallawallahs, ' reside along the lower part of the Walla Walla, the low bot
tom of the Umatilla and the Columbia, from the mouth of Lewis River for
one hundred miles south.' Palmer's Jour., pp. 58, 124. ' On the borders of
THE CAYUSES AND WASCOS. 319
the" Wallah wallah"" and Columbia.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64; Stuart,
in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 35.
yThe Sciatogas and Toustchipas live on Canoe Kiver (Tukanon ?), and the
Euotalla (Touchet?), the Akaitchis ' sur le Big-river,' (Columbia). Hunt, in
Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, x., pp. 74-8. The Sciatogas ' possede le
pays borne au sud-est par la Grande-Plaine ; au nord, par le Lewis-Elver; a
1'ouestpar la Columbia; an sud par 1'Oualamat.' Id., 1821, torn, xii., p. 42.
The Cayuses extend from John Day River eastward to Grande Eonde
Valley. The Cayuse, Cailloux, Waiilatpu, 'country south of the Sahaptin
and Walla walla. Their head-quarters are on the upper part of Wallawalla
River.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 214, map, p. 197. 'The
country belonging to the Cayuse is to the south of and between the Nez
Perces and Walla- Wallas, extending from the Des Chutes, or Wanwanwi, to
the eastern side of the Blue mountains.' Stevens, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p.
218; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p. 416. ' On the west side of the Blue
mountains and south of the Columbia liver.1 Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1854, p. 282. ' Occupy a portion of the Walla- Walla valley.' Dennison, in Id.,
1857, p. 374; Cain, in Id., 1859, pp. 413-14. ' A 1'ouest des Nez-perces sont
les Kayuses.' De Smet, Voy., p. 30. The Kayouse dwell upon the Utalla
or Emnutilly River. Townsend's Nar., p. 122. 'West of the Nez Perces.'
Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 309, and map. 'Rove through the regions of
the Lewis branch.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 30. 'Kayouses. Pres du grand
detour de la Colombie.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Waiilatpu, Molele,
called also Willetpoos, Cayuse, ' western Oregon, south of the Columbia
river.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 199; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417.
Caaguas ' inhabit the country bordering on Wallawalla river and its tribu
taries, the Blue mountains and Grand round.' Palmer's Jour., pp. 54-6.
Wyeilat or Kyoose, country to the south of Walla Walla. Tolmie, in Lord's
Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-5. The Sky uses ' dwell about the waters of the Way-
leeway and the adjacent country.' Irving's Bonneville's Adven., p. 388.
The Willewah ' reside on the Willewah river, which falls into the Lewis
river on the S.W. side, below the forks.' Morse's Rept., p. 369. In Grande
Ronde Valley. Lewis and Clarke's Map; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i.,
p. 417.
The Umatillas 'live near the junction of the TJmatilla and Columbia
rivers.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 97. Umatallow River and country extending
thence westward to Dalles. Tolmie, in Id., p. 245. 'The Utillas occupy the
country along the river bearing that name.' Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1857, p. 374.
The Wahowpum live ' on the N. branch of the Columbia, in different
bands from the Pishquitpahs; as low as the river Lapage; the different bands
of this nation winter on the waters of Taptul and Cataract rivers.' Morse's
Rept., p. 370; Lewis and Clarke's Map. On John Day's River. Gibbs, in Pac.
R.R.Rept., vol. i., p. 417.
The Wascos include all the tribes between the Cascade Range and John
Day River, south of the Columbia. 'They are known by the name of
Wasco Indians, and they call their country around the Dallas, Wascopam.
They claim the country extending from the cascades up to the falls of the
320 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Columbia, the distance of about fifty miles.' Hines' Voy., p. 159. 'The
Wascos occupy a small tract of country near to and adjoining the Dalles.'
Dennis'on, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 372. On both sides of the Columbia
about the Dalles are the Wascopams. Map, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p.
200. Eneshur, Echeloots, Chillukkitequaw and Sinacshop occupy the terri
tory, on Lewis and Clarke's Map; Morse's Rept., p. 370. The Tchipantchick-
tchick, Cathlassis, Iltteka'irnamits, and Tchelouits about the Dalles. Stuart,
in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 26; Gibbs, in Pac. R. R.
RepL, vol. i., p. 417.
'The residence of the Molele is (or was) in the broken and wooded
country aBout Mounts Hood and Vancouver.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. vi., p. 214. The Mollales have their home in the Willamette Val
ley. Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 492.
' The Tairtla, usually called Taigh, belong .... to the environs of the Des-
Chutes River.' Gibbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vii.
'The Des Chutes formerly occupied that section of country between
the Dalles and the Tyich river.' Dennison, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 373.
'The Tyichs. . . .formerly occupied the Tyich valley and the country in
its vicinity, which lies about 30 miles south of Fort Dalles.' Ib.
' The John Day Rivers occupy the country in the immediate vicinity of
the river bearing that name.' Ib.
' The Dog River, or Cascade Indians reside on a small stream called Dog
river, which empties into the Columbia river, about half way between the
Cascades and Dalles.' Id., p. 371. The Cascades dwell 'on the river of that
name.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 143.
The Yakimas occupy the valley of the Yakima River and its branches.
' The upper Yakimas occupy the country upon the Wenass and main branch
of the Yakima, above the forks; the. Lower upon the Yakima and its tribu
taries, below the forks and along the Columbia from the mouth of the Yaki
ma to a point three miles below the Dalles.' Robie, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857,
p. 350. Three bands, Wishhams, Clickahut, and Skien, along the Co
lumbia. Id., p. 352. 'The Pshwanwappam bands, usually called Yakamas,
inhabit the Yakama River.' Gibbs, in Pandosy's Gram., p. vii. Lewis and
Clarke's Chanwappan, Shaltattos, Squamaross, Skaddals, and Chimnahpum,
on the Yakima River. Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept.. vol. i., p. 417. The Yakimas
' are divided into two principal bands, each made up of a number of villages,
and very closely connected; one owning the country on the Nahchess and Low
er Yakima, the other are upon the Wenass and main branch above the forks .'
Id., p. 407. Yackamans, northern banks of the Columbia and on the Yack-
amans river. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 143. On the Yakima. Hale's Etlmog. ,
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. ' South of the Long Rapids, to the conflu
ence of Lewis' river with the Columbia, are the Yookoomans.' Parker's Ex-
plor. Tour, p. 313. Pishwanwapum (Yakima), in Yakimaw or Eyakema Val
ley. Tolmie, in Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244-7. Called Stobshaddat by the
Sound Indians. Id., p. 245.
The Chimnapums are ' on the N.W. side of Col. river, both above and
below the entrance of Lewis' r. and the Taptul r.' Morse's Rept., p. 370; Lewis
and Clarke's Map. The 'Chunnapuns and Chanwappans are between the
L
THE KLIKETATS. 321
Cascade Range and the north branch of the Columbia.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter.t
p. 143.
The Pisquitpahs, ' on the Muscleshell rapids, and on the N. side of the
Columbia, to the commencement of the high country; this nation winter on
the waters of the Taptul and Cataract rivers.' Morse's Rept., p. 370.
The Sokulks dwell north of the confluence of the Snake and Columbia.
Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 351, and map; Morse's Eept., p. 369. At Priest
Rapids. Gibbs, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. i., p. 417.
The Kliketats live in the mountainous country north of the Cascades, on
both sides of the Cascade Range, and south of the Yakimas. Klikatats * in
habit, properly, the valleys lying between Mounts St. Helens and Adams, but
they have spread over districts belonging to other tribes, and a band of them
is now located as far south as the Umpqua.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
i., p. 403. ' Roilroilpam is the Klikatat country, situated in the Cascade
mountains north of the Columbia and west of the Yakamas.' Gibbs, in Pan-
dosy's Gram., p. vii. 'Wander in the wooded country about Mount St.
Helens.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 213. ' In the vicinity of
the mouth of the Columbia.' Catlin's N. Am. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. Klikatats.
' Au-dessus du fort des Nez-Perces.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. ' The
Kliketat, a scion from the Sahaptans, who now dwell near Mount Rainier
and have advanced towards the falls of the Columbia.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog.
Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 225. On Lewis and Clarke's Map the Kliketat territory
is occupied by the Chanwappan, Shallatos, Squamaros, Skaddals, Shahalas.
Also in Morse's Rept., p. 372. Whulwhypum, or Kliketat, ' in the wooded
and prairie country between Vancouver and the Dalles.' Tolmie, in Lord's
Nat., vol. ii., p. 245.
The Weyehhoo live on the north side of the Columbia, near Chusattea
River. (Kliketat.) Gass' Jour., p. 288.
VOL. I. 21
CHAPTER IV.
CALIFORNIANS.
GBOUPAL DIVISIONS; NOETHEBN, CENTBAL, AND SOUTHEEN CALIFOENIANS, AND
SHOSHONES— COUNTEY OF THE CALIFOENIANS— THE KLAMATHS, MODOCS,
SHASTAS, PITT RIVEB INDIANS, EUEOCS, CAHROCS, HOOPAHS, WEEYOTS,
TOLEWAS, AND ROGUE RiVEB INDIANS AND THEIE CUSTOMS THE TfiHA-
MAS, POMOS, UKIAHS, GUALALAS, SONOMAS, PETALUMAS, NAPAS, SUSCOLS,
SUISUNES, TAMALES, KAEQUINES, OHLONES, TULOMOS, THAMIENS, OL-
CHONES, RUMSENS, EsCELENS, AND OTHEES OF CENTEAL CALIFOENIA — THE
CAHUILLAS, DIEGUENOS, ISLANDEES, AND MISSION RANCHEEIAS OF
SOUTHEEN CALIFORNIA — THE SNAKES OB SHOSHONES PEOPEE, UTAHS,
BANNOCKS, WASHOES AND OTHEE SHOSHONE NATIONS.
Of the seven groups into which this work separates the
nations of western North America, the CALIFORNIANS con
stitute the third, and cover the territory between latitude
43° and 32°30', extending back irregularly into the
Rocky Mountains. There being few distinctly marked
families in this group, I cannot do better in subdividing
it for the purpose of description than make of the
Californians proper three geographical divisions, namely,
the Northern Californians, the Central Californians, and
the Southern Californians. The Shoshones, or fourth di
vision of this group, who spread out over south-eastern
Oregon, southern Idaho, and the whole of Nevada and
Utah, present more distinctly marked family character
istics, and will therefore be treated as a family.
The same chain of mountains, which, as the Cascade
Range, divides the land of the Columbians, holds its
course steadily southward, and entering the territory of
(322)
HOME OF THE CALIFOKNIANS. 323
the Califorman group forms, under the name of the Sierra
Nevada, the partition between the Californians proper
and the Shoshones of Idaho and Nevada. The influence
of this range upon the climate is also here manifest, only
intenser in degree than farther north. The lands of the
Northern Californians are well watered and wooded,
those of the central division have an abundance of water
for six months in the year, namely, from November to
May, and the soil is fertile, yielding abundantly under
cultivation. Sycamore, oak, cotton- wood, willow, and
white alder, fringe the banks of the rivers ; laurel, buck
eye, manzanita, and innumerable berry-bearing bushes,
clothe the lesser hills; thousands of acres are annually
covered with wild oats; the moist bottoms yield heavy
crops of grass ; and in summer the valleys are gorgeous
with wild-flowers of every hue. Before the blighting
touch of the white man was laid upon the land, the
rivers swarmed with salmon and trout; deer, ante
lope, and mountain sheep roamed over the foot-hills,
bear and other carnivora occupied the forests, and
numberless wild fowl covered the lakes. Decreasing in
moisture toward the tropics, the climate of the Southern
Californians is warm and dry, while the Shoshones, a
large part of whose territory falls in the Great Basin, are
cursed with a yet greater dryness.
The region known as the Great Basin, lying between
the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch
Mountains, and stretching north and south from latitude
33° to 42°, presents a very different picture from the land
of the Californians. This district is triangular in shape,
the apex pointing toward the south, or southwest; from
this apex, which, round the head of the Gulf of Califor
nia, is at tide level, the ground gradually rises until, in
central Nevada, it reaches an altitude of about five thou
sand feet, and this, with the exception of a few local de
pressions, is about the level of the whole of the broad
part of the basin. The entire surface of this plateau is
alkaline. Being in parts almost destitute of water, there
is comparatively little timber; sage-brush and grease-
324 CALIFOKNIANS.
wood being the chief signs of vegetation, except at rare in
tervals where some small stream struggling against almost
universal aridity, supports on its banks a little scanty
herbage and a few forlorn-looking cotton- wood trees.
The northern part of this region, as is the case with the
lands of the Californians proper, is somewhat less des
titute of vegetable and animal life than the southern
portion which is indeed a desert occupied chiefly by rab
bits, prairie-dogs, sage-hens, and reptiles. The desert of
the Colorado, once perhaps a fertile bottom, extending
northward from the San Bernardino Mountains one
hundred and eighty miles, and spreading over an area of
about nine thousand square miles, is a silent unbroken
sea of sand, upon whose ashy surface glares the mid-day
sun and where at night the stars draw near through the
thin air and brilliantly illumine the eternal solitude.
Here the gigantic cereus, emblem of barrenness, rears its
contorted form, casting wierd shadows upon the moon
lit level. In such a country, where in winter the keen
dust-bearing blast rushes over the unbroken desolate
plains, and in summer the very earth cracks open with
intense heat, what can we expect of man but that he
should be distinguished for the depths of his low attain
ment.
But although the poverty and barrenness of his
country account satisfactorily for the low type of the
inhabitant of the Great Basin, yet no such excuse is
offered for the degradation of the native of fertile Cali
fornia. On every side, if we except the Shoshone, in
regions possessing far fewer advantages than California,
we find a higher type of man. Among the Tuscaroras,
Cherokees, and Iroquois of the Atlantic slope, barbarism
assumes its grandest proportions; proceeding west it
bursts its fetters in the incipient civilization of the Gila ;
but if we continue the line to the shores of the Pacific we
find this intellectual dawn checked, and man sunk almost
to the utter darkness of the brute. Coming southward from
the frozen land of the Eskimo, or northward from tropi
cal Darien we pass through nations possessing the neces-
TKIBAL DIVERSITY. 325
saries and even the comforts, of life. Some of them raise
and grind wheat and corn, many of them make pottery
and other utensils, at the north they venture out to sea
in good boats and make Behemoth their spoil. The
Californians on the other hand, comparatively speaking,
wear no clothes, they build no houses, do not cultivate
the soil, they have no boats, nor do they hunt to any con
siderable extent ; they have no morals nor any religion
worth calling such. The missionary Fathers found a
virgin field whereon neither god nor devil was worshiped.
We must look, then, to other causes for a solution of the
question why a nobler race is not found in California;
such for instance as revolutions and migrations of nations,
or upheavals and convulsions of nature, causes arising
before the commencement of the short period within
which we are accustomed to reckon time.
There is, perhaps, a greater diversity of tribal names
among the Californians than elsewhere in America; the
whole system of nomenclature is so complicated and con
tradictory that it is impossible to reduce it to perfect
order. There are tribes that call themselves by one
name, but whose neighbors call them by another ; tribes
that are known by three or four names, and tribes that
have no name except that of their village or chief.1
Tribal names are frequently given by one writer which
are never mentioned by any other;2 nevertheless there
are tribes on whose names authorities agree, and though
1 ' Sometimes there is a tribal name for all who speak the same language;
sometimes none, and only names for separate villages; sometimes a name for
a whole tribe or family, to which is prefixed a separate word for each dialect,
which is generally co-extensive with some valley. Of the first, an instance
is found in the Cahrocs, on the Klamath, who are a compact tribe, with no
dialects; of the second, in the large tribe on the lower Klamath, who have also
no dialects, and yet have no name, except for each village ; of the third, in the
great family of the Pomos on Russian river, who have many dialects, and a
name for each, — as Ballo Ki Pomos, Cahto Pomos, etc Some remnants
of tribes have three or four names, all in use within a radius of that number
of miles; some, again, are merged, or dovetailed, into others; and some never
had a name taken from their own language, but have adopted that given them
by a neighbor tribe, altogether different in speech.' Powers, in Overland
Monthly., vol. viii., p. 328.
2 The natives ' when asked to what tribe they belong, give the name of
their chief, which is misunderstood by the inquirer' to be that of the tribe it-
' Nar., vol. ii., p. 30.
326 CALIFORNIANS.
the spelling differs, the sound expressed in these instances
is about the same. Less trouble is experienced in dis
tinguishing the tribes of the northern division, which
is composed of people who resemble their neighbors more
than is the case in central California, where the mean
ingless term ' Indians,' is almost universally applied in
speaking of them.3
Another fruitful source of confusion is the indefinite
nickname 'Digger' which is applied indiscriminately to
all the tribes of northern and middle California, and to
those of Nevada, Utah, and the southern part of Oregon.
These tribes are popularly known as the California!!
Diggers, Washoe Diggers, Shoshone Diggers of Utah, etc.,
the signification of the term pointing to the digging of roots,
and in some parts, possibly, to burrowing in the ground.
The name is seemingly opprobrious, and is certainly no
more applicable to this people than to many others. By
this territorial division I hope to avoid, as far as possible,
the two causes of bewilderment before alluded to ; neither
treating the inhabitants of an immense country as one
tribe, nor attempting to ascribe distinct names and idio-
osyncrasies to hundreds of small, insignificant bands,
roaming over a comparatively narrow area of country
and to all of which one description will apply.
THE NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS, the first tribal group,
or division, of which I shall speak, might, not impro
perly, be called the Klamath family, extending as they
do from Rogue River on the north, to the Eel River
south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian
boundary east, and including the Upper and Lower Kla
math and other lakes. The principal tribes occupying
3 ' Every fifteen or twenty miles of country seems to have been occupied
by a number of small lodges or septs, speaking a different language or very
divergent dialect.' Taylor, in Bancroft's Hand-book Almanac, 1864, p. 29.
Beechey counted eleven different dialects in the mission of San Carlos.
Voyar/e, vol. ii., p. 73. 'Almost every 15 or 20 leagues, you find a distinct
dialect; so different, that in no way does one resemble the other.' Boscana,
in Robinson's Life in Gal., p. 240. ' From the San Joaquin northward to the
Klamath there are some hundreds of small tribes.' Henley, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1854, p. 304.
NATIONS OF NOKTHEKN CALIFORNIA. 327
this region are the Kfamaihsf who live on the head
waters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that
name ; the Modocs? on Lower Klamath Lake and along
Lost River ; the Shastas, to the south-west of the lakes,
near the Shasta Mountains ; the Pitt River Indians; the
Eurocs on the Klamath River between Weitspek and the
coast ; the Cahrocs 6 on the Klamath River from a short
distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Kla
math Mountains; the Hoopahs in Hoopah Valley on the
Trinity near its junction with the Klamath; numer
ous tribes on the coast from Eel River and Humboldt Bay
north, such as the Weeyots? Watties, Tolewclhs, etc., and
the Rogue River Indians? on and about the river of that
name.9
The Northern Californians are in every way superior
to the central and southern tribes.10 Their physique and
4 Hale calls them the Lutuami, or Tlamatl, and adds, ' the first of these
names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. The
second is that by which they are known to the Chinooks, and through them,
to the whites.' Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218.
5 ' There true name is Moadoc — a word which originated with the Shas-
teecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies. ' Powers, in
Overland Monthly, 1873, vol. x., p. 535. 'Also called Moahtockna.' Taylor,
in Gal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. ' The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word;
and means all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to
these Indians by white men in early days, by hearing the Shastas speak of
them.' Stede, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1861, p. 121.
6 Speaking of Indians at the junction of the Salmon and Klamath rivers :
' They do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply
the terms "Kahruk," up, and " Youruk," down, to all who live above or
below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others
(at the junction of the Trinity) do "Peh-tsik," and "Poh-lik."' Gibbs, iii
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 151.
7 'The Bay (Humboldt) Indians call themselves, as we were informed,
Wish-osk; and those of the hills Te-ok-a-wilk; but the tribes to the north*-
ward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel river, We-yot, or Walla-wal-
loo.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.
8 They are also called Lototen or Tututamy, Totutime, Toutouni, Tootoo-
ton, Tutoten, Tototin, Tototutna, etc.
9 For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on TKIBAI»
BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.
10 Mr. Gibbs, speaking of the tribes seen on the Klamath and Trinity
rivers, says : ' In person these people are far superior to any we had met
below; the men being larger, more muscular, and with countenances denot
ing greater force and energy of character, as well as intelligence. Indeed,
they approach rather to the races of the plains, than to the wretched ' ' diggers"
of the greater part of California.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 140. 'The
Indians in the northern portion of California and in Oregon, are vastly supe
rior in stature and intellect to those found in the southern part cf California.'
Hubbard, in Golden Era, 1856. The Indians on the Trinity ' are of another
tribe and nature from those along the Sacramento.' Kelly's Excursion, vol.
323 CALIFOKNIANS.
character, in fact, approach nearer to the Oregon nations
than to the people of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
(valleys. This applies more particularly to the inland
tribes. The race gradually deteriorates as it approaches
the coast, growing less in stature, darker in color, more
and more degraded in character, habits, and religion.
The Rogue River Indians must, however, be made an
exception to this rule. The tendency to improve toward
the north, which is so marked among the Californians,
holds good in this case ; so that the natives on the ex
treme north-west coast of the region under consideration,
are in many respects superior to the interior but more
.southerly tribes.
The Northern Californians round the Klamath lakes,
and the Klamath, Trinity, and Rogue rivers, are tall,
muscular, and well made,31 with a complexion varying
from nearly black to light brown, in proportion to their
proximity to, or distance, from the ocean or other large
bodies of water; their face is large, oval, and heavily
made, with slightly prominent cheek-bones; nose well
(set on the face and frequently straight, and eyes
(Which, when not blurred by ophthalmia, are keen and
bright. The women are short and some of them quite
handsome, even in the Caucasian sense of the word;12
ii., p. 166., Speaking of the Wallies, they, ' in many respects differ from their
brethren in the middle and lower counties of the State. They are lighter
colored and more intelligent.' Johnson, in Overland Monthly, 1869, vol. ii.,
p. 536.
11 ' The males are tall, averaging in height abcut five feet eight inches, are
well proportioned, athletic, and possess the power of endurance to a great
degree.' flubbard, in Golden Era, March 1856. ' The people here (Rogue
Biver) were larger and stronger than those in South California, but not
handsomer.' P/eijfer's Second Journ., p. 317. Speaking of Indians on the
Klamath River, ' their stature is a trifle under the American; they have well-
sized bodies, erect and strong-knit.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii.,
p. 328. On the upper Trinity they are ' large and powerful men, of a
swarthier complexion, fierce and intractable.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 129. Near Mount Shasta, ' a fine-looking race, being much
better proportioned than those more to the northward, and their features
more regular.' WUJces' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., 254. At Klamath
Lake, 'well-grown and muscular.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. On the
Trinity, 'majestic in person, chivalrous in bearing.' Kelly's Excursion, vol.
ii., p. 166.
!2 In the vicinity of Klamath lake ' the squaws are short in comparison
with the men, and, for Indians have tolerably regular features.' Lord's
Nat., vol. i., p. 277. In the Rogue River region 'some of them are quite
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES. 329
and although their beauty rapidly fades, yet they do
not in old age present that unnaturally wrinkled and
shriveled appearance, characteristic of the Central Cali-
fornians. This description scarcely applies to the people
inhabiting the coast about Redwood Creek, Humboldt
Bay, and Eel River, who are squat and fat in figure,
rather stoutly built, with large heads covered with coarse
thick hair, and repulsive countenances, who are of a
much darker color, and altogether of a lower type than
the tribes to the east and north of them.13
Dress depends more on the state of the climate
pretty, usually well-formed, handsomely developed, small features, and very
delicate and well-turned bands and feet They are graceful in their move
ments and gestures, . . . .always timid and modest.' Hubbard, in Golden Era,
March, 1850. On the Klamath River, ' with their smooth, hazel skins, oval
faces, plump and brilliant eyes, some of the young maidens, — barring the tat
tooed chins, — have a piquant and splendid beanty.' Powers, in Overland
Monihly, vol. viii., 329. On the Klamath and Trinity Rivers, many of the
women 'were exceedingly pretty; having large almond-shaped eyes, some
times of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks. Their
figures were full, their chests ample ; and the younger ones had well-shaped
busts, and rouiidedlimbs.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft'sArch, vol. iii., p. 140. But as
to the beauty of women tastes never agree ; Mr Kelly in his Excursion to CaL, vol.
ii., p. 167, speaking of a band of ' noble-looking Indians ' which he met near
Trinity River, says that they were ' accompanied by a few squaws, who,
strange to say, in this latitude are ugly, ill-favoured, stunted in stature, lumpy
in figure, and awkward in gait, ' and concerning the Rogue River Indians a
lady states that ' among the women there were some extremely clumsy
figures.' Pfdffer's Second Journ., p. 317. The Pit-River Indian girls ' have the
smallest and prettiest feet and hands I have ever seen.' Miller's Life amongst
the Modocs, p. 374.
13 At Crescent City, Mr Powers saw some ' broad-faced squaws of an
almost African blackness;' the Patawats in the vicinity of Mad River and
Humboldt Bay are ' blackskinned, pudgy in stature; well cushioned with
adipose tissue;' at Redwood Creek 'like most of the coast tribes they are
very dark colored, squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the interior Ind
ians.' Porno, MS.^At Trinidad Bay 'their persons were in general indiffer
ently, but stoutly made, of a lower stature than any tribe of Indians we had
before seen.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 246. - At the mouth of Eel River the
Weeyots ' are generally repulsive in countenance as well as filthy in person.
....Their heads are disproportionately large; their figures, though short,
strong and well developed.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft'sArch., vol. iii., p. ]27. Carl
Meyer names the Indians he saw at Trinidad Bay,' Allequas, or "Wood-Indians
(Holzindianer). I do not find the name anywhere else, and judging by his
description, they appear to differ considerably from the natives seen in the
same vicinity by Vancouver or Mr Powers; he, Meyer, says; 'Sie sind von
unserm Wuchse, stark und beleibt, kraftige Gestalten. Hire Hant ist wenig
zimmet oder lohfarbig, eher weisslich, wie die der antisischen Inkas gewesen
sein soil; bei der jugend und besonders beim weiblichen Geschlechte schim-
mert oft ein sanftes Roth auf den Wangen hervor. Ihr Kopf ist wenig
gedriickt, die Stirn hoch, der Gesichtswinkel gegen 80 Grad, die Nase romisch
gekriimmt, das Auge gross in wenig quadratisch erweiterteu AugenhohJen
und intelligent, die Lippen nicht aufgetrieben, das Kinn oval, und Han4-»
und Fusse klein.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215,
330 CALIFORNIANS.
than on their own sense of decency. The men wear
a belt, sometimes a breech-clout, and the women an
apron or skirt of deer-skin or braided grass; then
they sometimes throw over the shoulders a sort of
cloak, or robe, of marten or rabbit skins sewn together,
deer-skin, or, among the coast tribes, seal or sea-otter skin.
When they indulge in this luxury, however,, the men
usually dispense with all other covering.14 Occasionally
we find them taking great pride in their gala dresses and
sparing no pains to render them beautiful. / The Modocs,
for instance, took large-sized skins, and inlaid them with
brilliant-colored duck-scalps, sewed on in various figures ;
others, again, embroidered their aprons with colored
grasses, and attached beads and shells to a deep fringe
falling from the lower part.15 A bowl-shaped hat, or
14 At Pitt River they ' have no dress except a buckskin thrown around
them.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. Near Mount Shasta 'they
can scarcely be said to wear any dress, except a mantle of deer or wolf
skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with
a highly ornamented girdle.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p.
255. Near Pitt Eiver, the Indians were nearly naked. Abbott, in Pac. E.
E. Eept., vol. vi., p. 61. y'At Trinidad Bay ' their clothing was chiefly made
of the skins of land animals, with a few indifferent small skins of the
sea-otter.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. 'The men, however, do not
wear any covering, except the cold is intense, when indeed they put upon
their shoulders the skins of sea-wolves, otters, deer, or other animals.'
Maur elk's Jour., p. 16. 'They were clothed, for the most part, in skins.'
Greenhoio's Hist. Ogn., p. 118. On Smith River they were 'in a complete
state of nature, excepting only a kind of apology for an apron, worn by the
women, sometimes made of elk's skin, and sometimes of grass.' Pfeiffer's
Second Journ., p. 313. Among the Weeyots at Eel River the men ' wore
a deer-skin robe over the shoulder, and the women a short petticoat of fringe.'
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. in., 127. On Klamath River their only
dress was the fringed petticoat, or at most, a deerskin robe thrown back over
the shoulders, in addition. Id., p. 141. 'The primitive dress of the men is
simply a buckskin girdle about the loins; of the "women, a chemise of the
same material, or of braided grass, reaching from the breast to the knees. '
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., 329. ' Were quite naked excepting
the maro.' Wilkes' Nar., in V. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253. The Klamath
Lake Indians 'wear little more than the breech-cloth.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p.
277. ' They were all well dressed in blankets and buckskin.' Abbott, in Pac.
E. E. Eept., vol. vi., p. 70.v Carl Meyer, speaking of a tribe he names Alle-
quas, at Trinidad Bay, says: 'der Mann geht im Sommer ganz nackt, in
Winter tragt er eine selbst gegerbte Hirsch- oder Rehdecke iiber die Schul-
tern.' ' Die Allequas-Weiber tragen im Sommer von Bast-schniiren oder
von Rehfellstreifen, im Winter von Pelzwerk oder Ganseflaum verfertigte
Schiirzen, die bis auf die Knie reichen.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 217, 219.
' The Klamaths, during the summer go naked, in winter they use the skins
of rabbits and wild fowl for a covering.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854,
p. 283.
15 ' An Indian will trap and slaughter seventy-five rabbits for one of these
robes, making it double, with fur inside and out.' Powers1 Porno, MS,
DRESS IN NOKTHEKN CALIFOKNIA. 331
cap, of basket-work, is usually worn by the women, in
making which some of them are very skillful. This hat
is sometimes painted with various figures, and sometimes
interwoven with gay feathers of the woodpecker or blue
quail.16 The men generally go bare-headed, their thick
hair being sufficient protection from sun and weather.
In the vicinity of the lakes, where, from living constantly
among the long grass and reeds, the greatest skill is
acquired in weaving and braiding, mocassins of straw or
grass are worn.17 At the junction of the Klamath and
Trinity rivers their mocassins have soles of several thick
nesses of leather.18 The natives seen by Maurelle at Trini
dad Bay, bound their loins and legs down to the ankle
with strips of hide or thread, both men and women.
The manner of dressing the hair varies; the most
common way being to club it together behind in a queue,
sometimes in two, worn down the back, or occasionally
in the latter case drawn forward over the shoulders.
The queue is frequently twisted up in a knot on the back
of the head — en castanna — as Maurelle calls it. Occa
sionally the hair is worn loose and flowing, and some of
the women cut it short on the forehead. It is not un
common to see wreaths of oak or laurel leaves, feathers,
or the tails of gray squirrels twisted in the hair; indeed,
from the trouble which they frequently take to adorn
their coiffure, one would imagine that these people were
of a somewhat aesthetic turn of mind, but a closer ac
quaintance quickly dispels the illusion. On Eel River
some cut all the hair short, a custom practiced to some
extent by the Central Californians.19
16 Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch, vol. iii., pp.
107, 127; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., 282.
" Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 282; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204.
18 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142.
19 Maurelle' s Jour., p. 17; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp.
127, 142; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329; Pfei/er's Second
Journ., p. 317. 'Die Allequas (Trinidad Bay) haben starkes, ziemlich ge-
schmeidiges Haar, das der Manner and der Kinder wird bis auf einen Zoll
Lange regelmassig abgebrannt, so dass sie das Aussehen von Tituskopfen
erhalten. Zuweilen sieht man die Manner auch- mit einem ziemlich langen,
durch eine harzige Fliissigkeit gesteiften, auf gerichteten Zopf , der als.Schmuck
betrachtet, bei festlichen Anlassen, oder iin Kriege mit rothen oder weissen
Federn geziert wird, und alsdann dem Schopf eines Wiedehopfs gleicht.'
332 CALIFORNIANS.
As usual these savages are beardless, or nearly so.20
Tattooing, though not carried to any great extent, is
universal among the women, and much practiced by the
men, the latter confining this ornamentation to the breast
and arms. The women tattoo in three blue lines, ex
tending perpendicularly from the centre and corners of
the lower lip to the chin. In some tribes they tattoo
the arms, and occasionally the back of the hands. As
they grow older the lines on the chin, which at first are
very faint, are increased in width and color, thus gradu
ally narrowing the intervening spaces. Now, as the
social importance of the female is gauged by the width
and depth of color of these lines, one might imagine
that before long the whole chin would be what Southey
calls "blue, darkly, deeply, beautifully blue ;" but fashion
ordains, as in the lip-ornament of the Thlinkeets, that
the lines should be materially enlarged only as the
charms of youth fade, thus therewith gauging both age
and respectability.21 In some few tribes, more especially
Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 215. ' Both men and women part their hair
in the middle, the men cut it square on the neck and wear it rather long,
the women wear theirs long, plaited in two braids, hanging down the back. '
The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.
20 Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. 'Barthaare haben sie,
wie alle Indianer Nord-Amerikas, nur wenig; sie werden ausgerupft, und
nur in der Trauer stehen gelassen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, pp. 215-16.
21 The men tattoo so that they may 'be recognized if stolen by Modocs.'
'With the women it is entirely for ornament.' The Shastas and their Neigh
bors, MS. At Rogue River the women ' were tattooed on the hands and arms
as well as the chin.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 3J7. At Trinidad Bay
' they ornamented their lower lip with three perpendicular columns of punctu
ation, one from each corner of the mouth and one in the middle, occupying
three fifths of the chin.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247. Maurelle says
the same, and adds that a space is left between each line, ' which is much
larger in the young than in the older women, whose faces are generally cov
ered with punctures.' Jour. p. 17. At Mad River and Hnmboldt Bay, the
same, 'and also lines of small dots on the backs of their hands.' Powers'
Porno, MS. At mouth of Eel River 'both sexes tattoo: the men on their
arms and breasts; the women from inside the under lip down to and be
neath the chin. The extent of this disfigurement indicates to a certain
extent, the age and condition of the person.' 'In the married women the
lines are extended up above the corners of the mouth.' Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs
Arch., vol. iii., pp. 127, 142. ' I have never observed any particular figures or
designs upon their persons; but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though
sometimes on the wrist and arm. Tattooing has mostly been on the persons
of females, and seems to be esteemed as an ornament, not apparently indi
cating rank or condition.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223.
The squaws among the Cahrocs on the Klamath ' tattoo, in blue, three narrow
fern-leaves, perpendicularly on the chin.' ' For this purpose they are said to
FACIAL OBNAMENTATION. 333
in the vicinity of the lakes, the men paint themselves
in various colors and grotesque patterns. Among the
Modocs the women also paint. Miller says that when a
Modoc warrior paints his face black before going into
battle it means victory or death, and he will not survive
a defeat.22 Both men and women pierce the dividing
'cartilage of the nose, and wear various kinds of orna
ments in the aperture. Sometimes it is a goose-quill,
three or four inches long, at others, a string of beads or
shells. Some of the more northerly tribes wear large
round pieces of wood or metal in the ears.23 Maurelle,
in his bucolic description of the natives at Trinidad bay,
says that aon their necks they wear various fruits, in
stead of beads."24 Vancouver, who visited the same
place nearly twenty years later, states that "all the teeth
employ soot, gathered from a stove, mingled with the juice of a certain plant.'
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. Among the Shastys the women
'are tattooed in lines from the mouth to the chin.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. 8.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. Among the Allequas at Trinidad bay: ' Die Madchen
werdeii im fiinften Jahre mit einem schwarzen Streifen von beiden Mund-
winkeln bis unter das Kinn tattowirt, welchem Striche dann all fiinf Jahre
ein parallellaufeuder beigefiigt wird, so das man an diesen Zeichnungen
leicht das Alter jeder Indianerin uberseheu kann .... Die Manner bemalen
sich bei besondern Anlassen mit einem Tannenfirniss, den sie selbst bereiten,
das Gesicht, und zeichnen allerlei geheimnissvolle Figuren und Verzierungen
auf Wange, Nase und Stirn, indem sie mit einem holzernen Stabchen den
noch weichen Firniss auf den einzelnen Stellen von der Haut wegheben.
Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 216.
22 'I never saw two alike.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. At
Klamath lake they are ' painted from their heads to their waists all colours
and patterns.' Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 277. The Modocs 'paint themselves
with various pigments formed from rotten wood, different kinds of earth,
&c.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536. Kane 'took a sketch of a
Chastay (Shasta) female slave (among the Chinooks) the lower part of whose
face, from the corners of the mouth to the ears and downwards, was tattooed
of a bluish colour. The men of this tribe do not tattoo, but paint their faces
like other Indians.' Wand., p. 182. Ida Pfeiffer, Second Journ., p. 315, saw
Indians on Smith river, who painted their faces ' in a most detestable man
ner. They first smeared them with fish fat and then they rubbed in the
paint, sometimes passing a finger over it in certain lines, so as to produce
a pattern.' Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 361.
23 'No taste in bead work.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'In
den Ohren tragen die Allequas (at Trinidad bay) Schmucksachen, welche
sie theils von den Weissen erhalten, theils aus Holz nachahmen; auch
sind diese Gegenstande zuweilen durch Steinchen ersetzt, die talismanische
Krafte besitzen sollen. Nur die in den fernen Bergen wohnenden tragen
holzerne oder auch eiserne Kinge in den Nasenwandungen.' Meyer, Nach dem
Sacramento, p. 216; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142; Pfeiffer'a
Second Journ., p. 317; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; School*
craft's Arch., vol. iii., plate xiv.
*24 Maurelle' s Jour., p. 18.
334 CALIFORNIANS.
of both sexes were by some process ground uniformly
down horizontally to the gums, the women especially,
carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth re
duced even below this level."25
Here also we see in their habitations the usual sum
mer and winter residences common to nomadic tribes.
The winter dwellings, varying with locality, are princi
pally of two forms — conical and square. Those of the
former shape, which is the most widely prevailing, and
obtains chiefly in the vicinity of the Klamath lakes and
on the Klamath and Trinity rivers, are built in the man
ner following: A circular hole, from two to five feet in
depth, and varying in diameter, is dug in the ground.
Round this pit, or cellar, stout poles are sunk, which
are drawn together at the top until they nearly meet;
the whole is then covered with earth to the depth of
several inches. A hole is left in the top, which serves
as chimney arid door, a rude ladder or notched pole com
municating with the cellar below, and a similar one with
the ground outside. This, however, is only the com
moner and lighter kind of conical house. Many of
them are built of much heavier timbers, which, instead
of being bent over at the top, and so forming a bee-hive-
shaped structure, are leaned one against the other.
The dwellings built by the Hoopahs are somewhat bet
ter. The inside of the cellar is walled up with stone;
round this, and at a distance of a few feet from it, an
other stone wall is built on the surface level, against
which heavy beams or split logs are leaned up, meeting
at the top, or sometimes the lower ends of the poles rest
against the inside of the wall, thus insuring the inmates
against a sudden collapse of the hut.26
25 Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 247.
26 ' The lodges are dome-shaped; like beaver-houses, an arched roof covers
a deep pit sunk in the ground, the entrance to which is a round hole.' Lord's
Nat., vol. i., p. 278. 'Large round huts, perhaps 20 feet in diameter, with
rounded tops, on which was the door by which they descended into the in
terior.' Fremont's Explor. Ex,, p. 204. ' The Modoc excavates a circular space
from two to four feet deep, then makes over it a conical structure of pun
cheons, which is strongly braced up with timbers, frequently hewn and a
foot square.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 536; Id., vol. ix., p.
156. ' The style was very substantial, the large poles requiring five or six
CALIFORNIAN HABITATIONS. 335
The square style of dwelling is affected more by the
coast tribes, although occasionally seen in the interior.
A cellar, either square or round, is dug in the same
manner as with the conical houses. The sides of the
hole are walled with upright slabs, which project some
feet above the surface of the ground. The whole struct
ure is covered with a roof of sticks or planks, sloping
gently outward, and resting upon a ridge-pole. The
position of the door varies, being sometimes in the roof,
sometimes on a level with the ground, and occasionally
high up in the gable. Its shape and dimensions, how
ever, never alter; it is always circular, barely large
enough to admit a full-grown man on hands and knees.
When on the roof or in the gable, a notched pole or
mud steps lead up to the entrance; when on the ground,
a sliding panel closes the entrance. In some cases, the
excavation is planked up only to a level with the ground.
The upper part is then raised several feet from the sides,
leaving a bank, or rim, on which the inmates sleep ; occa
sionally there is no excavation, the house being erected
on the level ground, with merely a small fire-hole in the
centre. The floors are kept smooth and clean, and a
small space in front of the door, paved with stones and
swept clean, serves as gossiping and working ground for
the women.27
men to lift.' Gibbs, in SchoolcrafV s Arch., vol. iii., p. 175. ' Have only an
opening at the summit.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 261. On the inside
of the door they frequently place a sliding panel. 'The Kailtas build wig
wams in a conical shape — as all tribes on the Trinity do — but they excavate
no cellars.' Powers' Porno, MS. See full description of dwellings, by John
ston, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The entrance is a 'round hole
just large enough to crawl into, which is on a level with the surface of the
ground, or is cut through the roof.' Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii.. p.
536; Miller's Life Amonyst the Modocs, p. 377.
27 ' Built of plank, rudely wrought. ' The roofs are not ' horizontal like
those at Nootka, but rise with a small degree of elevation to a ridge in the mid
dle.' Vancouver' sVoy., vol. ii., pp. 241-2. Well built, of boards; often twenty
feet square ; roof pitched over a ridge-pole ; ground usually excavated 3 or 4
feet; some cellars floored and walled with stone. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 140. 'The dwellings of the Hoopas were built of large planks,
about 1% inches thick, from two to four feet wide, and from six to twelve
feet in length.' Trinity Journal, April, 1857. 'The floors of these huts are
perfectly smooth and clean, with a square hole two feet deep in the centre,
in which they make their fire.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 17. 'The huts have
never but one apartment. The fire is kindled in the centre, the smoke es
caping through the crevices in the roof.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856.
336 CALIFOKNIANS.
The temporary summer houses of the Northern Cali-
fornians are square, conical, and inverted-bowl-shaped
huts; built, when square, by driving light poles into the
ground and laying others horizontally across them ; when
conical, the poles are drawn together at the top into a
point; when bowl-shaped, both ends of the poles are
driven into the ground, making a semi-circular hut.
These frames, however shaped, are covered with neatly
woven tule matting,28 or with bushes or ferns.29
The Californians are but poor hunters; they prefer
the snare to the bow and arrow. Yet some of the moun
tain tribes display considerable dexterity in the chase.
To hunt the prong-buck, the Klamath fastens to each
heel a strip of ermine-skin, and keeping the herd to the
windward, he approaches craftily through the tall grass
as near as possible, then throwing himself on his back,
or standing on his head, he executes a pantomime in the
air with his legs. Naturally the antelope wonder, and
being cursed with curiosity, the simple animals gradually
approach. As soon as they arrive within easy shooting-
distance, down go the hunter's legs and up comes the
body. Too late the antelope learn their mistake ; swift
as they are, the arrow is swifter; and the fattest buck
pays the penalty of his inquisitiveness with his life.
The Yeeards, at Humboldt Bay, construct a slight fence
from tree to tree, into which inclosure elk are driven,
the only exit being by a narrow opening at one end,
where a pole is placed in such a manner as to force the
The houses of the Eurocs and Cahrocs ' are sometimes constructed on the
level earth, but oftener they excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep,
and twelve or fifteen feet in diameter.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii.,
p. 530; Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 220; The Shastas and their neigh
bors, MS.
28 Kit Carson says of lodges seen near Klamath lake : ' They were made
of the broad leaves of the swamp flag, which were beautifully and intricately
woven together.' Peters' Life of Carson, p. 263. ' The wilcl sage furnishes
them shelter in the heat of summer, and, like the Cayote, they burrow in
the earth for protection from the inclemencies of winter.' Thompson, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 283. ' Their lodges are generally mere temporary struct
ures, scarcely sheltering them from the pelting storm.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1854, p. 262.
29 'Slightly constructed, generally of poles.' Emmons, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iii., p. 218. 'The earth in the centre scooped out, and thrown
up in a low, circular embankment.' Turner, in Overland Monthly, p. xi., p. 21.
HUNTING AND FTSHING. 337
animal to stoop in passing under it, when its head is
caught in a noose suspended from the pole. This pole is
dragged down by the entangled elk, but soon he is caught
fast in the thick undergrowth, and firmly held until the
hunter comes up.30 Pitfalls are also extensively used in
trapping game. A narrow pass, through which an elk
or deer trail leads, is selected for the pit, which is ten or
twelve feet deep. The animals are then suddenly stam
peded from their feeding-grounds, and, in their wild
terror, rush blindly along the trail to destruction.31 The
bear they seldom hunt, and if one is taken, it is usually
by accident, in one of their strong elk-traps. Many of
the tribes refuse to eat bear-meat, alleging that the flesh
of a man-eating animal is unclean ; but no doubt Bruin
owes his immunity as much to his teeth and claws as to
his uncleanness.
Fishing is more congenial to the lazy taste of these
people than the nobler but more arduous craft of hunting;
consequently fish, being abundant, are generally more
plentiful in the aboriginal larder than venison. Several
methods are adopted in taking them. Sometimes a dam
of interwoven willows is constructed across a rapid at
the time when salmon are ascending the river; niches
four or five feet square are made at intervals across the
dam, in which the fish, pressed on by those behind,
collect in great numbers and are there speared or netted
without mercy. Much ingenuity and labor are required
to build some of the larger of these dams. Mr Gibbs
describes one thrown across the Klamath, where the
so Powers' Porno, MS.
31 'The rocks supply edible shell-fish.' Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities,
MS. ' The deer and elk are mostly captured by driving them into traps and
pits.' 'Small game is killed with arrows, and sometimes elk and deer are
dispatched in the same way.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, April, 1856. 'The
elk they usually take in snares.' Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317. ' The
mountain Indians subsisted largely on game, which of every variety was
very abundant, and was killed with their bows and arrows, in the use of
which they were very expert.' Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Ecpt., 1867, p. 497. 'Die
Indianer am Pittflusse rnachen Graben oder Locher von circa 5 Kubikfuss,
bedecken diese mit Zweigen und Grass ganz leicht, sodass die Thiere, wenn
sie dariiber gejagt werden, hinein fallen und nicht wieder herauskonnen.
Wilde Ganse f angen sie mit Netzen .... Nur selten mogen Indianer den grau-
en Bar jagen.' Wimmel, Calif 'ornien, p. 181; The Shastas and their Neigh*
bors, MS.
338 CALIFORNIANS.
river was about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up
the stream in its deepest part. It was built by first
driving stout posts into the bed of the river, at a dis
tance of some two feet apart, having a moderate slope,
and supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve
feet, by two braces ; the one coming to the surface of the
water, the other reaching to the string- pieces. These
last were heavy spars, about thirty feet in length, and
secured to each post by withes. The whole dam was
faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close
together as to prevent the fish from passing up. The
top, at this stage of the water, was two or three feet
above the surface. The labor of constructing this wrork
must, with the few and insufficient tools of the natives,
liave been immense. Slight scaffolds were built out be
low it, from which the fish were taken in scoop-nets;
.they also employ drag-nets and spears, the latter having
a movable barb, which is fastened to the shaft with a
.string in order to afford the salmon play.32 On Rogue
River, spearing by torch-light — a most picturesque sight
—is resorted to. Twenty canoes sometimes start out
together, each carrying three persons — two women, one
to row and the other to hold the torch, and a spearman.
.Sometimes the canoes move in concert, sometimes inde
pendently of each other; one moment the lights are
seen in line, like an army of fire-flies, then they are
scattered over the dark surface of the water like ignes
fatui. The fish, attracted by the glare, rise to the sur
face, where they are transfixed by the unerring aim of
the spearmen. Torchlight spearing is also done by driv
ing the fish down stream in the day-time by dint of
much wading, yelling, and howling, and many splashes,
.until they are stopped by a dam previously erected lower
32 Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., classifies their ancient arrow
-.and spear points thus: Long barbs with projections, short barbs with pro
jections, and long and short barbs without projections. ' The point of the
spear is composed of a small bone needle, which sits in a socket, and pulls
out as soon as the fish starts. A string connecting the spear handle and the
center of the bone serves, when pulled, to turn the needle cross wise in the
wound.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 8, 1861; Schookraft's Arch., vol. iii.,
p. 146.
FISHING BY NIGHT ON THE KLAMATH. 339
down ; another dam is then built above, so that the fish
cannot escape. At night fires are built round the edge
of the enclosed space, and the finny game speared from
the bank.33 Some tribes on the Klamath erect platforms
over the stream on upright poles, on which they sleep
and fish at the same time. A string leads from the net
either to the fisherman himself or to some kind of alarm ;
and as soon as a salmon is caught, its floundering im
mediately awakens the slumberer. On the sea-shore
smelts are taken in a triangular net stretched on two
slender poles; the fisherman wades into the water up to
his waist, turns his face to the shore, and his back to the
incoming waves, against whose force he braces himself
with a stout stick, then as the smelts are washed back
from the beach by the returning waves, he receives them
in his net. The net is deep, and a narrow neck con
nects it with a long network bag behind ; into this bag
the fish drop when the net is raised, but they cannot
return. In this manner the fisherman can remain for
some time at his post, without unloading.
Eels are caught in traps having a funnel-shaped en
trance, into which the eels can easily go, but which closes
on them as soon as they are in. These traps are fastened
to stakes and kept down by weights. Similar traps are
used to take salmon.
When preserved for winter use, the fish are split open
at the back, the bone taken out, then dried or smoked.
Both fish and meat, when eaten fresh, are either broiled
on hot stones or boiled in water-tight baskets, hot stones
being thrown in to make the water boil. Bread is made
of acorns ground to flour in a rough stone mortar with
a heavy stone pestle, and baked in the ashes. Acorn-
flour is the principal ingredient, but berries of various
kinds are usually mixed in, and frequently it is seasoned
33 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Hublard, in Golden Era, April,
1856; Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1867, p. 497. 'In spawning-time the fish
school up from Clear Lake in extraordinary numbers, so that the Indians
have only to put a slight obstruction in the river, when they can literally
shovel them out.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 537; Schumacher's
Oregon Antiquities, MS.
340 CALIFOENIANS.
with some high-flavored herb. A sort oT pudding is
also made in the same manner, but is boiled instead of
baked.
They gather a great variety of roots, berries, and seeds.
The principal root is the camas,34 great quantities of
which are dried every summer, and stored away for winter
provision. Another root, called kice, or Jcace?5 is much
sought-after. Of seeds they have the wocus™ and sev
eral varieties of grass-seeds. Among berries the huckle
berry and the manzanita berry are the most plentiful.37
The women do the cooking, root and berry gathering,
and all the drudgery.
The winter stock of smoked fish hangs in the family
room, sending forth an ancient and fish-like smell.
Roots and seeds are, among some of the more northerly
tribes, stored in large wicker boxes, built in the lower
branches of strong, wide-spreading trees. The trunk of
the tree below the granary is smeared with pitch to keep
away vermin.37 The Modocs are sometimes obliged to
cache their winter hoard under rocks and bushes ; the
great number of their enemies and bad character of
their ostensibly friendly neighbors, rendering it unsafe
for them to store it in their villages. So cunningly do
they conceal their treasure that one winter, after an un
usually heavy fall of snow, they themselves could not
find it, and numbers starved in consequence.38
Although the Northern Californians seldom fail to
34 'The camas is a bulbus root, shaped much like an onion.' Miller's
Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 22.
35 ' A root about an inch long, and as large as one's little finger, of a bit
ter-sweetish and pungent taste, something like ginseng. ' Powers, in Overland
Monthly, vol. x., p. 537.
36 ' An aquatic plant, with a floating leaf, very much like that of a pond-
lily, in the centre of which is a pod resembling a poppy-head, full of farina
ceous seeds.' Ib. See also Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 222. 'Their
principal food is the kainas root, and the seed obtained from a plant growing
in the marshes of the lake, resembling, before hulled, a broom-corn seed.'
Palmer, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1854, p. 263.
37 The Klamaths ' subsist upon roots and almost every living thing with
in their reach, not excepting reptiles, crickets, ants, etc.' Thompson, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 283; Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 391; Rose-
borough's letter to the author, MS.
38 'Turner, in Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 24.
WAR AND WEAPONS. 341
take a cold bath in the morning, and frequently bathe
at intervals during the day, yet they are never clean.39
The Northern Calfornians are not of a very war
like disposition, hence their weapons are few, being
confine-el chiefly to the bow and arrow.40 The bow
is about three feet in length, made of yew, cedar, or
some other tough or elastic wood, and generally painted.
The back is flat, from an inch and a half to two inches
wide, and covered with elk-sinews, which greatly add
both to its strength and elasticity; the string is also of
sinew. The bow is held horizontally when discharged,
instead of perpendicularly as in most countries. The
arrows are from two to three feet long, and are made
sometimes of reed, sometimes of light wood. The points,
which are of flint, obsidian, bone, iron, or copper, are
ground to a very fine point, fastened firmly into a short
piece of wood, and fitted into a socket in the main shaft,
so that on withdrawing the arrow the head will be left
in the wound. The feathered part, which is from five
to eight inches long, is also sometimes a separate piece
bound on with sinews. The quiver is made of the skin
of a fox, wild-cat, or some other small animal, in the
same shape as when the animal wore it, except at the
tail end, where room is left for the feathered ends of
arrows to project. It is usually carried on the arm.*1
39 At Rogue River, ' the men go in the morning into the river, but, like
the Malays, bring all the dirt out on. their skins that they took in.' Pfeiffer's
Second Journ., p. 317. At Pitt River they are 'disgusting in their habits.'
Abbott, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61; The Shastas and their Neighbors,
MS. ' Of the many hundreds I have seen, there was not one who still ob
served the aboriginal mode of life, that had not a sweet breath. This is
doubtless due to the fact that, before they became civilized, they ate their
food cold.' Powers' Porno, MS. 'They always rise at the first dawn of day,
and plunge into the river.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. 'Their
persons are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house and the cold-
bath constantly.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 142X 'Mit Tages-
anbruch begibt sich der Allequa (Trinidad Bay) in jeder Jahrenseit zur
nahen Quelle, wo er sich am ganzen Leibe wa'scht und in den Strahlen der
aufsteigenden Sonne trocknen lasst.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p. 221;
fioseborough' s letter to the author, MS.
40 Carl Meyer, after describing the bow, adds: 'Fernere Waffen der Alle-
quas sind: das Obsidian-Beil oder Tomahawk, die Keule, die Lanze und der
Wurfspiess.' Nach dem Sacramento, p. 218. This statement, I think, may
be taken with some allowance, as nowhere else do I find mention of a toma
hawk being used by the Calif ornians.
41 Schumacher, Oregon Antiquities, MS., speaking of an ancient spear-
342 CALIFORNIANS.
Mr Powers says: " doubtless many persons who have
seen the flint arrow-heads made by the Indians, have
wondered how they succeeded with their rude imple
ments, in trimming them down to such sharp, thin points,
without breaking them to pieces. The Veeards — and
probably other tribes do likewise — employ for this pur
pose a pair of buck-horn pincers, tied together at the
point with a thong. They first hammer out the arrow
head in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully
nip off one tiny fragment after another, using that in
finite patience which is characteristic of the Indian,
spending days, perhaps weeks, on one piece. There are
Indians who make arrows as a specialty, just as there
are others who concoct herbs and roots for the healing
of men."42 The Shastas especially excelled in making ob
sidian arrow-heads ; Mr Wilkes of the Exploring Expe
dition notices them as being u beautifully wrought," and
Lyon, in a letter to the American Ethnological Society,
communicated through Dr E. H. Davis, describes the
very remarkable ingenuity and skill which they display
point, says, ' the pointed teeth show it to have been a very dangerous
weapon.' Poseborough's letter to the author, MS. On the Klamath River,
' among the skins used for quivers, I noticed the otter, wild-cat, fisher,
fawn, grey fox and others.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 141.
Near Mt Shasta, ' bows and arrows are very beautifully made : the former
are of yew, and about three feet long .... backed very neatly with sinew,
and painted .... The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long.' Wilkes'
Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 255. At Port Trinidad, 'arrows are
carried in quivers of wood or bone, and hang from their wrist or neck.'
Maurelle's Jour., p. 20. On Pigeon River 'their arrows were in general
tipped with copper or iron.' Greenhow's Hist. Ogn., p. 110. The Pit River
'arrows are made in three parts.' Abbott, in Pac. E. E. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61.
The Allequas at Trinidad Bay, described by Carl Meyer, carried their arrows
either ' schussfertig in der Hand oder in einem iiber die Schultern geworfe-
nen Kocher aus Fuchs-oder Biberpelz. Der Bogen ist aus einer starken,
elastischen Rothtannenwurzel verfertigt, etwa 3% Fuss lang und auf der
Biickseite mit einer Barensehne uberklebt. Nachdem Sacramento, p. 217. See
Mofras, Explor., Atlas, plate xxv. Speaking of the quiver, Mr Powers says:
' in the animal's head they stuff a quantity of grass or moss, as a cushion for
the arrow-heads to rest in, which prevents them from being broken.' Over
land Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532. ' Their arrows can only be extracted from
the flesh with the knife.' Cutts' Conquest of CaL, p. 170. 'Am oberen Theile
(California) ist der Bogen von einer Lage von Hirsh-sehnen verstarkt und
elastisch gemacht. Die Pfeile bestehen aus einem rohrartigen Gewachse
von massiger Lange, an der Spitze mit Obsidian versehen, ihre La'nge ist
2 Zoll, ihre Breite 1 Zoll und die Dicke % Zoll, scharfkantig und spitz zu-
laufend.' Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 180.
42 Powers' Porno, MS. ; Schumacher's Oregon Antiquities, MS,; The Shastas
und their Neighbors, MS.
WAR AND ITS MOTIVES. 343
in this particular. The arrow-point maker, who is one
of a regular guild, places the obsidian pebble upon an
anvil of talcose slate and splits it with an agate chisel
to the required size; then holding the piece with his
finger and thumb against the anvil, he finishes it off
with repeated slight blows, administered with marvelous
adroitness and judgment. One of these artists made
an arrow-point for Mr Lyon out of a piece of a broken
porter- bottle. Owing to his not being acquainted with
the grain of the glass, he failed twice, but the third time
produced a perfect specimen.43 The Wallies poison their
arrows with rattlesnake-virus, but poisoned weapons seem
to be the exception.44 The bow is skilfully used ; war-
clubs are not common.45
Wars, though of frequent occurrence, were not par
ticularly bloody. The casus belli was usually that which
brought the Spartan King before the walls of Ilion, and
Titus Tatius to incipient Rome — woman. It is true, the
Northern Californians are less classic abductors than the
spoilers of the Sabine women, but their wars ended in
the same manner — the ravished fair cleaving to her
warrior-lover. Religion also, that ever-fruitful source
« Hist. Mac)., vol. iii., p. 214.
44 Johnson, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. At Trinidad Bay 'zu-
weilen werden die Pfeile mit dem Safte des Sumachbaumes vergifted, und
alsdann nur zum Erlegen wilder Raubthiere gebraucht.' Meyer, Nach dem
Sacramento, p. 218. ' Einige Stamme vergiften die Spitzen ihrer Pfeile auf
f olgende Weise : Sie reizen namlieh eine Klapperschlange mit einer vorge-
haltenen Hirschleber, worin sie beisst, und nachdem nun die Leber mit dem
Gifte vollstandig impragnirt ist, wird sie vergraben und muss verf aulen ; hierin
wird nun die Spitze eingetaucht und dann getrocknet.' Wimmd, Calif ornien,
p. 180. The Pitt River Indians ' use the poison of the rattle-snake, by grind
ing the head of that reptile into an impalpable powder, which is then applied
by means of the putrid blood and flesh of the dog to the point of the weapon.'
Gross1 System of Surgery, vol. i., p. 321. 'The Pitt River Indians poisoned
their arrows in a putrid deer's liver. This is a slow poison, however, and
sometimes will not poison at all.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Schu
macher's Oregon Antiquities, MS.
45 Among other things seen by Meyer were, ' noch grossere Bogen, die
ihnen als bedeutende Ferngeschosse dienen. Ein salcher ist 6 Fuss lang,
und der Indianer legt sich auf die Erde, um deuselben zu spannen, indem
er das rechte Knie in den Bogen einstemmt und mit beiden Armen nachhilft.'
The bow and arrow, knife, and war-club, constitute their weapons. In one
of their lodges I noticed an elk-skin shield, so constructed as to be impervi
ous to the sharpest arrows. Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 262. Miller
mentions a Modoc who was ' painted red, half-naked, and held a tomahawk
in his hand.LZi/e Amongst the Modocs, p. 20.
3M CALIFORNIANS.
of war, is not without its conflicts in savagedom ; thus
more than once the Shastas and the Umpquas have taken
up arms because of wicked sorceries, which caused the
death of the people.46 So when one people obstructed
the river with their weir, thereby preventing the ascent
of salmon, there was nothing left for those above but to
fight or starve.
Along Pitt River, pits from ten to fifteen feet deep
were formerly dug, in which the natives caught man and
beast. These man-traps, for such was their primary
use, were small at the mouth, widening toward the bot
tom, so that exit was impossible, even were the victim
to escape impalement upon sharpened elk and deer horns,
which were favorably placed for his reception. The
opening was craftily concealed by means of light sticks,
over which earth was scattered, arid the better to deceive
the unwary traveler, footprints were frequently stamped
with a moccasin in the loose soil. Certain landmarks
and stones or branches, placed in a peculiar manner,
warned the initiated, but otherwise there was no sign of
impending danger.47
Some few nations maintain the predominancy and
force the weaker to pay tribute.48 When two of these
dominant nations war with each other, the conflict is
more sanguinary. No scalps are taken, but in some
cases the head, hands, or feet of the conquered slain are
severed as trophies. The Cahrocs sometimes fight hand
to hand with ragged stones, which they use with deadly
effect. The Rogue River Indians kill all their male
prisoners, but spare the women and children.49 The
« Salem Statesman, April, 1857.
47 Hence, if we may credit Miller, Life Amongst the Modocs, p. 373, the
name Pitt River.
48 The Hoopas exacted tribute from all the surrounding tribes. At the
time the whites arrived the Chimalaquays were paying them tribute in deer
skins at the rate of twenty-five cents per head. Powers' Porno, MS. The
Hoopahs have a law requiring those situated on the Trinity, above them to
pay tribute. Humboldt Times, Nov. 1857; 8. F. Evening Bulletin, Nov. 23, 1857.
49 The Sassics, Cahrocs, Hoopahs, Klamaths and Rogue River Indians,
take no scalps, but decapitate the slain, or cut off their hands and feet.
Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317.
MANUFACTURES AND BOATS. 345
elk-horn knives and hatchets are the result of much
labor and patience.50
The women are very ingenious in plaiting grass, or
fine willow-roots, into mats, baskets, hats, and strips of
parti-colored braid for binding up the hair. On these,
angular patterns are worked by using different shades of
material, or by means of dyes of vegetable extraction.
The baskets are of various sizes, from the flat, basin-
shaped, water-tight, rush bowl for boiling food, to the
large pointed cone which the women carry on their
backs when root-digging or berry-picking.51 They are
also expert tanners, and, by a comparatively simple pro
cess, will render skins as soft and pliable as cloth. The
hide is first soaked in water till the hair loosens, then
stretched between trees or upright posts till half dry,
when it is scraped thoroughly on both sides, well beaten
with sticks, and the brains of some animal, heated at a
fire, are rubbed on the inner side to soften it. Finally it
is buried in moist ground for some weeks.
The interior tribes manifest no great skill in boat-
making, but along the coast and near the mouth of the
Klamath and Rogue rivers, very good canoes are found.
They are still, however, inferior to those used on the
Columbia and its tributaries. The lashed-up-hammock-
shaped bundle of rushes, which is so frequently met in
the more southern parts of California, has been seen on
the Klamath,52 but I have reason to think that it is only
used as a matter of convenience, and not because no
better boat is known. It is certain that dug-out canoes
50 The Veeards on Lower Humboldt Bay ' took elk-horns and rubbed
them on stones for days together, to sharpen them into axes and wedges.'
Powers' Porno, MS. On the Klamath river they had ' spoons neatly made of
bone and horn.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 14G.
51 ' For basket making, they use the roots of pine-trees, the stem of the
spice-bush, and ornament with a kind of grass which looks like a palm leaf,
and will bleach white. They also stain it purple with elder berries, and
green with soapstone.' . . . . ' The Pitt River Indians excel all others in basket-
making, but are not particularly good at bead work.' The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS. Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 204; Johnson, in Overland Monthly,
vol. ii., p. 536; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 134; Powers'
Porno, MS.
52 Wilkes' Nar. in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 253; Emmons, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iii., p. 218.
346 CALIFOBNIANS.
were in use on the same river, and within a few miles of
the spot where tule buoys obtain. The fact is, this bun
dle of rushes is the best craft that could be invented for
salmon-spearing. Seated astride, the weight of the fish
erman sinks it below the surface ; he can move it noise
lessly with his feet so that there is no splashing of pad
dles in the sun to frighten the fish ; it cannot capsize,
and striking a rock does it no injury. Canoes are hol
lowed from the trunk of a single redwood, pine, fir, syca
more, or cotton wood tree. They are blunt at both ends
and on Rogue River many of them are flat-bottomed.
It is a curious fact that some of these canoes are made
from first to last without being touched with a sharp-
edged tool of any sort. The native finds the tree
ready felled by the wind, burns it off to the required
length, and hollows it out by fire. Pitch is spread on
the parts to be burned away, and a piece of fresh bark
prevents the flames from extending too far in the wrong
direction. A small shelf, projecting inward from
the stern, serves as a seat. Much trouble is some
times taken with the finishing up of these canoes, in the
way of scraping and polishing, but in shape they lack
symmetry. On the coast they are frequently large ; Mr
Powers mentions having seen one at Smith River forty-
two feet long, eight feet four inches wide, and capable
of carrying twenty-four men and five tons of merchan
dise. The natives take great care of their canoes, and
always cover them when out of the water to protect them
from the sun. Should a crack appear they do not caulk
it, but stitch the sides of the split tightly together with
withes. They are propelled with a piece of wood, half
pole, half paddle.53
53 The boats formerly used by the Modocs were ' quite rude and unshape
ly concerns, compared with those of the lower Klamath, but substantial and
sometimes large enough to carry 1800 pounds of merchandise.' Powers, in
Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 532, vol. x., p. 536. ' Blunt at both ends, with
a small projection in the stern for a seat.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol.
iii., p. 142. ' Those on Kogue river were roughly built— some of them scow
fashion, with flat bottom.' Emmons, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 218.
The Pitt River Indians ' used boats made from pine ; they burn them out
about twenty feet long, some very good ones.' The Shastas and their
Neighbors, MS.
WEALTH IN NOKTHEKN CALIFORNIA. 347
Wealth, which is quite as important here as in any
civilized communities, and of much more importance than
is customary among savage nations, consists in shell-
money, called atticochick, white deer-skins, canoes, and,
indirectly, in women. The shell which is the regular
circulating medium is white, hollow, about a quarter of an
inch through, and from one to two inches in length. On
its length depends its value. A gentleman, who writes
from personal observation, says: u all of the older In
dians have tattooed on their arms their standard of
value. A piece of shell corresponding in length to one
of the marks being worth five dollars, l Boston money/
the scale gradually increases until the highest mark is
reached. For five perfect shells corresponding in length
to this mark they will readily give one hundred dollars
in gold or silver."54 White deer-skins are rare and con
sidered very valuable, one constituting quite an estate in
itself.55 A scalp of the red-headed woodpecker is equiv
alent to about five dollars, and is extensively used as
currency on the Klamath. Canoes are valued according
to their size and finish. Wives, as they must be bought,
are a sign of wealth, and the owner of many is respected
accordingly.56
Among the Northern Californians, hereditary chief
tainship is almost unknown. If the son succeed the
father it is because the son has inherited the father's
54 Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433. ' A kind of bead made from
a shell procured on the coast. These they string and wear about the neck.
. . . .Another kind is a shell about an inch long, which looks like a porcupine
quill. They are more valuable than the other. They also use them as nose-
ornaments.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The unit of currency is
a string of the length of a man's arm, with a certain number of the longer
shells below the elbow, and a certain number of the shorter ones above.'
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 329. 'A rare shell, spiral in
shape, varying from one to two inches in length, and about the size of a
crowquill, called by the natives, Siwash, is used as money.' Plubbard, in
Golden Era, March, 1856.
55 'The ownership of a (white) deer-skin, constitutes a claim to chieftain
ship, readily acknowledged by all the dusky race on this coast.' Humboldt
Times, Dec., 1860.
56 ' Property consists in women, ornaments made of rare feathers and
shells, also furs and skins.' Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Their
wealth ' consisted chiefly of white deerskins, canoes, the scalp of the red
headed woodpecker, and aliquachiek.' Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Joint. Spec.
Com., 1867, p. 497.
348 CALIFOKNIANS.
wealth, and if a richer than he arise the ancient ruler is
deposed and the new chief reigns in his stead. But to
be chief means to have position, not power. He can
advise, but not command ; at least, if his subjects do not
choose to obey him, he cannot compel obedience.
There is most frequently a head man to each village,
and sometimes a chief of the whole tribe, but in reality
each head of a family governs his own domestic circle
as he thinks best. As in certain republics, when power
ful applicants become multiplied — new offices are created,
as salmon-chief, elk-chief, and the like. In one or two
coast tribes the office is hereditary, as with the Patawats
on Mad River, and that mysterious tribe at Trinidad
Bay, mentioned by Mr Meyer, the Allequas.57
Their penal code is far from Draconian. A fine of a
few strings of allicochick appeases the wrrath of a mur
dered man's relatives and satisfies the requirements of
custom. A woman may be slaughtered for half the sum
it costs to kill a man. Occasionally banishment from
the tribe is the penalty for murder, but capital punish
ment is never resorted to. The fine, whatever it is,
must be promptly paid, or neither city of refuge nor
sacred altar-horns will shield the murderer from the
vengeance of his victim's friends.58
57 'Have no tribal organization, no such thing as public offence.' Hose-
borough's letter to the author, MS. A Pitt River chief tried the white man's
code, but so unpopular was it, that he was obliged to abandon it. The Shastas
and their Neighbors, MS. Among the Klamath and Trinity tribes the power
of the chief ' is insufficient to control the relations of the several villages,
or keep down the turbulence of individuals.' Gibbs, in Schooler aft' s Arch.,
vol. iii., pp. 139-140. The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopas, and Kailtas, have a
nominal chief for each village, but his power is extremely limited and each
individual does as he likes. Among the Tolewas in Del Norte County,
money makes the chief. The Modocs and Patawats have an hereditary
chieftainship. Powers' Porno, MS. At Trinidad Bay they were ' governed
by a ruler, who directs where they shall go both to hunt and fish.' Mau-
rdle's Jour., p. 18 / ' Der Hauptling ist sehr geachtet; erhat iiber Handel uncl
Wandel, Leben und Tod seiner Unterthanen zu verfugen, und seine Macht
vererbt sich auf seinen Erstgebornen.' Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, p.
223. ^The chief ' obtains his position from his wealth, and usually man
ages to transmit his effects and with them his honors, to his posterity. ' Hub-
bard, in Golden Era, March, 1856 . Formerly 'the different rancherias had
chiefs, or heads, known as Mow-wee-mas, their influence being principally
derived from their age, number of relatives, and wealth.' Wiley, in Ind. Ajf.
Kept. Joint. Spec. Com., p. 497.
58 The Cahrocs compound for murder by payment of one string. Among
the Patawais the average fine for murdering a man is ten strings, for killing
WOMEN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIKS. 349
In vain do we look for traces of that Arcadian simpli
city and disregard for worldly advantages generally ac
corded to children of nature. Although I find no descrip
tion of an actual system of slavery existing among them,
yet there is no doubt that they have slaves. We shall
see that illegitimate children are considered and treated
as such, and that women, entitled by courtesy wives, are
bought and sold. Mr Drew asserts that the Klamath
children of slave parents, who, it may be, prevent the
profitable prostitution or sale of the mother, are killed
without compunction.59
Marriage, with the Northern Californians, is essenti
ally a matter of business. The young brave must not
hope to win his bride by feats of arms or softer wooing,
but must buy her of her father, like any other chattel,
and pay the price at once, or resign in favor of a richer
man. The inclinations of the girl are in nowise con
sulted; no matter where her affections are placed, she
goes to the highest bidder, and " Mammon wins his way
where seraphs might despair." Neither is it a trifling
matter to be bought as a wife ; the social position of the
bride herself, as well as that of her father's family there
after, depends greatly upon the price she brings; her
value is voted by society at the price her husband pays
for her, and the father whose daughter commands the
greatest number of strings of allicochick, is greatly to be
honored. The purchase effected, the successful suitor
leads his blushing property to his hut and she becomes
his wife without further ceremony. Wherever this sys
tem of wife-purchase obtains, the rich old men almost
absorb the female youth and beauty of the tribe, while
the younger and poorer men must content themselves
a woman five strings, worth about $100 and $50 respectively. ' An average
Patawat's life is considered worth about six ordinary canoes, each of which
occupies two Indians probably three months in making, or, in all, tanta
mount to the labor of one man for a period of three years. ' ' The Hoopas and
Kailtas also paid for murder, or their life was taken by the relatives of the
deceased.' Powers' Porno, MS. 'They seem to do as they please, and to be
only governed by private revenge. If one man kills another the tribe or
family of the latter kill the murderer, unless he buy himself off.' The Shastas
and their Neighbors, MS.
59 Drew's Owyhee Reconnaissance, p. 17.
350 CALIFOKNIANS.
with old and ugly wives. Hence their eagerness for that
wealth which will enable them to throw away their old
wives and buy new ones. When a marriage takes place
among the Modocs, a feast is given at the house of the
bride's father, in which, however, neither she nor the
bridegroom partake. The girl is escorted by the women
to a lodge, previously furnished by public contributions,
where she is subsequently joined by the man, who is
conducted by his male friends. All the company bear
torches, which are piled up as a fire in the lodge of the
wedded pair, who are then left alone. In some tribes
this wife-traffic is done on credit, or at least partially
so; but the credit system is never so advantageous
to the buyer as the ready-money system, for until
the full price is paid, the man is only ' half-married,'
and besides he must live with his wife's family and be
their slave until he shall have paid in full.60 The chil
dren of a wife who has cost her husband nothing are
considered no better than bastards, and are treated by
society with contumely; nobody associates with them,
and they become essentially ostracized. In all this there
is one redeeming feature for the wife-buyer; should he
happen to make a bad bargain he can, in most instances,
send his wife home and get his money back. Mr Gibbs
asserts that they shoot their wives when tired of them,
but this appears inconsistent with custom.
Polygamy is almost universal, the number of wives
depending only on the limit of a man's wealth. The
loss of one eye, or expulsion from the tribe, are common
punishments for adultery committed by a man. A string
of beads, however, makes amends. Should the wife ven-
60 The Cahrocs, Eurocs, Hoopahs, and Fatawats, all acquire their wives
by purchase. The Shastas and their Neigbors, MS.; Powers' Porno, MS.
1 Wenn ein Allequa seine kiinftige Lebensgefahrtin miter den Schoiien
seines Stammes erwahlt hat und sich verheirathen will, muss er dem Mau-
hemi (chief) cine armslange Muschelschnur vorzeigen.' Meyer, Nacli dem
Sacramento, p. 223. The mountain Indians seldom, if ever, intermarry with
those on the coast. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Kept. Joint. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497;
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 127. Buy wives with shell-money.
Pfeiffer's Second Journ. Among the Modocs 4 the women are offered for
sale to the highest buyer.' Meacham's Lecture, in S. F. Alia California, Oct.
6, 1861; Miller's Life Amongst the Modocs.
ADULTERY AND CHASTITY. 351
ture on any irregularity without just compensation, the
outraged honor of her lord is never satisfied until he
has seen her publicly disemboweled. Among the Hoo-
pahs the women are held irresponsible and the men alone
suffer for the crime.61 Illegitimate children are life-
slaves to some male relative of the mother, and upon them
the drudgery falls ; they are only allowed to marry one
in their own station, and their sole hope of emancipa
tion lies in a slow accumulation of allicochick, with which
they can buy their freedom. We are told by Mr Pow
ers that a Modoc may kill his mother-in-law with im
punity. Adultery, being attended with so much danger,
is comparatively rare, but among the unmarried, who
have nothing to fear, a gross licentiousness prevails.62
Among the Muckalucs a dance is instituted in honor
of the arrival of the girls at the age of puberty. On
the Klamath, during the period of menstruation the
women are banished from the village, and no man may
approach them. Although the principal labor falls to
the lot of the women, the men sometimes assist in build
ing the wigwam, or even in gathering acorns and roots.63
Kane mentions that the Shastas, or, as he calls them,
the Chastays, frequently sell their children as slaves to
the Chinooks.6* Dances and festivities, of a religio-
61 Polygamy is common among the Modocs. Meacham's Lecture, in S. F.
Alia California, Oct. 6, 1873. On Pitt River a chief sometimes has five wives.
'The most jealous people in the world.' The Shastas and their Neighbors,
MS.; Poseborough's letter to the author, MS. 'Among the tribes in the north
of the State adultery is punished by the the death of the child.' Taylor,
in California Farmer, March 8, 1861. 'The males have as many wives as
they are able to purchase;' adultery committed by a woman is punished with
death. Hubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. Among the Cahrocs polygamy
is not tolerated; among the Modocs polygamy prevails, and the women have
considerable privilege. The Hoopa adulterer loses one eye, the adulteress
is exempt from punishment. Powers1 Porno, MS. The Weeyots at Eel river
'have as many wives as they please.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.iii., p.
127. At Trinidad Bay 'we foimd out that they had a plurality of wives.'
Maurelle's Jour., p. 19.
62 All the young unmarried women are a common possession. Powers,
in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 330. The women bewail their virginity for
three nights before their marriage. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 1"3.
If we believe Powers, they cannot usually have much to bewail.
63 Boys are disgraced by work. The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.
Women work, while men gamble or sleep. Wiley, in Ind. Aff. Pept., Joint
Spec. Com., 1867, p. 497; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 242; Pose-
borough's letter to the author, MS.
<*' Kane's Wand., p. 182.
352 CALIFOKNIANS.
playful character, are common, as when a whale is
stranded, an elk snared, or when the salmon come.
There is generally a kind of thanksgiving-day once a
year, when the people of neighboring tribes meet and
dance. The annual feast of the Veeards is a good illus
tration of the manner of these entertainments. The
dance, which takes place in a large wigwam, is per
formed -by as many men as there is room for, and a
small proportion of women. They move in a circle
slowly round the fire, accompanying themselves with
their peculiar chant. Each individual is dressed in all
the finery he can muster; every valuable he possesses in
the way of shells, furs, or woodpecker-scalps, does duty
on this occasion ; so that the wealth of the dancers may
be reckoned at a glance. When the dance has conclud
ed, an old gray-beard of the tribe rises, and pronounces
a thanksgiving oration, wherein he enumerates the ben
efits received, the riches accumulated, and the victories
won during the year; exhorting the hearers meanwhile,
by good conduct and moral behavior, to deserve yet
greater benefits. This savage Nestor is listened to in
silence and with respect; his audience seeming to drink
in with avidity every drop of wisdom that falls from his
lips ; but no sooner is the harangue concluded than every
one does his best to violate the moral precepts so lately
inculcated, by a grand debauch.
The Cahrocs have a similar festival, which they call
the Feast of the Propitiation. Its object is much the
same as that of the feast just described, but in place
of the orator, the chief personage of the day is called
the Chareya, which is also the appellation of their deity.
No little honor attaches to the position, but much suf
fering is also connected with it. It is the duty of the
Chareya-man to retire into the mountains, with one at
tendant only, and there to remain for ten days, eating-
only enough to keep breath in his body. Meanwhile
the Cahrocs congregate in honor of the occasion, dance,
sing, and make merry. When the appointed period has
elapsed, the Chareya-man returns to camp, or is carried
SPOETS AND GAMES. 353
by deputies sent out for the purpose, if he have not
strength to walk. His bearers are blindfolded, for no
human being may look upon the face of the Chareya-
man and live. His approach is the signal for the ab
rupt breaking up of the festivities. The revelers dis
perse in terror, and conceal themselves as best they may
to avoid catching sight of the dreaded face, and where
a moment before all was riot and bustle, a deathly still
ness reigns. Then the Chareya-man is conducted to the
sweat-house, where he remains for a time. And now
the real Propitiation-Dance takes place, the men alone
participating in its sacred movements, which are accom
panied by the low, monotonous chant of singers. The
dance over, all solemnity vanishes, and a lecherous satur
nalia ensues, which will not bear description. The gods
are conciliated, catastrophes are averted, and all is joy
and happiness.65
A passion for gambling obtains among the northern Cal-
ifornians as elsewhere. Nothing is too precious or too in
significant to be staked, from a white or black deer-skin,
which is almost priceless, down to a wife, or any other
trifle. In this manner property changes hands with
great rapidity.
I have already stated that on the possession of riches
depend power, rank, and social position, so that there is
really much to be lost or won. They have a game played
with little sticks, of which some are black, but the most
white. These they throw around in a circle, the object be
ing seemingly to make the black ones go farther than the
white. A kind of guess-game is played with clay balls.66
There is also an international game, played between
friendly tribes, which closely resembles our 'hockey.'
Two poles are set up in the ground at some distance
apart, and each side, being armed with sticks, endeavors
to drive a wooden ball round the goal opposite to it.67
65 For the god Chareya, see Bancroft's Nat. Eaces, vol. hi., pp. 90, 161.
66 Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 318. The Pitt River Indians ' sing as they
gamble and play until they are so hoarse they cannot speak.' The Shastas
and their Neighbors, MS.
67 Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 433.
VOL. I. 23
354 CALIFORNIANS.
In almost all their games and dances they are accompa
nied by a hoarse chanting, or by some kind of uncouth
music produced by striking on a board with lobster-claws
fastened to sticks, or by some other equally primitive
method. Before the introduction of spirituous liquors
by white men drunkenness was unknown. With their
tobacco for smoking, they mix a leaf called Jcinnik-Jcin-
The diseases and ailments most prevalent among these
people are scrofula, consumption, rheumatism, a kind of
leprosy, affection of the lungs, and sore eyes, the last
arising from the dense smoke which always pervades
their cabins.69 In addition to this they have imaginary
disorders caused by wizards, witches, and evil spirits,
who, as they believe, cause snakes and other reptiles to
enter into their bodies and gnaw their vitals. Some few
roots and herbs used are really efficient medicine, but
they rely almost entirely upon the mummeries and in
cantations of their medicine men and women.70 Their
whole system of therapeutics having superstition for a
basis, mortality is great among them, which may be one
vof the causes of the continent being, comparatively
speaking, so thinly populated at the time of its discov
ery. Syphilis, one of the curses for which they may
thank the white man, has made fearful havoc among
68 ' They used tobacco, which they smoaked in small wooden pipes, in
iorm of a trumpet, and procured from little gardens, where they had planted
it.' Maurelle's Jour., p. 21.
69 The Pitt River Indians ' give no medicines.' The Shaatas and their Neigh-
•bors, MS. 'The prevailing diseases are venereal, scrofula and rheumatism.'
Many die of consumption. Force, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 157. At the
mouth of Eel river ' the principal diseases noticed, were sore eyes and blind
ness, consumption, and a species of leprosy.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraff s Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 128. They suffer from a species of lung fever. Gtiger, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 289. 'A disease was observed among them (the Shastas)
which had the appearance of the leprosy.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. v., p. 255.
70 ' The only medicine I know of is a root used for poultices, and another
root or plant for an emetic.' The SJmstas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The
root of a parasite fern, found growing on the tops of the fir trees (collque
nashul), is the principal remedy. The plant in small doses is expectorant
and diurtetic; hence it is used to relieve difficulties of the lungs and kid
neys; and, in large doses, it becomes sedative and is an emmenagogue; hence,
it relieves fevers, and is useful in uterine diseases, .and produces abortions.
The squaws use the root extensively for this last mentioned purpose.' Hub-
tard, in Golden Era, March, 1856.
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 355
them. Women doctors seem to be more numerous than
men in this region ; acquiring their art in the temescal or
sweat-house, where unprofessional women are not ad
mitted. Their favorite method of cure seems to consist
in sucking the affected part of the patient until the blood
flows, by which means they pretend to extract the dis
ease. Sometimes the doctress vomits a frog, previously
swallowed for the occasion, to prove that she has not
sucked in vain. She is frequently assisted by a second
physician, whose duty it is to discover the exact spot
where the malady lies, and this she effects by barking
like a dog at the patient until the spirit discovers to her
the place. Mr Gibbs mentions a case where the patient
was first attended by four young women, and afterward
by the same number of old ones. Standing round the
unfortunate, they went through a series of violent ges
ticulations, sitting down when they could stand no longer,
sucking, with the most laudable perseverance, and moan
ing meanwhile most dismally. Finally, when with their
lips and tongue they had raised blisters all over the
patient, and had pounded his miserable body with hands
and knees until they were literally exhausted, the per
formers executed a swooning scene, in which they sank
down apparently insensible.71 The Rogue River medi
cine-men are supposed to be able to wield their mysteri
ous power for harm, as well as for good, so that should
a patient die, his relatives kill the doctor who attended
him ; or in case deceased could not afford medical attend
ance, they kill the first unfortunate disciple of ^Escula-
pius they can lay hands on, frequently murdering one
belonging to another tribe; his death, however, must be
paid for.72
But the great institution of the Northern C aliform -
ans is their temescal, or sweat-house, which consists of a
71 A Pitt Eiver doctor told his patient that for his fee ' he must have his
horse or he would not let him get well.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.;
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 428; Gibbs, in Schoolcra/t's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 175.
72 The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Rector, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862,
p. 261; Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p. 369; Miller, in Id., p. 361.
356 CALIFOKNIANS.
hole dug in the ground , and roofed over in such a man
ner as to render it almost air-tight. A fire is built in the
centre in early fall, and is kept alive till the follow
ing spring, as much attention being given to it as ever
was paid to the sacred fires of Hestia; though between
the subterranean temescal, with its fetid atmosphere,
and lurid fire-glow glimmering faintly through dense
smoke on swart, gaunt forms of savages, and the stately
temple on the Forum, fragrant with fumes of incense,
the lambent altar-flame glistening on the pure white
robes of the virgin priestesses, there is little likeness.
The temescal73 is usually built on the brink of a stream ;
a small hatchway affords entrance, which is instantly
closed after the person going in or out. Here congre
gate the men of the village and enact their sudorific
ceremonies, which ordinarily consist in squatting round
the fire until a state of profuse perspiration sets in, when
they rush out and plunge into the water. Whether
this mode of treatment is more potent to kill or to cure
is questionable. The sweat-house serves not only as
bath and medicine room, but also as a general rendez
vous for the male drones of the village. The women,
with the exception of those practicing or studying medi
cine, are forbidden its sacred precincts on pain of death ;
thus it offers as convenient a refuge for henpecked hus
bands as a civilized club-house. In many of the tribes
the men sleep in the temescal during the winter, which,
notwithstanding the disgusting impurity of the atmos
phere, affords them a snug retreat from the cold gusty
weather common to this region.74
Incremation obtains but slightly among the Northern
Californians, the body usually being buried in a recum
bent position. The possessions of the deceased are either
73 Temescal is an Aztec word defined by Molina, Vocabularia, ' Temazcalli,
casilla como estufa, adonde se banan y sudan.' The word was brought to
this region and applied to the native sweat-houses by the Franciscan Fathers.
Turner, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 72, gives 'sweat-house ' in the Che-
mehuevi language, as pahcaba.
74 Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors,
MS.; Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 317; Powers' Porno, MS.; Chase, in Overland
Monthly, vol. ii., p. 432.
BURIAL AND MOURNING. 357
interred with him, or are hung around the grave ; some
times his house is burned and the ashes strewn over his
burial-place. Much noisy lamentation on the part of
his relatives takes place at his death, and the widow
frequently manifests her grief by sitting on, or even half
burying herself in, her husband's grave for some days,
howling most dismally meanwhile, and refusing food and
drink; or, on the upper Klamath, by cutting her hair
close to the head, and so wearing it until she obtains con
solation in another spouse. The Modocs hired mourners
to lament at different places for a certain number of
days, so that the whole country was filled with lamenta
tion. These paid mourners were closely watched, and
disputes frequently arose as to whether they had fulfilled
their contract or not.75 Occasionally the body is doubled
up and interred in a sitting position, and, rarely, it is
burned instead of buried. On the Klamath a fire is kept
burning near the grave for several nights after the burial,
for which rite various reasons are assigned. Mr Powers
states that it is to light the departed shade across a cer
tain greased pole, which is supposed to constitute its only
approach to a better world. Sir Gibbs affirms that the
fire is intended to scare away the devil, obviously an
unnecessary precaution as applied to the Satan of civil
ization, who by this time must be pretty familiar with
the element. The grave is generally covered with a
slab of wood, and sometimes two more are placed erect
at the head and foot ; that of a chief is often surrounded
writh a fence; nor must the name of a dead person ever
be mentioned under any circumstances.76
75 Meacham's Lecture on the Modocs, in 8. F. Alta California, Oct. 6, 1873;
The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.
™ On Pitt River they burn their dead and heap stones over the ashes for a
monument. 'No funeral ceremonies.' The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.
On the ocean frontier of south Oregon and north California 'the dead are buried
with their faces looking to the west. ' Ifubbard, in Golden Era, March, 1856. The
Patawats and Chillulas bury their dead. The Tolewahs are not allowed to name
the dead. Powers' Porno, MS. ' It is one of the most strenuous Indian laws
that whoever mentions the name of a deceased person is liable to a heavy
fine, the money being paid to the relatives.' Chase, in Overland Monthly, vol.
ii., p. 431. ' The bodies had been doubled up, and placed in a sitting posture
in holes. The earth, when replaced, formed conical mounds over the heads.'
Abbott, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. vi., p. 69. 'They bury their dead under
358 CALIFOKNIANS.
The following vivid description of a last sickness and
burial by the Pitt River Indians, is taken from the letter
of a lady eye-witness to her son in San Francisco : —
It was evening. We seated ourselves upon a log,
your father, Bertie, and I, near the fire round which the
natives had congregated to sing for old Gesnip, the
chief's wife. Presently Sootim, the doctor, appeared,
dressed in a low-necked, loose, white muslin, sleeveless
waist fastened to a breech-cloth, and red buck -skin cap
fringed and ornamented with beads; the face painted
with white stripes down to the chin, the arms from
wrist to shoulder, in black, red, and white circles, which
by the lurid camp-fire looked like bracelets, and the legs
in white and black stripes, — presenting altogether a
merry- Andrew appearance. Creeping softly along, sing
ing in a low, gradually-increasing voice, Sootim ap
proached the invalid and poised his hands over her as
in the act of blessing. The one nearest him took up
the song, singing low at first, then the next until the
circle was completed ; after this the pipe went round ; then
the doctor taking a sip of water, partly uncovered the
patient and commenced sucking the left side ; last of all
he took a pinch of dirt and blew it over her. This. is
their curative process, continued night after night, and
long into the night, until the patient recovers or dies.
Next day the doctor came to see me, and I determined
if possible to ascertain his own ideas of these things.
Giving him some muck-a-mudc?1 I asked him, " What do
you say when you talk over old Gesnip?" " I talk to
the trees, and to the springs, and birds, and sky, and
rocks," replied Sootim, "to the wind, and rain, and
the noses of the living, and with them all their worldly goods. If a man
of importance, his house is burned and he is buried on its site.' Johnson,
in Overland Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536. 'The chick or ready money, is placed
in the owner's grave, but the bow and quiver become the property of the
nearest male relative. Chiefs only receive the honors of a fence, surmounted
with feathers, round the grave.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 175.
' Upon the death of one of these Indians they raised a sort of funeral cry,
and afterward burned the body within the house of their ruler.' Maurelle's
Jour., p. 19.
77 Muck-a-muck, food. In the Chinook Jargon 'to eat; to bite; food.
Muckamuck chuck, to drink water.' Diet. Chinook Jargon, or Indian Trade
Language, p. 12.
BUKIAL CEREMONIES AT PITT BIVEK. 359
leaves, I beg them all to help me." lofalet, the doctor's
companion on this cccasion, volunteered the remark:
" When Indian die, doctor very shamed, all same Boston
doctor;78 when Indian get well, doctor very smart, all
same Boston doctor." Gesnip said she wanted after death
to be put in a box and buried in the ground, and not
burned. That same day the poor old woman breathed
her last — the last spark of that wonderful thing called
life flickered and went out; there remained in that rude
camp the shriveled dusky carcass, the low dim intelligence
that so lately animated it having fled — whither? When
I heard of it I went to the camp and found them dressing
the body. First they put on Gesnip her best white
clothes, then the next best, placing all the while whatever
was most valuable, beads, belts, and necklaces, next the
body. Money they put into the mouth, her daughter
contributing about five dollars. The knees were then
pressed up against the chest, and after all of her own
clothing was put on, the body was rolled up in the best
family bear- skin, and tied with strips of buckskin.
Then Soomut, the chief and husband, threw the bun
dle over his shoulders, and started off for the cave where
they deposit their dead, accompanied by the whole
band crying and singing, and throwing ashes from the
camp-fire into the air. And thus the old barbarian
mourns: "Soomut had two wives — one good, one bad;
but she that was good was taken away, while she that is
bad remains. 0 Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" And the
mournful procession take up the refrain: "0. Gesnip
gone, gone, gone!" Again the ancient chief: "Soomut
has a little boy, Soomut has a little girl, but no one is
left to cook their food, no one to dig them roots. 0
Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" followed by the chorus. Then
again Soomut: "White woman knows that Gesnip was
78 In the vicinity of Nootka Sound and the Columbia Eiver, the first
United States traders with the natives were from Boston; the first English
vessels appeared about the same time, which was during the reign of George
III. Hence in the Chinook Jargon we find 'Boston, an American; Boston
illahie, the United States;' and 'King George, English — King George man, an
Englishman. '
360 CALIFOKNIANS.
strong to work; she told me her sorrow when Gesnip
died. 0 Gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and this was kept
up during the entire march, the dead wife's virtues sung
and chorused by the whole tribe, accompanied by the
scattering of ashes and lamentations which now had be
come very noisy. The lady further states that the scene
at the grave was so impressive that she was unable to
restrain her tears. No wonder then that these impulsive
children of nature carry their joy and sorrow to excess,
even so far as in this instance, where the affectionate
daughter of the old crone had to be held by her compan
ions from throwing herself into the grave of her dead
mother. After all, how slight the shades of difference
in hearts human, whether barbaric or cultured!
As before mentioned, the ruling passion of the savage
seems to be love of wealth; having it, he is respected,
without it he is despised ; consequently he is treacher
ous when it profits him to be so, thievish when he
can steal without danger, cunning when gain is at stake,
brave in defense of his lares and penates. Next to
his excessive venality, abject superstition forms the
the most prominent feature of his character. He seems
to believe that everything instinct with animal life —
with some, as with the Siahs, it extends to vegetable life
also — is possessed by evil spirits; horrible fancies fill his
imagination. The rattling of acorns on the roof, the
rustling of leaves in the deep stillness of the forest is
sufficient to excite terror. His wicked spirit is the very
incarnation of fiendishness ; a monster who falls suddenly
upon the unwary traveler in solitary places and rends
him in pieces, and whose imps are ghouls that exhume
the dead to devour them.79
Were it not for the diabolic view he takes of nature,
his life would be a comparatively easy one. His wants
are few, and such as they are, he has the means of sup
plying them. He is somewhat of a stoic, his motto being
79 ' They will often go three or four miles out of their way, to avoid pass
ing a place which they think to be haunted.' The, Shastas and their Neigh-
bors, MS.
THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS. 361
never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow,
and he concerns himself little with the glories of peace
or war. Now and then we find him daubing himself
with great stripes of paint, and looking ferocious, but
ordinarily he prefers the calm of the peaceful temescal
to the din of battle. The task of collecting a winter
store of food he converts into a kind of summer picnic,
and altogether is inclined to make the best of things, in
spite of the annoyance given him in the way of reserva
tions and other benefits of civilization. Taken as a
_whole, the Northern Californian is not such a bad speci
men of a savage, as savages go, but filthiness and greed
are not enviable qualities, and he has a full share of
both.80
THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy a yet larger ex
tent of territory, comprising the whole of that portion of
California extending, north and south, from about 40°
30' to 35°, and, east and west, from the Pacific Ocean to
the Californian boundary.
80 The Pitt Eiver Indians ' are very shrewd in the way of stealing, and
will beat a coyote. They are full of cunning.' The Shastas and their Neigh
bors, MS. They 'are very treacherous and bloody in their dispositions.'
Ajbott, inPac. R. It. Kept., vol. vi., p. 61. 'The Indians of the North of
California stand at the very lowest point of culture.' Pf tiffer's Second Journ.,
p. 316. ' Incapable of treachery, but ready to fight to the death in aveng
ing an insult or injury. They are active and energetic in the extreme.'
Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 166. At Klamath Lake they are noted
for treachery. Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 205. 'The Tolowas resemble
the Hoopas in character, being a bold and masterly race, formidable in bat
tle, aggressive and haughty.' The Patawats are 'extremely timid and inof
fensive.' The Chillulas, like most of the coast tribes ' are characterized by
hideous and incredible superstitions.' The Modocs ' are rather a cloddish,
indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom, sullen
when angered, and notorious for keeping punic faith. Their bravery nobody
can dispute.' The Yukas are a 'tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and
every way bad, but brave race.' Powers' Porno, MS. On Trinity River ' they
have acquired the vices of the whites without any of their virtues.' Heintzel-
man, in Ind. Af. Kept., 1857, p. 391. Above the forks of the main Trinity
they are ' fierce and intractable.' On the Klamath they ' have a reputation
for treachery, as well as revengefulness; are thievish, and much disposed to
sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged.' They 'blubber like a
schoolboy at the application of a switch.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol.
iii., pp. 139, 141, 176. The Rogue River Indians and Shastas ' are a warlike
race, proud and haughty, but treacherous and very degraded in their moral
nature.' Miller, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 361. At Rogue River they
are 'brave, haughty, indolent, and superstitious.' Ostrander, in Id., 1857, p.
368; Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.
362 CALIFOENIANS.
The Native Races of this region are not divided, as in
the northern part of the state, into comparatively large
tribes, but are scattered over the face of the country in
innumerable little bands, with a system of nomenclature
so intricate as to puzzle an (Edipus. Neverthless, as
among the most important, I may mention the following:
The Tehamas, from whom the county takes its name;
the Pomos, which name signifies l people', and is the
collective appellation of a number of tribes living in Pot
ter Valley, where the head-waters of Eel and Russian
rivers interlace, and extending west to the ocean and
south to Clear Lake. Each tribe of the nation takes a
distinguishing prefix to the name of Porno, as, the Oastel
Pomos and Ki Pomos on the head -waters of Eel River ;
the Pome Pomos, Earth People, in Potter Valley;
the Cahto Pomos, in the valley of that name; the
Choam Chadela Pomos, Pitch-pine People, in Redwood
Yalley ; the Matomey Ki Pomos, Wooded Yalley People,
about Little Lake ; the Usals, or Camalel Pomos, Coast
People, on Usal Creek; the Shebalne Pomos, Neighbor
People, in Sherwood Yalley, and many others. On
Russian River, the Gallinomeros occupy the valley below
Healdsburg ; the Sanels, Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in
the vicinity of the village of Sanel ; the Comachos dwell in
Rancheria and Anderson valleys ; the Ukialis, or Yokias,
near the town of Ukiah, which is a corruption of their
name;81 the Guahlas^ on the creek which takes its name
from them, about twenty miles above the mouth of
Russian River. On the borders of Clear Lake were the
Lopittamillos, the Mipacmas, and Tyugas-, the Yolos, or
Yolays, that is to say, t region thick with rushes,' of
which the present name of the county of Yolo is a
corruption, lived on Cache Creek ; the Colusas occupied
the west bank of the Sacramento ; in the Yalley of the
Moon, as the Sonomas called their country, besides them
selves there were the Guillicas, the Kanimares, the Simba-
81 These are not to be confounded with the Yukas in Hound Valley, Teha-
ma County.
82 Spelled Walhalla on some maps.
NATIONS OF CENTEAL CALIFOKNIA. 363
fakees, the Petalumas, and the Wapos; the Tachichumnes
inhabited the country between Stockton and Mount
Diablo. According to Hittel, there were six tribes in
Napa Valley : the Mayacomas, the Calajomanas, the Cay-
mus, the Napas, the Ulucas, and the Suscols ; Mr Taylor
also mentions the GuenocJes, the Tkdkays, and the Socollo-
millos ; in Suisun Valley were the Suisunes, the Pulpones,
the Tolenos, and the Ulhdatas ; the tribe of the celebrated
chief Marin lived near the mission of San Rafael, and
on the ocean-coast of Marin County were the Bolanos
and Tamaks ; the Karquines lived on the straits of that
name. Humboldt and Muhlenpfordt mention the Mata-
lanes, Salses, and Quirotes, as living round the bay of San
Francisco. According to Adam Johnson, who was In
dian agent for California in 1850, the principal tribes
originally living at the Mission Dolores, and Yerba
Buena, were the Akwasktes, Altahmos, Romanans, and
Tufamos] Choris gives the names of more than fifteen
tribes seen at the Mission, Charnisso of nineteen, and
transcribed from the mission books to the TRIBAL BOUN
DARIES of this group, are the names of nearly two hun
dred rancherias. The Socoi&ukas, Thamiens, and Gerge-
censens roamed through Santa Clara County. The
Okhones inhabited the coast between San Francisco and
Monterey; in the vicinity of the latter place were the
Rumsens or Runsiens, the JEcdemaches, Uscdem or
Eslens, the Achastliens, and the Mutsunes. On the San
Joaquin lived the Costrowers, the Pikiaches, Talluches,
Loommars, and Amonces ; on Fresno River the Chowdas,
Cookchaneys, Fonechas, NooJcchws, and Hvwetsers] the
JZemitches and Cowiahs, lived on Four Creeks; the Wa-
ches, Notoowthas, and Chunemmes on King River, and on
Tulare Lake, the Talches and Wooivells.
In their aboriginal manners and customs they differ
but little, so little, in fact, that one description will apply
to the whole division within the above-named limits.
The reader will therefore understand that, except where
a tribe is specially named, I am speaking of the whole
people collectively.
364 CALIFORNIANS.
The conflicting statements of men who had ample op
portunity for observation, and who saw the people they
describe, if not in the same place, at least in the same
vicinity, render it difficult to give a correct description
of their physique. They do not appear to deteriorate
toward the coast, or improve toward the interior, so
uniformly as their northern neighbors; but this may be
accounted for by the fact that several tribes that for
merly lived on the coast have been driven inland by the
settlers and vice versa.
Some ethnologists see in the Californians a stock
different from that of any other American race ; but the
more I dwell upon the subject, the more convinced I am,
that, except in the broader distinctions, specific classifica
tions of humanity are but idle speculations. Their
height rarely exceeds five feet eight inches, and is more
frequently five feet four or five inches, and although
strongly they are seldom symetrically built. A low re
treating forehead, black deep-set eyes, thick bushy eyer
brows, salient cheek-bones, a nose depressed at the root
and somewhat wide-spreading at the nostrils, a large
mouth with thick prominent lips, teeth large and white,
but not always regular, and rather large ears, is the pre
vailing type. Their complexion is much darker than that
of the tribes farther north, often being nearly black; so
that with their matted, bushy hair, which is frequently
cut short, they present a very uncouth appearance.83
83 In the vicinity of Fort Ross, ' Die Indianer sind von mittlerem Wuchse,
doch trifft man auch liohe Gestalten miter ihnen an; sie sind ziemlich wohl
proportionirt, die Farbe der Haut ist braunlich, doch ist diese Farbe mehr
eine Wirkung der Sonne als angeboren; die Augen und Haare sind schwarz,
die letzteren stehen straff. . . .Beide Geschlechter sind von kraftigem Korper-
bau.' Kostromitonow, in Baer. Stat. u. Ethn., p. 81. Quoique surpris dans mi
tres-graiid neglige, ces hommes me parurent beaux, de haute taille, robustes
et parf aitement decouples . . traits reguliers . . . yeux noirs . . . nez aquilin
surmonte d'un front eleve, les pommettes des joues arrondies, .... fortes levres
. . . .dents blanches et bien rangees. . . .peau jaune cuivre, uii cou annonc.ant
la vigueur et soutenu par de larges epaules . . . . un air intelligent et fier a la
fois . . . . Je trouvai toutes les f emmes horriblement laides. ' Laplace, Circumnav,
torn, vi., 145-6. At the head of the Eel River ' the average height of these men
was not over five feet four or five inches. They were lightly built, with no
superfluous flesh, but with very deep chests and sinewy legs.' Gibbs, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 1 19. ' The Clear Lake Indians are of a very degraded
caste; their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls
of the Chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly.' Id., p. 108.
PHYSICAL PECULIAKITIES. 365
The question of beard has been much mooted ; some
travelers asserting that they are bearded like Turks,
At Bodega Bay ' they are an ugly and brutish race, many with negro pro
files.' Id., p. 103. ' They are physically an inferior race, and have flat,
unmeaning features, long, coarse, straight black hair, big mouths, and very
dark skins.' Revere's Tour., p. 120. ' Large and strong, their colour being
the same as that of the whole territory.' Maurdle's Jour., p. 47. It is
said of the natives of the Sacramento valley, that ' their growth is short and
stunted; they have short thick necks, and clumsy heads; the forehead is low,
the nose flat with broad nostrils, the eyes very narrow and showing no in
telligence, the cheek-bones prominent, and the mouth large. The teeth are
white, but they do not stand in even rows; and their heads are covered by
short, thick, rough hair. . . .Their color is a dirty yellowish-brown.' Pfeiffer's
Second Journ., p. 307. ' This race of Indians is probably inferior to all others
on the continent. Many of them are diminutive in stature, but they do not
lack muscular strength, and we saw some who were tall and well-formed.
. . . . Their complexion is a dark mahogany, or often nearly black, their faces
round or square, with features approximating nearer to the African than
the Indian. Wide, enormous mouth, noses nearly flat, and hair straight,
black, and coarse Small, gleaming eyes.' Johnson's Cal. and Ogn.,pp. 142-
3. Of good stature, strong and muscular. Bryant's Cal., p. 266. ' Rather
below the middle stature, but strong, well-knit fellows Good-looking,
and well limbed.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 81, 111. 'They were
in general fine stout men.' A great diversity of physiognomy was noticeable.
Pickerin'fs Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 105, 107. On the Sacra
mento 'were fine robust men, of low stature, and badly formed.' WilJces'
Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198. 'The mouth is very large, and the
nose broad and depressed.' ' Chiefly distinguished by their dark color. . . .
broad faces, a low forehead.' Ilale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222.
' Their features are coarse, broad, and of a dark chocolate color.' Taylor,
in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 2, 186'J. At Drake's Bay, just above San Francisco,
the men are ' commonly so strong of bodjr, that that which two or three of
our men could hardly beare, one of them would take vpon his backe, and
without grudging carrie it easily away, vp hill and downe hill an English mile
together.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 131, 'Los Naturales de este sitio y
Puerto son algo triguenos, por lo quemados del Sol, aunque los venidos de la
otra banda del Puerto y del Estero. . .son mas blancos y corpulentos.' Palou
Vida de Jum'pero Serra, p. 215. 'Ugly, stupid, and savage; otherwise they
are well formed, tolerably tall, and of a dark brown complexion. The women
are short, and very ugly; they have much of the negro in their countenance.
. . . .Very long, smooth, and coal-black hair.' Kotzebm's Voy., vol. i., pp. 282-3.
' They all have a very savage look, and are of a very dark color.' Chamisso,
in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 47. ' 111 made; their faces ugly, presenting a
dull, heavy, and stupid countenance.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 13. The
Tcholovoiii tribe ' differe beaucoup de toutes les autres par les traits du visage
par sa physionomie, par un exterieur assez agreable.' Choris, Voy. Pitt, part
iii., p. 6., plate vi., vii., xii. 'The Alchones are of good height, and the
Tuluraios were thought to be, generally, above the standard of Englishmen.
Their complexion is much darker than that of the South-sea Islanders, and
their features far inferior in beauty.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 76. At
Santa Clara they are ' of a blackish colour, they have flat faces, thick lips,
and black, coarse, straight hair.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii.,p. 98. 'Their
features are handsome, and well-proportioned; their countenances are cheer
ful and interesting.' Morrell's Voy., p. 212. At Placerville they are 'most
repulsive-looking wretches They are nearly black, and are exceedingly
ugly.' Borthwick's Three Years in Cal., p. 128. In the Yosemite Valley 'they
are very dark colored,' and 'the women are perfectly hideous.' Kneeland's
Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. The Monos on the east side of the Sierra are
' a fine looking race, straight, and of good height, and appear to be active.'
366 CALIFORNIANS.
others that they are beardless as women. Having care
fully compared the pros and cons, I think I am justified
in stating that the Central Californiaris have beards,
Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 2-3. At Monterey 'ils sont
en general bien faits, mais faibles d'esprit et de corps.' In the vicinity
of San Miguel, they are ' generalement d'une couleur foncee, sales et mal
faits. . . .a 1'exceptioii tout fois des Indiens qui habitent sur les bords de la
riviere des tremblements de terre, et sur la cote voisine. Ceux-ci sont blancs,
d'une joli figure, et leurs cheveux tirent sur le roux.' Pages, in Nouvelles
Annales des Vby.t 1844, torn, ci., pp. 332, 163; also quoted in Marmier, Notice
sur les Indiens, p. 236. 'Sont generalement petits, faibles leur couleur
est tres-approchante de celle des negres dont les cheveux ne sont point
laineux: ceux de cespeuples sont longs ettres-forts.' La Pe'rouse, Voy., torn,
ii., p. 281. 'La taille des hommes est plus haute (than that of the Chili
ans), et leurs muscles mieux prononces.' The figure of the women ' est plus
elevee (than that of the Chilian women), et la forme de leurs membres est
plus reguliere; elles sont en general d'une stature mieux developpee et
d'une physionornie moins repoussante.' Eollin, in La Pe'rouse, Voy., torn, iv.,
p. 52. At San Jose ' the men are almost all rather above the middling sta
ture, and well built; very few indeed are what may be called undersized.
Their complexions are dark but not negro like .... some seemed to possess
great muscular strength; they have very coarse black hair.' Some of the
women were more than five feet six inches in height. And speaking of the
Californian Indians, in general, ' they are of a middling, or rather of a low
stature, and of a dark brown colour, approaching to black large project
ing lips, and broad, flat, negro-like noses;. . . .bear a strong resemblance to
the negroes .... None of the men we saw were above five feet high . . . ill-pro
portioned. . . .we had never seen a less pleasing specimen of the human race.'
Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 194-5, 164, see plate. And speaking gener
ally of the Californian Indians: ' Die Manner sind im Allgemeinen gut gebaut
und von starker Korperbildung, ' height ' zwischen fiinf Fuss vier Zoll und
funf Fuss zehn oder eilf Zoll.' Complexion ' die urn ein klein wenig heller
als bei den Mulatten, also weit dunkler ist, als bei den iibrigen Indianer-
stammen.' Osswald, Calif ornien, p. 62. The coast Indians 'are about five
feet and a half in height, and rather slender and feeble, ' in the interior they
'are taller and more robust.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 364. ' Cubische
Schadelform, niedrige Stirn, breites Gesicht, mit hervorragendem Jochbogen,
breite Lippen und grosser Mund, mehr platte Nase und am Innenwinkel
herabgezogene Augen.' Wimmel, Calif ornien, pp. v., 177. 'Les Californiens
sont presque noirs; la disposition de leur yeux et 1'ensemble de leur visage
leur donnent avec les europeens uiie ressemblance assez marquee.' Rossi,
Souvenirs, pp. 279-80. 'They are small in stature; thin, squalid, dirty, and
degraded in appearance. In their habits little better than an ouraiig-outang,
they are certainly the worst type of savage I have ever seen.' Lord's Nat.,
vol. i., p. 249. ' More swarthy in complexion, and of less stature than those
east of the Kocky Mountains .... more of the Asiatic cast of countenance than
the eastern tribe.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 304. ' Depasse rarement la
hauteur de cinq pieds deux 'ou trois pouces; leur membres sout greles et
mediocrement muscles. Ils ont de grosses levres qui se projettent en avant,
le nez large et aplati coinrne les Ethiopiens; leurs cheveux sont noirs, rude
etdroits.' Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 165. ' Generally of small stature, robust ap
pearance, and not well formed.' Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91.
' Schon gewachsen und von schwartzlich-brauner Farbe.' Muhlenpfordt
Mejico, torn, ii., part ii., p. 455. ' Low foreheads and skins as black as
Guinea negroes.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 85. 'En naissant les en-
f ants sont presque blancs .... mais ils noircissent en grandissant. ' ' Depuis
le nord du Bio Sacramento jusqu'au cap San Lucas. . . .leurs caracteres phy
sique, leurs moeurs et leurs usages sont les memes.' Mofras, JExplor., torn.
DKESS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. 367
though not strong ones, and that some tribes suffer it to
grow, while others pluck it out as soon as it appears.84
During summer, except on festal occasions, the apparel
of the men is of the most primitive character, a slight
strip of covering round the loins being full dress; but
even this is unusual, the majority preferring to be per
fectly unencumbered by clothing. In winter the skin
of a deer or other animal is thrown over the shoulders,
or sometimes a species of rope made from the feathers of
water-fowl, or strips of otter-skin, twisted together, is
wound round the body, forming an effectual protection
against the weather. The women are scarcely better
clad, their summer costume being a fringed apron of
tule-grass, which falls from the waist before and behind
ii., pp. 263, 367. ' Skin of such a deep reddish-brown that it seems almost
black.' Figuier's Human Race, p. 493; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Sprache,
p. 528; Forbes' CaL, pp. 180-3; Harper's Monthly, vol. xiii., p. 583. 'A
fine set of men, who, though belonging to different nationalities, had very
much the same outward appearance; so that when you have seen one you
seem to have seen them all.' Pirn and Seemann's Dotting, p. 15.
84 On the Sacramento River ' the men universally had some show of a
beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine.' Pickering's Races,
in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 105. 'They had beards and whiskers an inch
or two long, very soft and fine.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198.
On Russian River ' they have quite heavy moustaches and beards on the chin,
but not much on the cheeks, and they almost all suffer it to grow.' The
Clear Lake Indians ' have also considerable beards, and hair on the per
son.' At the head of South Fork of Eel River, ' they pluck their beards.'
Gibbs, in RchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., pp. 108-119. At Monterey 'plusieurs
ont de la barbe; d'autres, suivant les peres missionaires, n'en ont jamais eu,
et c'est un question qui n'est pasmeme decidee dans le pays.' La Perouse,
Voy., vol. ii., p. 282. ' Les Californiens ont la barbe plus fournie que les
Chiliens, et les parties genitales mieux garnies: cependant j'ai remarque,
parmi les hommes, un grand nombre d'individus totalement depourvus de
barbe; les femmes ont aussi peu de poil au penil et aux aisselles.' Eollm,
in La Perouse, Voy., vol. iv., p. 53. 'They have the habit common to all
American Indians of extracting the beard and the hair of other parts of their
body.' FarnhanCs Life in CaL, p. 364. Beards 'short, thin, and stiff.' Bart-
lett's Nar., vol. ii., p. 34. 'In general very scanty, although occasionally a
full flowing beard is observed.' Forbes' CaL, pp. 181-2. ' Beards thin; many
shave them close with mussel-shells.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol.ii., p. J64. ' Ihr
Bart ist schwach.' Wimmd, Calif ornien, vol. v. At San Antonio, ' in the olden
times, before becoming Christians, they pulled out their beards.' Taylor, in
CaL Farmer, April 27, 1860. Choris in his Voy. Pitt., plates vi.. vii., xii.,
of part iii., draws the Indians with a very slight and scattered beard.
'Pluck out their beard.' Auger, Voy. in CaL, p. 165. 'Wear whiskers.'
Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91. ' Les Indiens qui habitent dans la
direction du cap de Nouvel-An (del Ano Nuevo) . . . .ont des moustaches.'
Fages, in Nouvellcs Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 335. Miihlenpfordt
mentions that at the death of a relation, ' die Manner raufen Haupthaar
und Bart sich aus.' Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 456.
368 CALIFORNIANS.
nearly down to the knees, and is open at the sides.
Some tribes in the northern part of the Sacramento Val
ley wear the round bowl-shaped hat worn by the natives
on the Klamath. During the cold season a half- tanned
deer-skin, or the rope garment above mentioned, is added.
The hair is worn in various styles. Some bind it up in
a knot on the back of the head, others draw it back and
club it behind ; farther south it is worn cut short, and
occasionally we find it loose and flowing. It is not un
common to see the head adorned with chaplets of leaves
or flowers, reminding one of a badly executed bronze of
Apollo or Bacchus. Ear-ornaments are much in vogue ;
a favorite variety being a long round piece of carved
bone or wood, sometimes with beads attached, which is
also used as a needle-case. Strings of shells and beads
also serve as ear-ornaments and necklaces. The head
dress for gala days and dances is elaborate, composed of
gay feathers, skillfully arranged in various fashions.85
85 At Fort Koss ' Die Manner gehen ganz nackt, die Frauen hingegen be-
decken nur den mittleren Theil des Korpers von vorne und von hinten mit
den Fellen wilder Ziegen; das Haar binden die Manner auf dem Schopfe,
die Frauen am Nacken in Biischel zusammen; bisweilen lassen sie es frei
heruiiter walleii; die Manner heften die Biischel mit ziemlich kiinstlich, aus
einer rothen Palme geschnitzten Holzchenfest.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat.
u. Ethno., p. 82. At Clear Lake 'the women generally wear a small round,
bowl-shaped basket on their heads; and this is frequently interwoven with
the red feathers of the woodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the
blue quail.' Gibbs, in Schooler -aft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. See also p. 68,
plate xiv., for plate of ornaments. At Kelsey Elver, dress ' consists of a deer
skin robe thrown over the shoulders.' Id., p. 122. In the Sacramento Valley
•they were perfectly naked.' Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 111. 'Both
sexes have the ears pierced with large holes, through which they pass a piece
of wood as thick as a man's finger, decorated with paintings or glass beads.'
Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 307. ' The men go entirely naked; but the women,
with intuitive modesty, wear a small, narrow, grass apron, which extends from
the waist to the knees, leaving their bodies and limbs partially exposed.'
Delano's Life on Plains, pp. 305, 307. ' They wear fillets around their heads
of leaves.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. 'The dress of
the women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of
strings of ' Calif ornian flax,' or sometimes of rushes.' Men naked. Picker
ing's Races, in U. S. Ex Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. At Bodega they ' most liberally
presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers,
as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head.'
Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. ' The women wore skins of animals about their shoul
ders and waists;' hair 'clubbed behind.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 436.
Around San Francisco Bay : ' in summer many go entirely naked. The women,
however, wear a deer-skin, or some other covering about their loins; but skin
dresses are not common.' To their ears the women 'attach long wooden
cylinders, variously carved, which serve the double purpose of ear-rings and
needle-cases.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'All go naked.' Chamisso, in
PERSONAL ADORNMENT. 369
Tattooing is universal with the women, though con
fined within narrow limits. They mark the chin in
Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'The men either go naked or wear a simple
breech-cloth. The women wear a cloth or strips of leather around their
loins.' BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 33. Three hundred years ago we are
told that the men in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay ' for the most part goe
naked; the women take a kinde of bulrushes, and kembing it after the man
ner of hemp, make themselues thereof a loose garment, which being knitte
about their middles, hanges downe about their hippes, and so affordes to them
a couering of that which nature teaches should be hidden; about their shoul
ders they weare also the skin of a deere, with the haire vpon it.' The king
had upon his shoulders ' a coate of the skins of conies, reaching to his wast;
his guard also had each coats of the same shape, but of other skin.' . . . .After
these in their order, did follow the naked sort of common people, whose
haire being long, was gathered into a bunch behind, in which stucke plumes
of feathers; but in the forepart onely single feathers like homes, every one
pleasing himselfe in his owne device.' Drake's World Encamp., pp. 121, 126.
' Asi como Adamitas se presentan sin el menor rubor ni vergiienza (esto es, los
hombres). y para librarse del frio que todo el aiio hace en esta Mision (San
Francisco), principalmente las mammas, se embarran con lodo, diciendo que
les preserva de el, y en quanto empieza a calentar el Sol se la van: las mu-
geres andan algo honestas, hasta las muchachas chiquitas: usan para la
honestidad de tin delantar que hacen de hilos de tule, 6 juncia, que no-
pasa de la rodilla, y otro atras amarrados a la cintura, que ambos forman
como unas enaguas, con que se presentan con alguna honestidad, y en las-
espaldas se ponen otros semejantes para librarse en alguna manera del frio.'
Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 217. At Monterey, and on the coast be
tween Monterey and Santa Barbara the dress ' du plus riche consiste en un
manteau de peau de loutre qui couvre ses reins et descend au-dessous des
aines ...L'habillement des femmes est un manteau de peau de cerf mal
tannee. . . .Les jeunes filles au-dessous de neuf ans n'ont qu'une simple cein-
ture. et les enfans de 1'autre sexe sont tout mis.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii.,
pp. 304-5. ' Us se percent aussi les oreilles, et y portent des ornemens d'un
genre et d'un gout tres-varies.' Eollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 53.
'Those between Monterey and the extreme northern boundary of the Mexi
can domain, shave their heads close.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL,
p. 239. On the coast between San Diego and San Francisco 'presque tous
vont entierement nus; ceux qui ont quelques vetements, n'ont autre
chose qu'une casaque faite de courroies de peau de lapins, de lievres ou de
loutres, tresses ensemble, et qui ont conserve le poil . . Les femmes ont une es-
pece de tablier de roseaux tresses qui s'attache autour de la taille par un cor
don, et pend jusqu'aux genoux; une peau de cerf mal tannee et mal preparee,
jetee sur leurs epaules en guise de manteau, complete leur toilette.' Fayes, in
Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn. ci., p. 155 ; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bry
ant, Voy. en CaL, p. 227. ' Sont tres pen converts, et en ete, la plupart vont tout
nus. Les femmes font usage de peaux de daim pour se couvrir. .Ces femmes
portent encore comme vetement des especes de couvertures sans envers,
faites en plumes tissues ensemble. . .il a 1'avantage d'etre tres-chaud. . .Elles
portent generalement, au lieu de boucles d'oreilles, des morceaux d'os ou de
bois en forme de cylindre et sculptes de differentes manieres. Ces ornements
sont creux et servent egalement d'etuis pour renfermer leurs aiguilles.' Petit-
Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 135. Speaking generally of the Californian In
dians, ' both sexes go nearly naked, excepting a sort of wrapper round the
waist, only in the coldest part of the winter they throw over their bodies a
covering of deer-skin, or the skin of the sea-otter. They also make them
selves garments of the feathers of many different kinds of water-fowl, par
ticularly ducks and geese, bound together fast in a sort of ropes, which ropes
are then united quite close so as to make something like a feather skin.' It
VOL. I. 24
370 CALIFORNIANS.
perpendicular lines drawn downward from the corners
and centre of the mouth, in the same manner as the
Northern Californians ; they also tattoo slightly on the
neck and breast. It is said that by these marks women
of different tribes can be easily distinguished. The men
rarely tattoo, but paint the body in stripes and grotesque
patterns to a considerable extent. Red was the favorite
color, except for mourning, when black was used. The
friars succeeded in abolishing this custom except on oc
casions of mourning, when affection for their dead would
not permit them to relinquish it. The New Almaden
•cinnabar mine has been from time immemorial a source
•of contention between adjacent tribes. Thither, from a
liundred miles away, resorted vermilion-loving savages,
-and often such visits were not free from blood-shed.86
Is very warm. ' In the same manner they cut the sea-otter skins into small
strips, which they twist together, and then join them as they do the feathers,
so that both sides have the fur alike.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 163-4.
"See also Famham's Life in CaL, p. 364, and Forbes' Cal., p. 183. ' Irn Winter
uelbst tragen sie wenig Bekleidung, vielleicht nur eine Hirschhaut, welche
•sie fiber die Schulter werfen; Manner, Frauen und Kinder gehen selbst im
Winter im Schnee barfuss.' Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 177; Lord's Nat., vol.
i., p. 249; Patrick, Gilbert, Heald, and Von Schmidt, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856,
pp. 240-4; Choris, Voy., Pitt, part iii., p. 4, and plate xii.; Muhlenpfordt,
Mejico, vol. ii., part ii., p. 455; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Shea's
•Catholic Missions, p. 98; Johnston, in Schooler aft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; D'Or-
Myny, Voy., p. 457; Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 100. After having collated the
.above notes I was rather taken aback by meeting the following: ' The gen
eral costume of nearly all the California!! Indians gives them rather an inter
esting appearance; when fully dressed, their hair, which has been loose, is
tied up, either with a coronet of silver, or the thongs of skin, ornamented
with feathers of the brightest colours; bracelets made in a similar manner
are wore; breeches and leggings of doe-skin, sewed, not unfrequently with
human hair; a kind of kilt of varied coloured cloth or silk (!), fastened by
a scarf, round their waist; . . . The women wear a cloth petticoat, dyed either
blue or red, doe-skin shirt, and leggings, with feathered bracelets round their
waist.' Coulter's Adventures, vol. i., pp., 172-3. Surely Mr Coulter should
know an Indian dress from one composed of Mexican cloth and trinkets.
86 At Bodega the women ' were as much tatooed or punctured as any of
the females of the Sandwich islands.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 436. In
the Sacramento Valley ' most of the men had some slight marks of tattooing
on the breast, disposed like a necklace.' Pickering's Eaces, in V. S. Ex. Ex.,
'vol. ix., p. 105. Dana, in a note to Hale, says: ' The faces of the men were
•colored with black and red paint, fancifully laid on in triangles and zigzag lines.
The women were tattooed below the mouth.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. vi., p. 222. 'Most of them had some slight marks of tattooing on their
breast; somewhat similar to that of the Chinooks. . . .The face was usually
painted, the upper part of the cheek in the form of a triangle, with a blue-
black substance, mixed with some shiny particles that looked like pulverized
mica.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.v., pp. 198, 259. ' Their faces daubed
with a thick dark glossy substance like tar, in a line from the outside corners
DWELLINGS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. 371
A thick coat of mud sometimes affords protection from
a chilly wind. It is a convenient dress, as it costs noth
ing, is easily put on, and is no incumbrance to the wearer.
The nudity of the savage more often proceeds from an
indifference to clothing than from actual want. No peo
ple are found entirely destitute of clothing when the
weather is cold, and if they can manage to obtain gar
ments of any sort at one time of year they can at an
other.
Their dwellings are about as primitive as their dress.
In summer all they require is to be shaded from the
sun, and for this a pile of bushes or a tree will suf
fice. The winter huts are a little more pretentious.
These are sometimes erected on the level ground, but
more frequently over an excavation three or four feet
deep, and varying from ten to thirty feet in diameter.
Round the brink of this hole willow poles are sunk up
right in the ground and the tops drawn together, form
ing a conical structure, or the upper ends are bent over
of the eyes to the ends of the mouth, and back from them to the hinge of the
jawbone. . . .some also had their entire foreheads coated over.' Kdly's Excur
sion to Gal., vol. ii., p. 111. 'The women are a little tattooed on the chin.'
Pfeiffer's Second Journ., p. 307. At Monterey and vicinity, 'se peignent le
corps en rouge, et en noir lorsqu'ils sont en deuil,' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii.,
p. 305. ' He peignent la peau pour se parer.' Rollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn,
iv., p. 53. ' This one thing was obserued to bee generall amongst them all, that
euery one had his face painted, some with white, some blacke, and some with
other colours.' Drake's World Encornp., p. 126. ' Tattooing is practised in these
tribes by both sexes, both to ornament the person and to distinguish one clan
from another. It is remarkable that the women mark their chins precisely
in the same way as the Esquimaux.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'Leg
indigenes independents de la Haute-Californie sont tatoues. . . .ces signes
servent d'oriiement et de distinction, non seulement d'une tribu a une
autre tribu, mais encore, d'une famille a une autre famille.' Petit-Thouars,
Voy., torn, ii., pp. 134-5. 'Tattooing is also used, but principally among
the women. Some have only a double or triple line from each corner of
the mouth down to the chin; others have besides a cross stripe extending
from one of these stripes to the other; and most have simple long and
cross stripes from the chin over the neck down to the breast and upon the
shoulders.' Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 167; see plate, p. 169. When danc
ing, 'ils se peignent sur le corps des lignes regulieres, noires, rouges et
blanches. Quelques-uns ont la moitie du corps, depuis la tete jusqu'en bas,
barbouillee de noir, et 1'autre de rouge; le tout croise par des raies blanches,
d'autres se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' Choris, Voy. Pitt.,
part iii., p. 4; see also plate xii. 'I have never observed any particular
figured designs upon their persons, but the tattooing is generally on the
chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm.' Mostly on the persons of
the females. Johnston, in Schoolcraffs Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. 'Les femmeB
seules emploient le tatouage.' Auyer, Voy, en Cat., p. 165.
372 CALIFOKNIANS.
and driven into the earth on the opposite side of the pit,
thus giving the hut a semi-globular shape. Bushes, or
strips of bark, are then piled up against the poles, and
the whole is covered with a thick layer of earth or mud.
In some instances, the interstices of the frame are filled
by twigs woven cross-wise, over and under, between the
poles, and the outside covering is of tule-reeds instead of
earth. - A hole at the top gives egress to the smoke, and
a small opening close to the ground admits the occu
pants.
Each hut generally shelters a whole family of rela
tions by blood and marriage, so that the dimensions of
the habitation depend on the size of the family.87
Thatched oblong houses are occasionally met with in
Russian River Valley, and Mr Powers mentions having
seen one among the Grallinomeros which was of the form
of the letter L, made of slats leaned up against each
other, and heavily thatched. Along the centre the dif-
erent families or generations had their fires, while they
slept next the walls. Three narrow holes served as
doors, one at either end and one at the elbow.88 A col
s''' ' II est bien rare qu'un Indien passe la nuit clans sa maison. Vers le
soir chacim prend son arc et ses fleches et va se reunir aux autres dans de
grandes cavernes, parce-qu'ils craignent d'etre attaques a 1'iniproviste par
leurs ennemis et d'etre surpris sans defense au milieu de leurs femmes et de
leurs enfants.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn. ci.,pp. 316-7.
88 Two authors describe their dwellings as being much smaller than I have
stated them to be: ' leur maisonsont quatre pieds de diametre.' Marmier, No
tice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal. p. 238. Their wigwams have ' une elevation au-
dessus du sol de cinq ahuit pieds et une circonference de dix adouze.' Holin-
ski, La Calif ornie, p. 172. The authorities I have followed, and who agree
in essential particulars, are: Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix.,
pp. 103, 106; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198; Pfeiffer's Second
Journ., pp. 307-8; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 106; Fremont's
Explor. Ex., p. 242; Kelly's Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., pp. 34, 282; Choris,
Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 2; Drake's World Encomp., p. 121; Bartlett' s Pers.
Nar., vol. ii., p. 30, with cut; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., pp. 13, 15; Palou,
Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., vol. vi., pp. 367, 390; Suttt y Mexicana,
Viage, p. 165; La Pe'rouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 295; Delano's Life on the Plains,
p. 306; Gerstaecker's Journ., p. 218; Gilbert, in Ind. Aff. Rep't., 1856, p. 242;
Patrick, in Id., . 240; Jewdt, in Id ., . 244; Baile, in Id. 1858, . 299;
Lord
trick, in Id., p. 240; Jewdt, in Id ., p. 244; Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 299;
d's Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 163; Wimmel, Cali-
fornien, pp. 177, 179; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 365; Beechey's Voy., vol. ii.,
p. 51; Baer, Stat.und Ethno., p. 72;' Kostromitonow, in Id., p. 83; Domenech's
Deserts, vol. i., p. 239; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., p. 456; Johnston, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 91;
Roquefeuil's Voy. Round the World, p. 29; Fages, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1844, torn, ci., pp, 316, 343.
FOOD AND METHODS OF OBTAINING ITi 373
lection of native huts is in California called a rancheria,
from rancho, a word first applied by the Spaniards to
the spot where, in the island of Cuba, food was distrib
uted to repartimiento Indians.
The bestial laziness of the Central Californian pre
vents him from following the chase to any extent, or
from even inventing efficient game-traps. Deer are,
however, sometimes shot with bow and arrow. The
hunter, disguised with the head and horns of a stag,
creeps through the long grass to within a few yards of
the unsuspecting herd, and drops the fattest buck at his
pleasure. Small game, such as hares, rabbits, and birds,
are also shot with the arrow. Reptiles and insects of
all descriptions not poisonous are greedily devoured ; in
fact, any life-sustaining substance which can be pro
cured with little trouble, is food for them. But their
main reliance is on acorns, roots, grass-seeds, ber
ries and the like. These are eaten both raw and pre.-
pared. The acorns are shelled, dried in the sun, and
then pounded into a powder with large stones. From
this flour a species of coarse bread is made, which is
sometimes flavored with various kinds of berries or
herbs. This bread is of a black color when cooked, of
about the consistency of cheese, and is said, by those
who have tasted it, to be not at all unpalatable.89 The ] -
dough is frequently boiled into pudding instead of being /
baked. A sort of mush is made from clover-seed, which
is also described as being rather a savory dish. Grass
hoppers constitute another toothsome delicacy. When
89 Wilkes, and the majority of writers, assert that the acorns are sweet and
palatable in their natural state; Kostroinitonow, however, says: 'Nachdem
die Eicheln von Baume gepfliickt sind, werden sie on der Sonne gedorrt, da-
rauf gereinigt und in Korben mittelst besonders dazu behauener Steine ge-
stossen, dann wird im Sande oder sonst wo in lockerer Erde eine Grube ge-
graben, die Eicheln werden hineingeschiittet und niit Wasser iibergossen,
welches bestandig von der Erde eingezogen wird. Dieses Ausspiilen wieder-
holt man so lange bis die Eicheln alle ihre eigenthiimliche Bitterkeit verloren
haben.' Baer, Mat. und Ethno., p. 84. The acorn bread 'looks and tastes
like coarse black clay, strongly resembling the soundings in Hampton roads,
and being about as savory and digestible.' Revere 's Tour., p. 121. Never
having eaten 'coarse black clay,' I cannot say how it tastes, but, according
to all other authorities, this bread, were it not for the extreme filthiness of
those who prepare it, would be by no means disagreeable food.
374 CALIFORNIANS.
for winter use, they are dried in the sun ; when for pres
ent consumption, they are either mashed into a paste,
which is eaten with the fingers, ground into a fine pow
der and mixed with mush, or they are saturated with
salt water, placed in a hole in the ground previously
heated, covered with hot stones, and eaten like shrimps
when well roasted. Dried chrysalides are considered a
bonne bouche, as are all varieties of insects and worms.
The boiled dishes are cooked in water-tight baskets,
into which hot stones are dropped. Meat is roasted
on sticks before the fire, or baked in a hole in the ground.
The food is conveyed to the mouth with the fingers.
Grasshoppers are taken in pits, into which they are
driven by setting the grass on fire, or by beating the
grass in a gradually lessening circle, of which the pit is
the centre. For seed-gathering two baskets are used ; a
large one, which is borne on the back, and another
smaller and scoop-shaped, which is carried in the hand;
with this latter the tops of tbe ripe grass are swept, and
the seed thus taken is thrown over the left shoulder into
the larger basket. The seeds are then parched and pul
verized, and usually stored as pinole,90 for winter use.91
9° Pinole is an Aztec word, and is applied to any kind of grain or seeds,
parched and ground, before being made into dough. ' Pinolli, la harina de
mayz y chia, antes que la deslian.' Molina, Vocabulario. The Aztecs made
pinole chiefly of maize or Indian corn.
. 91 ' Nos trageron su regalo de tamales grandes de mas de a tercia con su
correspondiente grueso, amasados de semillas silvestres muy prietas que
parecen brea; los probe y no tienen mal gusto y son muy mantecosos.' Palou,
Noticias, in Doc. Hist. 3/tJC., serie iv., torn, vii., p. 68. Among the pres
ents given to Drake by the Indians was ' a roote which they call Petah,
whereof they make a kind of meale, and either bake it into bread or eate it
raw; broyled fishes, like a pilchard; the seede and downe aforenamed, with
such like.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 126. Catch salmon in baskets. ' They
neither sow nor reap, but burn their meadows from time to time to increase
their fertility.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. hi., p. 48. 'Les rats, les
insectes, les serpentes, tout sans exception leur sert de nourriture .... Us sont
trop maladroits et trop paresseux pour chasser.' Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii.,
p. 2. ' Entre ellas tienen una especie de semilla negra, y de su harina hacen
unos tamales, a modo de bolas, de tamano de una naranja, que son muy sa-
brosos, que parecen de almendra tostada muy mantecosa.' Palou, Vida de Jum-
pero Serra, p. 216; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164; Kotzebue's New Voy., vol.
ii., p. 116. 'Their fastidiousness does not prompt them to take the entrails
out ' of fishes and birds. Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. ' Live upon va
rious plants in their several seasons, besides grapes, and even use the Arte-
mesia.' Wilkes' Nar., in V. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 202, 259. 'Us trouvent
aussi autour d'eux une quantite d'aloes dont ils font un frequent usage Us
utilisent encore la racine d'une espece de roseau ... Ils mangent aussi une fleur
ACOBNS AND WILD FOWL. 375
When acorns are scarce the Central Californian resorts
to a curious expedient to obtain them. The woodpecker,
or carpintero as the Spaniards call it, stores away acorns
for its own use in the trunks of trees. Each acorn is
placed in a separate hole, which it fits quite tightly.
These the natives take; but it is never until hunger
compels them to do so, as they have great respect for
their little caterer, and would hold it sacrilege to rob_
him except in time of extreme need.92 Wild fowl are
taken with a net stretched across a narrow stream be
tween two poles, one on either bank. Decoys are placed
on the water just before the net, one end of which is
fastened to the top of the pole on the farther bank. A
line passing through a hole in the top of the pole on the
bank where the fowler is concealed, is attached to the
sucree qui ressemble a celle de 1'eglantier d'Espagne, etqui croit dans les en-
droits marecageux.' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cat., pp. 232-3, 237.
Were cannibals and their sorcerers still eat human flesh. Mofras, Explor., torn,
ii., pp. 362, 366-9. The Meewocs ' eat all creatures that swim in the waters,
all that fly through the air, and all that creep, crawl, or walk upon the earth,
with, perhaps a dozen exceptions.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p.
324. 'Us se nourrissent egalement d'une espece de gateaux fabriques aveo
du gland, et qu'ils roulent dans le sable avant de le livrer a la cuisson; de
la vient qu'ils sont, jeuries encore, les dents usees jusqu'a la racine, et ce
n'estpas, comme le dit Malte-Brun, parce qu'ils out 1'habitude de les limer.'
Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 163. ' While I was standing there a couple of pretty
young girls came from the woods, with flat baskets full of flower-seed, emit
ting a peculiar fragrance, which they also prepared for eating. They put some
live coals among the seed, and swinging it and throwing it together, to shake
the coals and the seed well, and bring them in continual and close contact
without burning the latter, they roasted it completely, and the mixture
smelled so beautiful and refreshing that I tasted a good handful of it, and
found it most excellent.' Gerstaecker's Joum., p. 211. See farther: Humboldt,
Kelly's
King's
Eept., in Taylor's El Dorado, vol. ii., p. 210; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p.
163; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 248; Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 36; Pickering's
Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., pp.
136-7; Fremont's Explor. Ex., pp. 242, 244; Johnson's Gal. and Ogn., p. 142;
Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222; Placerville Index, Aug.,
1859; Henley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 303; Patrick, McDermott, Gilbert,
Benitz, Jannsdn, Von Schmidt, McAdam, Bowlby, and Jeicett, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1856, pp. 18, 41-4; La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 282; Helper's Land of Gold,
pp. 269-70; Hutchings' Cat. Mag., vol. iii., pp. 441-2; Macfie's Vane. IsL, pp.
450-1; Thornton's Ogn. and CaL, pp. 91-2, 152, 316; Tate's Sketch of the Sac
ramento Valley in 1842, MS.; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; McDaniels' Early Days
of CaL MS.; Domenech's Deserts, vol.'i., pp. 339, 346; Muhknpfordt, Mejico,
torn, ii., pt. ii., pp. 455-6; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.
92 When the Indian finds a tree stocked by'the carpenter bird he ' kindles
a fire at its base and keeps it up till the tree falls, when he helps himself to
the acorns.' Helper's Land of Gold, p. 269.
376 CALIFOKNIANS.
nearest end of the net, which is allowed to hang low.
When the fowl fly rapidly up to the decoys, this end is
suddenly raised with a jerk, so that the birds strik^ it
with great force, and, stunned by the shock, fall into a
large pouch, contrived for the purpose in the lower part
of the net.93
Fish are both speared and netted. A long pole, pro
jecting sometimes as much as a hundred feet over the
stream, is run out from the bank. The farther end is
supported by a small raft or buoy. Along this boom the
net is stretched, the nearer corner being held by a na
tive. As soon as a fish becomes entangled in the meshes
it can be easily felt, and the net is then hauled in.94
On the coast a small fish resembling the sardine is caught
on the beach in the receding waves by means of a hand-
net, in the manner practiced by the Northern Californian
heretofore described.95 The Central Californians do not
hunt the whale, but it is a great day with them when
one is stranded.96 In reality their food was not so bad
as some writers assert. Before the arrival of miners
game wras so plentiful that even the lazy natives could
supply their necessities. The ' nobler race/ as usual,
thrust them down upon a level with swine. Johnson
thus describes the feeding of the natives at Sutter's Fort:
"Long troughs inside the walls were filled with a kind
of boiled mush made of the wheat-bran; and the In
dians, huddled in rows upon their knees before these
troughs, quickly conveyed their contents by the hand to
the mouth." "But," writes Powers to the author, "it
is a well-established fact that California Indians, even
when reared by Americans from infancy, if they have
93 Beechey's Voy , vol. ii., p. 75.
a* ' When a sturgeon is caught, the spinal marrow, which is considered a
delicacy, is drawn out whole, through a cut made in the back, and devoured
raw.5 Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp1. 32-3.
95 Browne, in Harper's Mag., vol. xxiii., p. 315.
96 ' They cook the flesh of this animal in holes dug in the ground and
curbed up with stone like wells. Over this they build large fires, heat them
thoroughly, clean out the coals and ashes, fill them with whale flesh, cover
the opening with sticks, leaves, grass and earth, and thus bake their repast.'
Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 366-7. 'Us font rotir cette chair dans des trous
creases en terre.' Marpiier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 237.
CALIFOBNIAN WEAPONS. 377
been permitted to associate meantime with others of their
race, will, in the season of lush blossoming clover, go
out and eat it in preference to all other food."97 v
In their personal habits they are filthy in the extreme, j
Both their dwellings and their persons abound in ver- j
min, which they catch and eat in the same manner as
their northern neighbors.98
Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and some
times clubs. The first-named do not differ in any es
sential respect from those described as being used by
the Northern Californians. They are well made, from
two and a half to three feet long, and backed with sinew ;
the string of wild flax or sinew, and partially covered
with bird's down or a piece of skin, to deaden the twang.
The arrows are short, made of reed or light wood,
and winged with three of four feathers. The head
is of flint, bone, obsidian, or volcanic glass, sometimes
barbed and sometimes diamond-shaped. It is fastened
loosely to the shaft, and can only be extracted from
a wound by cutting it out. The shaft is frequently
painted in order that the owner may be able to distin
guish his own arrows from others. Spears, or rather
javelins, are used, seldom exceeding from four and a half
to five feet in length. They are made of some tough
kind of wood and headed with the same materials as
the arrows. Occasionally the point of the stick is merely
sharpened and hardened in the fire." The head of the
97 Johnson's Cal. and Ogn., p. 132; Powers9 Account of John A. Suiter, MS.;
and Id., Letter to the author, MS.
93 < Reinlichkeit kenneu sie nicht, und in ihren Hiitten sind die diverse-
sten Parasiten vertreten.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 177. 'I have seen them
eating the vermin which they picked from each other's heads, and from their
blankets. Although they bathe frequently, they lay for hours in the dirt,
basking in the sun, covered with dust. ' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. ' In
their persons they are extremely dirty.' Eat lice like the Tartars. Beechey's
Voy., vol. ii., pp. 76-7. ' Very filthy, and showed less sense of decency in
every respect than any we had ever met with.' Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch.t
vol. iii., p. 106.
99 'Ein Bogen mit Pfeilen und ein Spiess sind ihre Waffen; alles dieses
wird meisteus aus jungem Tannenholz verfertigt. Die Spitzen der Pfeile und
Spiesse bestehen aus scharfen, kunstlich behauenen Steinen, zur Bogensehne
nehmen sie die Sehnen wilder Ziegen; ausserdem fuhren sie in Kriegszeiten
eine Art von Schleuder, mit welcher sie Steine auf eine grosse Entfernung
werfen.' Kostromitonow, in J3aer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 89. Bow" 'from three to
378 CALIFOKNIANS.
fishing- spear is movable, being attached to the shaft by
a line, so that when a fish is struck the pole serves as a
float. Some of the tribes formerly poisoned their ar
rows, but it is probable that the custom never prevailed
four and a half feet long.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 368. 'Their arms are
clubs, spears of hard wood, and the bow and arrow . .Arrows are mostly made
of reeds.' Taylor, in CaL Farmer, Feb. 22, 1860. 'Die einzige Waffe zur Erle-
gung des WjQdes ist ihneii der Bogen und Pfeil.' Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 180.
' Their only arms were bows and arrows.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. vi., p. 222. Bows 'about thirty inches long. . . .arrows are a species of
reed ... spears are pointed with bone.' Delano's Life on Plains, p. 306. ' The
quiver of dressed deer-skin, holds both bow and arrows.' Gibbs, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 123. ' The point (of the arrow) itself is a piece of
flint chipped down into a flat diamond shape, about the size of a diamond
on a playing-card; the edges are very sharp, and are notched to receive the
tendons with which it is firmly secured to the arrow.' Borthwick's Three Years
in CaL, p. 131. ' Arrows are pointed with flint, as are also their spears, which
are very short. They do not use the tomahawk or scalping knife.' Thorn
ton's Ogn. and CaL, vol. ii., p. 91. 'Leurs armes sont 1'arc et les fleches
armees d'un silex tres-artistement travaille.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 305.
' Ces arcs sont encore garnis, au milieu, d'une petite laniere de cuir, qui a
pour object d'empecher la fleche de devier de la position qu'on lui donne en
la posant sur 1'arc. . . .Us pretendent que cette precaution rend leurs coups
encore plus siirs. Les fleches sont moins longues que 1'arc, elles ont ordi-
iiairement de 80 a 85 centimetres de long, elles sont faites d'un bois tres-
leger et sont egales en grosseur a chaque extremite. . . .1'autre extremite de la
fleche es«, garnie, sur quatre faces, de barbes en plumes qui out 10 centi
metres de longueur sur 0,015 millimetres de hauteur.' Petit-Thouars, Voy.,
torn, ii., p. 138. They 'maintain armories to make their bows, and arrows,
and lances.' Arrows ' are tipped with barbed obsidian heads. . . .the shaft is
ornamented with rings of the distinguishing paint of the owner's rancheria.
Their knives and spear-points are made of obsidian and flint. ' Arrows are
of two kinds, ' one short and light for killing game, and the other a war-shaft
measuring a cloth-yard in length.' Eevere's Tour., pp. 121-2. 'Ces fleches
offrent peu de danger a une certaine distance, a cause de la parubole qu' elles
sont forcees de decrire, et qui donne a celui que les voit venir le temps de les
eviter.' Auger, Voy. en CaL, p. 163. 'La corde, faite avec du chanvre sylves-
tre, est garnie d'un petit morceau de peau qui en etouffe le sifflmeiit.' Mo-
fras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 378; see Atlas, plate 25. 'Hire Waffen bestehen
nur in Bogen und Pfeil.' M&hlenpfordt, Mcjico, torn, ii., part ii., p. 455. ' They
have no offensive arms at all, except bows and arrows, and these are small
and powerless. . . .Arrows are about two feet long.' Gerstaecker' s Journ., p.
212. ' Sometimes the bow is merely of wood and rudely made. Chamisso, in
Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii.. p. 48. 'Their weapons consist only of bows and
arrows; neither the tomahawk nor the spear is ever seen in their hands.'
Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 77. 'A portion of the string is covered with downy
fur ' to deaden the sound. Arrows are invariably pointed with flint. They
have 'sometimes wooden barbs.' Javelins pointed with flint, or sometimes
simply sharpened at the end. Pickerings Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p;
109. Arrows were about three feet long, and pointed with flint. Short
spears also pointed with flint. Wilkes' Nar., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 198.
' Traian unas lanzas cortas con su lengiieta de pedernal tan bien labradas
como si fuesen de hierro 6 acero, con solo la diferencia de no estar lisas.'
Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vii., p. p. 68. 'Los mas
de ellos traian varas largas en las manos a modo de lanzas.' Id., p. 61; Lord's
Nat., vol. i., p. 249; Langsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Life of Gov. L. W.
Boggs, by his Son, MS.
BATTLES AND WEAPONS. 379
to any great extent. M. du Petit-Thouars was told that
they used for this purpose a species of climbing plant
which grows in shady places. It is said that they also
poison their weapons with the venom of serpents.100
Pedro Fages mentions that the natives in the country
round San Miguel use a kind of sabre, made of hard
wood, shaped like a cimeter, and edged with sharp flints.
This they employ for hunting as well as in war, and
with such address that they rarely fail to break the leg
of the animal at which they hurl it.101
Battles, though frequent, were not attended with much
loss of life. Each side was anxious for the fight to be
over, and the first blood would often terminate the con
test. Challenging by heralds obtained. Thus the Shu-
meias challenge the Pomos by placing three little sticks,
notched in the middle and at both ends, on a mound
which marked the boundary between the two tribes. If
the Pornos accept, they tie a string round the middle
notch. Heralds then meet and arrange time and place,
and the battle comes off as appointed.102 Among some
tribes, children are sent by mutual arrangement into the
enemy's ranks during the heat of battle to pick up the
fallen arrows and carry them back to their owners to be
used again.103 When fighting, they stretch out in a long
single line and endeavor by shouts and gestures to in
timidate the foe.104
100 Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 139.
101 Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 164; Marmier,
Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 228. It is impossible to locate with cer
tainty the San Miguel of Fages. There are now several places of the name
in California, of which the San Miguel in San Luis Obispo County conies
nearest the region in which, to agree with his own narrative, Fages must
have been at the time. The cimeter mentioned by him, must have strongly
resembled the rnaquahuitl of the ancient Mexicans, and it was possibly much
farther south that he saw it.
102 Powers' Porno, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage. p. 169.
103 Butte Record, Aug., 1866.
104 ' Suelen entrar en ella entonando canticos militares mezclados de ex-
tranos alaridos; y acostumbran formarse los campeones en dos lineas muy
prdximas para empezar disparandose flechazos. Como uno de sus princi-
pales ardides consiste en intimidar al enemigo, para conseguirlo procura cada
partido que oiga el contrario los preparatives de la batalla.' Sutil y Mexica
na, Viage, p. 170. ' On coming in sight of the enemy they form in an ex
tended line, something like light infantry, and shouting, like bacchanals
dance from side to side to prevent the foe from taking deliberate aim.' JKe-
vere's Tour, p. 122.
380 CALIFORNIANS.
Notwithstanding the mildness of their disposition and
the inferiority of their weapons, the Central Californians
do not lack courage in battle, and when captured will
meet their fate with all the stoicism of a true Indian.
For many years after the occupation of the country by
the Spaniards, by abandoning their villages and lying
in ambush upon the approach of the enemy, they were
enabled to resist the small squads of Mexicans sent
against them from the presidios for the recovery of de
serters from the missions. During the settlement of the
country by white people, there were the usual skirmishes
growing out of wrong and oppression on the one side,
and retaliation on the other; the usual uprising among
miners and rancheros, and vindication of border law,
which demanded the massacre of a village for the steal
ing of a cow.
Trespass on lands and abduction of women are the
usual causes of war among themselves. Opposing armies,
on approaching each other in battle array, dance and leap
from side to side in order to prevent their enemies from
taking deliberate aim. Upon the invasion of their ter
ritory they rapidly convey the intelligence by means of
signals. A great smoke is made upon the nearest hill
top, which is quickly repeated upon the surrounding
hills, and thus a wide extent of country is aroused in a
remarkably short time.
The custom of scalping, though not universal in Cali
fornia, was practiced in some localities. The yet more
barbarous habit of cutting off the hands, feet, or head
of a fallen enemy, as trophies of victory, prevailed more
widely. They also plucked out and carefully preserved
the eyes of the slain.
It has been asserted that these savages were cannibals,
and there seems to be good reason to believe that they
did devour pieces of the flesh of a renowned enemy slain
in battle. Human flesh was, however, not eaten as food,
nor for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on or show
ing hate for a dead adversary, but because they thought
that by eating part of a brave man they absorbed a por-
IMPLEMENTS AND MANUFACTURES. 381
tion of his courage. They do not appear to have kept
or sold prisoners as slaves, but to have either exchanged
or killed them.105
They are not ingenious, and manufacture but few
articles requiring any skill. The principal of these are
the baskets in which, as I have already mentioned, they
carry water and boil their food. They are made of fine
grass, so closely woven as to be perfectly water-tight,
and are frequently ornamented with feathers, beads,
shells, and the like, worked into them in a very pretty
manner. Fletcher, who visited the coast with Sir Fran
cis Drake in 1579, describes them as being umade in
fashion like a deep boale, and though the matter were
rushes, or such other kind of stufte, yet it was so cun
ningly handled that the most part of them would hold
water ; about the brimmes they were hanged with peeces
of the shels of pearles, and in some places with two or
three linkes at a place, of the chaines forenamed
and besides this, they were wrought vpon with the matted
downe of red feathers, distinguished into diuers workes
and formes."106 The baskets are of various sizes and
105 In the vicinity of Fort Ross : ' In ihren Kriegen wird Unerschrocken-
lieit geachtet; gefangene Feiiide todtet man nickt, sondern wechselt sie nach
beendigtem Kampfe aus; iiie verurtheilt man sie zu Sklaven.' Baer, Stat.
u. Ethno., p. 77. Near Feather River 'they carry off their dead to prevent
their being scalped, which next after death 'they are most fearful of. ' Kelly's
Excursion to Cal., vol. ii , p. 83. In the Sacramento Valley 'the Californians
differ from the other North American tribes in the absence of the tomahawk
and of the practice of scalping.' Pickering's Races, in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. ix.,
p. 108. At Clear Lake, ; they do not scalp the slain.' Kevere's Tour., p. 122.
In the vicinity of San Francisco 'occasionally, they appear to have eaten pieces
of the bodies of their more distinguished adversaries killed in battle.' tioule's
Annals of San Francisco, p. 52. At Monterey, 'lorsqu'ils avaient vaincu et
mis a mbrt sur le champ de bataille des chefs ou des hornmes tres-courageux,
ils en mangaient quelques rnorceaux, moins en signe de haine et de vengeance,
que comme im homniage qu'ils rendaient a leur valeur, et dans la persua
sion que cette nouriture etait propre a augmenter leur courage.' La Pe'rouse,
Voy., torn, ii., p. 306. ' Muchos indios armados de arco y flechas y llarnando-
los vinieroii luego y me regalaron muchos de ellos flechas, que es entre ellos
la mayor demostracion de paz.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie iv.,
torn, vii., p. 53. At Santa Cruz they eat slices of the flesh of a brave fallen
enemy, thinking to gain some of his valour. They ' take the scalps of their
enemies. . . .they pluck out the eyes of their enemies.' Farnham's Life in Cal.,
p. 370. 'Gefangene werden nicht lange gehalten, sondern gleich getodtet.'
Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 178. In order to intimidate their enemies ' cometen
con el propio fin en las primeras vfctimas las crueldades mas horrorosas.' Suttt
y Mexicana, Viage, p. 170.
106 Drake's World Encomp., p. 126.
382 CALIFORNIANS.
shapes, the most common being conical or wide and flat.
Their pipes are straight, the bowl being merely a con
tinuation of the stem, only thicker and hollowed out.107
It is a singular fact that these natives about the bay
of San Francisco and the regions adjacent, had no canoes
of any description. Their only means of navigation
were bundles of tule-rushes about ten feet long and three
or four wide, lashed firmly together in rolls, and pointed
at both ends. They were propelled, either end foremost,
with long double-bladed paddles. In calm weather, and
on a river, the centre, or thickest part of these rafts
might be tolerably dry, but in rough water the rower,
who sat astride, was up to his waist in water.108 It has
W7 'Make baskets of the bark of trees.' Farnham's Life in Cal, p. 368.
Make a very ingenious straw box for keeping their worm bait alive ; burying
it in the earth, yet not allowing the worms to escape.' Kneeland's Wonders of
Yosemite, p. 52. ' Die gewohlichste Form fur den Korb ist halbconisch, 3 Fuss
lang und 18 Zoll breit.' Wimmel, Californien, p. 182. ' Their baskets, made of
willows, are perfectly water-tight.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 305. ' They
sometimes ornament the smaller ones with beads, pearl-shell, feathers, &c.'
Revere's Tour., p. 122. ' Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres utensiles
sout artistiquement incrustes de morceaux de nacre de perle .... garnissent
leur calebasses et leur cruches d'ouvrages de vannerie brodes avec des fils-
delies qu'elles tirent de diverses racines. ' Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en
Cal., p. 233; Lanjsdorff's Voy., vol. ii., p. 165; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 243;
Oibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 107; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 367;
Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48; Borthwick's Three Years in CaL,
p. 131; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 324.
103 Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake 'their canoes or rather rafts
are made of bundles of the tule plant.' Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii.,
p. 107. At San Francisco Bay and vicinity ' the only canoes of the Indians
are made of plaited reeds.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90. 'They do
not possess horses or canoes of any kind; they only know how to fasten
together bundles of rushes, which carry them over the water by their com
parative lightness.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii., p. 48. 'Les In-
diens font leur pirogues a 1 'instant on ils veulent entreprendre un voyage
par eau; elles sont en roseaux. Lorsque 1'on y entre elles s'emplissent a
moitie d'eau; de sorte qu'assis, 1'on en a jus-qu'au gras de la jambe; on les
fait aller avec des avirons extremernent longs, et pointus aux deux extremites.'
Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 6. Had no boats, but it was reported that they
had previously used boats made of rushes. Pickering's Eaces, in U. S. Ex.
Ex., vol. ix., p. 103. 'The most rude and sorry contrivances for embarca-
tion I had ever beheld .... They were constructed of rushes and dried grass
of a long broad leaf, made up into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest
in the middle and regularly tapering to a point at each end. . . .appeared to
be very ill calculated to contend with wind and waves.. They conducted
their canoe or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the
Esquimaux.' Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 5. ' The balsas are entirely formed
of the bulrush. . . . commonly the rowers sit on them soaked in water, as they
seldom rise above' the surface.' Forbes' Cal., p. 191. Build no canoes, but
occasionally make use of rafts composed of one or two logs, generally split.
Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. ' The "Balsa " is the only
thing of the boat kind known among them. It is constructed entirely of
NO BOATS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY. 383
been asserted that they even ventured far out to sea on
them, but that this was common I much doubt.109 They
were useful to spear fish from, but for little else ; in proof
of which I may mention, on the authority of Roque-
feuil, that in 1809-11, the Koniagas employed by the
Russians at Bodega, killed seals and otters in San Fran
cisco Bay under the very noses of the Spaniards, and in
spite of all the latter, who appear to have had no boats
of their own, could do to prevent them. In their light
skin baidarkas, each with places for two persons only,
these bold northern boatmen would drop down the coast
from Bodega Bay, where the Russians were stationed,
or cross over from the Farallones in fleets of from forty
to fifty boats, and entering the Golden Gate creep along
the northern shore, beyond the range of the Presidio's
guns, securely establish themselves upon the islands of
the bay and pursue their avocation unmolested. For
three years, namely from 1809 to 1811, these northern
fishermen held possession of the bay of San Francisco,
during which time they captured over eight thousand
otters. Finally, it occurred to the governor, Don Luis
Argiiello, that it would be well for the Spaniards to have
boats of their own. Accordingly four were built, but
they were so clumsily constructed, ill equipped, and
poorly manned, that had the Russians and Koniagas felt
disposed, they could easily have continued their incur
sions. Once within the entrance, these northern bar
barians were masters of the bay, and such was their
sense of security that they would sometimes venture for
a time to stretch their limbs upon the shore. The cap
ture of several of their number, however, by the sol
diers from the fort, made them more wary thereafter.
Maurelle, who touched at Point Arenas in 1775, but did
bulrushes. . .sit flat upon the craft, soaked in water, plying their paddles. . . .
most of them in all kinds of weather, are either below, or on a level with the
water.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 368. 'My opinion is that the Indians of
California, previous to the occupation by the Jesuit Fathers had no other
boats than those made from the tule, and even as late as 1840, I never knew
or heard of an Indian using any other.' Phelps' Letter, MS.
io9 Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 103; Cronise's Nat.
Wealth, p. 23.
384 CALIFORNIANS.
not enter the bay of San Francisco, says that ua vast
number of Indians now presented themselves on both
points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes
made of fule, where they talked loudly for two hours
or more, till at last two of them came alongside of the
ship, and most liberally presented us with plumes of
feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also
garlands .of the same materials, which they wore round
their head, and a canister of seeds which tasted much
like walnuts." The only account of this voyage in my pos
session is an English translation, in which u canoes made
of fule" might easily have been mistaken for boats or
floats of tule.110 Split logs were occasionally used to
cross rivers, and frequently all means of transportation
were dispensed with, and swimming resorted to.
Captain Phelps, in a letter to the author, mentions
having seen skin boats, or baidarkas, on the Sacramento
River, but supposes that they were left there by those
same Russian employes.111 Vancouver, speaking of a
canoe which he saw below Monterey, says: " Instead of
being composed of straw, like those we had seen on our
first visit to San Francisco, it was neatly formed of wood,
much after the Nootka fashion, and was navigated with
much adroitness by four natives of the country. Their
paddles were about four feet long with a blade at each
end; these were handled with great dexterity, either
entirely on one side or alternately on each side of their
canoe."112 I account for the presence of this canoe in
the same manner that Captain Phelps accounts for the
110 Roquefeutt's Voy., pp. 25-6. Tule is an Aztec word, from tollin, signi
fying rushes, nags, or reeds. Molina, Vocabulario. Mendoza says that when
the ancient Mexicans arrived at the site of Mexico, it was a complete swamp,
covered ' con grandes matorrales de enea, que Hainan tuli.' Esplimcion del
Codice, in JCmgsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. v., p. 40. That the Spaniards
themselves had not boats at this time is also asserted by Kotzebue : ' That
no one has yet attempted to build even the simplest canoe in a country which
produces a superabundance of the finest wood for the purpose, is a striking
proof of the indolence of the Spaniards, and the stupidity of the Indians.'
New Voy., vol. ii., p. 90.
in Phelps' Letter, MS.
112 Vancouver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 4.45. ' Sending off a man with great ex
pedition, to vs in a canow.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 119.
CHIEFTAINSHIP AND ITS EIGHTS. 385
skin canoes on the Sacramento, and think that it must
have come either from the south or north.
The probable cause of this absence of boats in Cen
tral California is the scarcity of suitable, favorably lo
cated timber. Doubtless if the banks of the Sacramento
and the shores of San Francisco Bay had been lined with
large straight pine or fir trees, their waters would have
been filled with canoes; yet after all, this is but a poor
excuse; for not only on the hills and mountains, at a
little distance from the water, are forests of fine trees,
but quantities of driftwood come floating down every
stream during the rainy season, out of which surely suf
ficient material could be secured for some sort of boats..
Shells of different kinds, but especially the variety
known as aukne, form the circulating medium. They
are polished, sometimes ground down to a certain size,,
and arranged on strings of different lengths.113
Chieftainship is hereditary, almost without exception. '
In a few instances I find it depending upon wealth, in
fluence, family, or prowess in war, but this rarely. In
some parts, in default of male descent, the females of
the family are empowered to appoint a successor.114 Al
though considerable dignity attaches to a chief, and his
family are treated with consideration, yet his power is
limited, his principal duties consisting in making peace
and war, and in appointing and presiding over feasts.
Every band has its separate head, and two or even
113 The shells 'they broke and rubbed down to a circular shape, to the-
size of a dime, and strung them on a thread of sinews.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer,
March 2, 1860. ' Three kinds of money were employed white shell-beads,
or rather buttons, pierced in the centre and strung together, were rated at
$5 a yard; periwinkles, at $1 a yard; fancy marine shells, at various prices,
from $3 to $10, or $15, according to their beauty.' Powers, in Overland
Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.
u* The office of chief is hereditary in the male line only. The widows
and daughters of the chiefs are, however'^treated with distinction, and are
not required to work, as other women. Beechey's Voy., vol. ii., p. 73. In
one case near Clear Lake, when ' the males of a family had become extinct
and a female only remained, she appointed a chief.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. At the Port of Sardinas ' durmio dos noches en la
capitaiia una india anciana, que era se flora de estos pueblos, acompanada
de muchos Indies.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. xxxii.
VOL. I. 25
386 CALIFORNIANS.
three have been known to preside at the same time.115
Sometimes when several bands are dwelling together
they are united under one head chief, who, however, can
not act for the whole without consulting the lesser chiefs.
Practically, the heads of families rule in their own
circle, and their internal arrangements are seldom inter
fered with. Their medicine-men also wield a very pow
erful influence among them.116 Sometimes, when a fla
grant murder has been committed, the chiefs meet in
-council and decide upon the punishment of the offender.
The matter is, however, more frequently settled by the
relatives of the victim, who either exact blood for blood
from the murderer or let the thing drop for a considera-
| lion. Among the Neeshenams revenge must be had
|j within twelve months after the murder or not at all.117
According to Fletcher's narrative, there seems to have
been much more distinction of rank at the time of Drake's
visit to California than subsequent travelers have seen;
115 The Kainameahs had three hereditary chiefs. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafV s
Arch., vol. iii., p. 103.
us In Russian River Valley and the vicinity: 'Die Achtung die man fur
den Vater hegte, geht ha'ufig auf den Sohn iiber; aber die Gewalt des Ober-
hauptes ist im Allgemeinen. sehr nichtig; deiin es steht einem jeden frei,
•Heineii Geburtsort zu verlassen und einen anderen. Aufenthalt zu wahlen.'
Baer, Stai. u. Ethno., pp. 77-8. 'Derjenige, der am meisten Anverwandte
besitzt, wird als Hauptling oder Tojon anerkaiint; in grosseren Wolmsitzen
;giebt es mehrere solcher Tojoiie, aber ihre Autoritat ist iiichts sagend. Sie
habeu weder das Recht zu befehlen, noch den Ungehorsam zu ziichtigen.'
Kostrondtonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 86. At Clear Lake chiefdom was
ihereditary. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also pp. 103,
110. Among the Gualalas and Gallinomeros, chieftainship was hereditary.
The Sanels live in large huts, each containing 20 or 30 persons related to
• each other, each of these families has its own government. The Comachos
paid voluntary tribute for support of chief. Powers' Porno, MS. In the Sac
ramento Valley a chief has more authority than that arising merely from his
personal character. Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 108. On the
coast between San Diego and San Francisco, in the vicinity of San Miguel
' chaque village est gouverne despotiquement par un chef qui est seul arbitre
de la paix et de la guerre.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn,
ci., p. 1G3. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal., p. 227; Jeicett,
'in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 244; Gerstaecker's Journ., p. 213; Histoire Chre-
.Uenne de id Cal., p. 52; Wimmel, Calif ornien, pp. 177-8.
117 'El robo era un delito casi desconocido en ambas naciones. Entre los
Runsienes se miraba quasi con indiferencia el homicidio; pero no asf entre
los Eslenes, los quales castigaban al delinqiiente con peiia demuerte.' Sutily
Mexicana, Viage, p. 171. ' 1m Fall ein Iiidi;mer ein Verbrechen in irgeiid
einem Stamme verabt hat, und die Hauptlinge sich bestimmt, liabeii ihn zu
todten, so geschieht dies durch Bogen und Pfeil.' Wimmd, Calif ornien, pp.
177-8; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 24.
RULERS OF NEW ALBION. 387
however, allowance must be made for the exaggerations
invariably found in the reports of early voyagers. In
proof of this, we have only to take up almost any
book of travel in foreign lands printed at that time;
wherein dragons and other impossible animals are not
only zoologically described, but carefully drawn and en
graved, as well as other marvels in abundance. Cap
tain Drake had several temptations to exaggerate. The
richer and more important the country he discovered,
the more would it redound to his credit to have been the
discoverer; the greater the power and authority of the
chief who formally made over his dominions to the
queen of England, the less likely to be disputed would
be that sovereign's claims to the ceded territory. Fletcher
never speaks of the chief of the tribe that received Drake,
but as 'the king,' and states that this dignitary was
treated with great respect and ceremony by the courtiers
who surrounded him. These latter were distinguished
from the canaille by various badges of rank. They
wore as ornaments chains "of a bony substance, euery
linke or part thereof being very little, and thinne, most
finely burnished, with a hole pierced through the mid-
dest. The number of linkes going to make one chaine,
is in a manner infinite; but of such estimation it is
amongst them, that few be the persons that are admitted
to weare the same; and euen they to whom its lawfull
to use them, yet are stinted what number they shall vse,
as some ten, some twelue, some twentie, and as they ex
ceed in number of chaines, so thereby are they knowne
to be the more honorable personages." Another mark
of distinction was a "certain downe, which groweth vp
in the countrey vpon an herbe much like our lectuce,
which exceeds any other downe in the world for fine-
nesse, and beeing layed vpon their cawles, by no winds
can be remoued. Of such estimation is this herbe
amongst them, that the downe thereof is not lawfull to
be worne, but of such persons as are about the king (to
whom also it is permitted to weare a plume of feather
on their heads, in signe of honour) , and the seeds are
388 CALIFOKNIANS.
not vsed but onely in sacrifice to their gods." The king,
who was gorgeously attired in skins, with a crown of
feather- work upon his head, was attended by a regular
body-guard , uniformly dressed in coats of skins. His
coming was announced by two heralds or ambassadors,
one of whom prompted the other, during the proclama
tion, in a low voice. His majesty was preceded in the
procession by " a man of large body and goodly aspect,
bearing the septer or royall mace;" all of which hap
pened, if we may believe the worthy chaplain of the
expedition, on the coast just above San Francisco Bay,
three hundred years ago.118
Slavery in any form is rare, and hereditary bondage
unknown.119 Polygamy obtains in most of the tribes,
although there are exceptions.120 It is common for
a man to marry a whole family of sisters, and some
times the mother also, if she happen to be free.121 Hus-
ns Drake's World Encomp., pp. 124-6.
us Wimmel, Californien, p. 178.
120 Near San Francisco, ' teniendo muchas mugeres, sin que entre ellas
se experimente la meiior emulacion.' Palou, Vida, de Junipero Serra, p.
2J7. At Monterey 'la polygamie leur etait permise.' La Pe'rouse, Voy.,
torn, ii., p. 31)3. In Tuolumiie County 'polygamy is practiced.' Healey, in
Ind. Aff. Rfpt., 185i>, p. 244. At Clear Lake 'polygamy is practiced only by
the chiefs.' Revere' 8 Tow, p. 1:25. ' Bei mancheii Staminen wird Vielweiberei
gestattet.' Wimmd, Californien, p. 178. ' A man often marries a whole family,
the mother and her daughters . . . No jealousies ever appear among these fam
ilies of wives.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 367. * An Indian man may have as
many wives as he can keep; but a woman cannot have a plurality of hus
bands, or men to whom she owes obedience.' Johnston, in S&ioolwfyt's Arch.,
vol. iv., p. 224. In the Sacramento Valley 'the men in general have but one
wife.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 108. 'Of these In
dians it is reported that no one has more than one wife.' Willces' Nar., in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. 'Entre los Runsienes y Eslenes no era per-
mitido a cada hombre tener mas de una muger.' SutU y Mexicana, Viage, p.
170. At Clear Lake and down the coast to San Francisco Bay ' they have
but one wife at a time.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. In the
vicinity of Fort Boss ' es ist nich erlaubt mehr als eine Frau zu haben.'
Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. In the country round San
Miguel ' nou-seulement ce capitaiiie a le droit d'avoir deux femmes, tandis
que les autres Indiens n'en out qu'une, mais il peut les renvoyer quand cela
lui plait, pour en prendre d'autres dans le village.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 163. See also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy.
en CaL, p. 227.
!2i At Monterey, « ils etaient meme dans 1'usage d'epouser tontes les soeurs
id'une famille.' La Perouse, Voy., torn, ii., p. 303. Near Fort Ross, ' die Bluts-
verwandtschaft wird streng beachtet und es ist nicht gestattet aus dem ersten
oder zweiten Grade der Verwandschaft zu heirathen; selbst im Falle einer
Scheidung darf der nachste Anverwandte die Frau nich ehelichep, doch.
giebt es auch Ausnahmen.' Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. At
HOW A BRIDE IS WON. 389
band and wife are united with very little ceremony.
The inclinations of the bride seem to be consulted
here more than among the Northern Californians. It
is true she is sometimes bought from her parents, but if
she violently opposes the match she is seldom compelled :
to marry or to be sold. Among some tribes the wooer,
after speaking with her parents, retires with the girl ; if
they agree, she thenceforth belongs to him ; if not, the
match is broken off.122 The Neshenam buys his wife in
directly by making presents of game to her family. He
leaves the gifts at the door of the lodge without a word,
and, if they are accepted, he shortly after claims and
takes his bride without further ceremony. In this tribe
the girl has no voice whatever in the matter, and resist
ance on her part merely occasions brute force to be used
by her purchaser.123
When an Oleepa lover wishes to marry, he first obtains
permission from the parents. The damsel then flies and
conceals herself; the lover searches for her, and should
he succeed in finding her twice out of three times she
belongs to him. Should he be unsuccessful he waits a.
few weeks and then repeats the performance. If she
again elude his search, the matter is decided against
him.124 The bonds of matrimony can be thrown aside
San Francisco 'no conocen para sus casamientos el pareutezco deafinidad;
antes bien este los incita a recibir por sus propias mugeres a sus cunadas, y
aun a las suegras, y la costumbre que observan es, que el que logra una
muger, tiene por suyas a todas sus hermanas.' Palou, Vide de Juniper o Serra,
p. 217. ' Parentage and other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles
to matrimony.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 367. ' Souvent une femme presse
son mari d'epouser ses soeurs, et meme sa mere, et cette proposition est fre-
quemment acceptee.' Marntier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 235. 'Este
metodo de comprar las mugeres era comun a entraiiibas naciones (Eunsien-
es y Eslenes), bien que entre los llunsienes hacia mucho mas solemne el
contrato la intervencion de los parientes de los novios, contribuyendo los del
varon con su quota, la qual se dividia entre los de la novia al tiempo de en-
tregar a esta.' Sutil y Mexicana, Via</e, p. 171.
122 Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223.
123 Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., p. 23.
12* Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 306. At Santa Cruz, ' the Gentile Indian,
when he wishes to marry, goes to the hut of her he desires for a wife, and
sitting himself close by her, sighs without speaking a word, and casting
at her feet some beads on a string, goes out, and without further cere
mony he is married.' Cornelias' Letter, in CaL Farmer, April 5, 1860. At Clear
Lake ' rape exists among them in an authorized form, and it is the custom
for a party of young men to surprise and ravish a young girl^who becomes
the wife of one of them.' Severe' & Tour, pp. 125-6.
390 CALIFOKNIANS.
as easily as they are assumed. The husband has only
to say to his spouse, I cast you off, and the thing is
done.125 The Gallinomeros acquire their wives by pur
chase, and are at liberty to sell them again when tired
of them.126 As usual the women are treated with great
contempt by the men, and forced to do all the hard and
menial labor; they are not even allowed to sit at the
same fire or eat at the same repast with their lords.
Both sexes treat children with comparative kindness;127
boys are, however, held in much higher estimation than
girls, and from early childhood are taught their superi
ority over the weaker sex. It is even stated that many
female children are killed as soon as born,128 but I am
inclined to doubt the correctness of this statement as
applied to a country where polygamy is practiced as
extensively as in California. Old people are treated
with contumely, both men and women, aged warriors
being obliged to do menial work under the supervision
of the women. The Gallinomeros kill their aged par
ents in a most cold-blooded manner. The doomed crea
ture is led into the woods, thrown on his back, and
firmly fastened in that position to the ground. A stout
pole is then placed across the throat, upon either end of
which a person sits until life is extinct.129 A husband
takes revenge for his wife's infidelities upon the person
of her seducer, whom he is justified in killing. Some
times the male offender is compelled to buy the object of
his unholy passions. In consequence of their strictness
in this particular, adultery is not common among them
selves, although a husband is generally willing to prosti-
125 Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 234. At Clear Lake « if the
parties separate the children go with the wife.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 112.
126 Powers' Porno, MS.
127 < The Yukas are often brutal and cruel to their women and children,
especially to the women.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 308. In
the vicinity of Fort Boss, 'sie lieben ihre Kinder mit grosser Zartlichkeit.'
£aer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 77.
128 Wimmel, Calif ornien, p. 178. ' The practice of abortion, so common
among the Chinooks and some other tribes in Oregon, is unknown here.'
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 112-13.
129 Mr Powers, in his Porno, MS., makes this assertion upon what he
states to be reliable authority.
CHILD-BIKTH AND THE COUVADE. 391
tute his dearest wife to a white man for a consideration.
The Central Californian women are inclined to rebel
against the tyranny of their masters, more than is usual
in other tribes. A refractory Tahtoo wife is sometimes
frightened into submission. The women have a great
dread of evil spirits, and upon this weakness the hus
band plays. He paints himself in black and white
stripes to personate an ogre, and suddenly jumping in
among his terrified wives, brings them speedily to peni
tence. Child-bearing falls lightly on the Californian
mother. When the time for delivery arrives she betakes
herself to a quiet place by the side of a stream ; some
times accompanied by a female friend, but more fre
quently alone. As soon as the child is born the mother
washes herself and the infant in the stream. The child
is then swaddled from head to foot in strips of soft skin,
and strapped to a board, which is carried on the mother's
back. When the infant is suckled, it is drawn round in
front and allowed to hang there, the mother meanwhile
pursuing her usual avocations. So little does child-
bearing affect these women, that, on a journey, they will
frequently stop by the way-side for half an hour to be
delivered, and then overtake the party, who have trav
eled on at the usual pace. Painful parturition, though
so rare, usually results fatally to both mother and child
when it does occur. This comparative exemption from
the curse, "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," is doubt
less owing partly to the fact that the sexes have their
regular season for copulation, just as animals have theirs,
the women bringing forth each year with great regu
larity. A curious custom prevails, which is, however,
by no means peculiar to California. When child-birth
overtakes the wife, the husband puts himself to bed, and
there grunting and groaning he affects to suffer all the
agonies of a woman in labor. Lying there, he is nursed
and tended for some days by the women as carefully as
though he were the actual sufferer. Ridiculous as this
custom is, it is asserted by Mr Tylor to have been prac
ticed in western China, in the country of the Basques,
392 CALIFOKNIANS.
by the Tibareni at the south of the Black Sea, and in
modified forms by the Dyaks of Borneo, the Arawaks
of Surinam, and the inhabitants of Kamchatka and
Greenland.130 The females arrive early at the age of
puberty,131 and grow old rapidly.132
Most important events, such as the seasons of hunt
ing, fishing, acorn-gathering, and the like, are celebrated
with feasts and dances which differ in no essential re
spect from those practiced by the Northern Californians.
They usually dance naked, having their heads adorned
with feather ornaments, and their bodies and faces
painted with glaring colors in grotesque patterns. Broad
stripes, drawn up and down, across, or spirally round
the body, form the favorite device; sometimes one half
of the body is colored red and the other blue, or the
whole person is painted jet black and serves as a ground
for the representation of a skeleton, done in white, which
gives the wearer a most ghastly appearance.133 The
iso For a full account of this custom of the couvade, as it existed in vari
ous parts of the world, see Tylor's Researches, pp. 293-302, and Max Muller's
Chips, vol. ii., pp. 271-9. For its observance in California, see Venegas, No-
ticias de CaL, torn, i., p. 94, and Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367.
131 ' It was not a thing at all uncommon, in the days of the Indians' an
cient prosperity, to see a woman become a mother at twelve or fourteen.
An instance was related to me where a girl had borne her first-born at ten,
as nearly as her years could be ascertained, her husband, a White Man, being
then sixty-odd.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500.
13-2 por further authorities on family and domestic affairs, see : Miihlen-
pfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 456; Delano's Life on the Plains, pp. 306;
Forbes' CaL, p. 190; Pages, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., pp.
317-26. Also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, pp. 232-35;
Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp.
223-4; Cornelias' Letter, in CaL Farmer, April 5, 1860; Palou, Vida de Junipero
Serra, p. 217; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 308, 500-6, vol. x., p.
325; Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., pp. 106-8; Suttt y Mexicana,
torn.
vi.
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., pp. 201/259; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 457; Gilbert, McAdam,
and Jewett, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1856, pp.242-±; Revere's Tour, p. 126; Reid, in
Los Angeles Star, 1852; Farnham's Life in CaL, pp. 367-70; Baer, Stat. u.
Ethno., p. 77; Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., pp. 83-8.
133 Every traveler who has seen them dance enters into details of dress,
etc. ; but no two of these accounts are alike, and the reason of this is that
they have no regular figures or costumes peculiar to their dances, but that
every man, when his dress is not paint only, wears all the finery he possesses
with an utter disregard for uniformity. ' At some of their dances .we were
told that they avoid particular articles of food, even fowls and eggs.' Gibbs,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 113. Dancing is executed at Santa Cruz,
CALIFORNIAN DIVERSIONS. 393
dancing is accompanied by chantings, clapping of hands,
blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played with
the nose or mouth, beating of skin drums, and rattling
of tortoise-shells filled with small pebbles. This hor
rible discord is, however, more for the purpose of mark
ing time than for pleasing the ear.134 The women are^
seldom allowed to join in the dance with the men, and ;
when they are so far honored, take a very unimportant
part in the proceedings, merely swaying their bodies to
and fro in silence.
Plays, representing scenes of war, hunting, and private
life, serve to while away the time, and are performed
with considerable skill. Though naturally the very in
carnation of sloth, at least as far as useful labor is con
cerned, the}' have one or two games which require some
exertion. One of these, in vogue among the Meewocs,
is played with bats and an oak-knot ball. The former
are made of a pliant stick, having the end bent round
and lashed to the main part so as to form a loop, which
is filled with a network of strings. They do not strike
but push the ball along with these bats. The players
take sides, and each party endeavors to drive the ball
past the boundaries of the other. Another game, which
was formerly much played at the missions on the coast,
requires more skill and scarcely less activity. It consists
by forming a circle, assuming a stooping posture, raising a loud, discordant
chant, and, without moving from their places, lifting and lowering a foot,
and twisting the body into various contortions. Archives of Santa Cruz Mission.
'In their dances they sometimes wear white masks.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 192. ' Se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.'
Choris, Voy. Pitt., part iii., p. 4. When a Wallie chief 'decides to hold a
dance in his village, he dispatches messengers to the neighboring rancherias,
each bearing a string whereon is tied a certain number of knots. Every
morning thereafter the invited chief unties one of the knots, and when the
last but one is reached, they joyfully set forth for the dance.' Powers, in
Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325. For descriptions of dances of Neeshe-
nams, see Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. xii., pp. 26-7.
134 ' Each one had two and sometimes three whistles, made of reeds, in
his mouth.' San Francisco Bulletin, Oct. 21, 1858. 'Some had whistles or
double flageolets of reed which were stuck into their noses.' Revere' s Tour,
p. 133. ' The Gentiles do not possess any instrument whatever. ' Cornelias1
Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. ' Their own original instrument con
sists of a very primitive whistle, some double, some single, and held in the
mouth by one end, without the aid of the fingers; they are about the size
and length of a common fife, and only about two notes can be sounded on
them.' Cat. Farmer, Oct. 26,
394 CALIFORNIANS.
in throwing a stick through a hoop which is rapidly
rolled along the ground. If the player succeeds in this,
he gains two points; if the stick merely passes partially
through, so that the hoop remains resting upon it, one
point is scored.
But, as usual, games of chance are much preferred to
games of skill. The chief of these is the same as that
already described in the last chapter as being played by
the natives all along the coasts of Oregon, Washington,
and British Columbia, and which bears so close a re
semblance to the odd-and-even of our school-days. They
are as infatuated on this subject as their neighbors, and
quite as willing to stake the whole of their possessions
on an issue of chance. They smoke a species of strong
tobacco in the straight pipes before mentioned;135 but
they have no native intoxicating drink.136
The principal diseases are small-pox, various forms of
fever, and syphilis. Owing to their extreme filthiness
they are also very subject to disgusting eruptions of the
skin. Women are not allowed to practice the healing
art, as among the Northern Californians, the privileges
of quackery being here reserved exclusively to the men.
Chanting incantations, waving of hands, and the suck
ing powers obtain. Doctors are supposed to have power
135 « They use a species of native tobacco of nauseous and sickening odour. '
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 107. ' They burned the aulone shell
for the lime to mix with their tobacco, which they swallowed to make them
drunk.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. 'A species of tobacco is
found on the sandy beaches which the Indians prepare and smoke.' Wilkes'
Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 202. ' Se pusieron a chupar y repare en
ellos la misma ceremonia de esparcir el humo hacia arriba diciendo en cada
bocanada unas palabras; solo entendf una que fue estnen que quiere decir sol;
observe la misma costumbre de chupar primero el mas principal, luego da la
pipa a otro, y da vuelta a otros.' Palou, Notidas, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv.,
torn, vii., p. 69; see also p. 77.
136 On the subject of amusements, see Kotzebut's Voy., vol. i., p. 282. Z)e-
lano's Life on the Plains, p. 307; Helper's Land of Gold, pp. 271-2; Baer, Stat. u.
Ethno., pp. 72, 76-7; Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 85-92; Holinski, La Calif ornie,
p. 173; Cornelias' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 5, 1860; Wimmel, Calif ornien, p.
178; Drake's World Encamp., p. 128; Revere's Tour, pp. 120-133; San Fran-
cisco Bulletin, Oct. 21*, 1858, Nov. 29, 1871; Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol.
ix., pp. 307-8, 501-5, vol. x., pp. 325-7; Power's Porno, MS.; Laplace, Circum-
nav., torn, vi., p. 150; Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 127; Hutchings' Cal.
Mag., vol. iii., pp. 442-6; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 367; Hist. Chretienne, pp.
53-4; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii, pt. ii, p. 456; Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt.iii.,
pp. '4-5; La Perouse, Voy., vol. ii., pp. 306-7.
MEDICINE AND SWEAT-HOUSES. 393
over life and death, hence if they fail to effect a cure,
they are frequently killed.137 They demand the most
extortionate fees in return for their services, and often
refuse to officiate unless the object they desire is prom
ised them. Sweat-houses similar to those already de
scribed are in like manner used as a means of cure for
every kind of complaint.138 They have another kind of
sudatory. A hole is dug in the sand of a size sufficient
to contain a person lying at full length ; over this a fire is
kept burning until the sand is thoroughly heated, when
the fire is removed and the sand stirred with a stick
until it is reduced to the required temperature. The
patient is then placed in the hole and covered, with the
exception of his head, with sand. Here he remains
until in a state of profuse perspiration, when he is un
earthed and plunged into cold wrater. They are said to
practice phlebotomy, using the right arm when the body
is affected and the left when the complaint is in the
limbs. A few simple decoctions are made from herbs,
but these are seldom very efficient medicines, especially
when administered for the more complicated diseases
which the whites have brought among them. Owing to
the insufficient or erroneous treatment they receive,
many disorders which would be easily cured by us, de
generate with them into chronic maladies, and are trans
mitted to their children.139
137 The Meewocs ' believe that their male physicians, who are more prop
erly sorcerers, can sit on a mountain top fifty miles distant from a man they
wish to destroy, and compass his death by filliping poison towards him from
their finger-ends.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 327.
138 ' I incautiously entered one of these caverns during the operation
above described, and was in a few moments so nearly suffocated with the
heat, smoke, and impure air, that I found it difficult to make my way out. '
Bryant's Cal., p. 272.
139 < Zur Heilung bedienen sich die Schamane der Krauter und Wurzeln,
grosstentheils aber saugen sie mit dem Munde das Blut aus der kranken
Stelle aus, wobei sie Steinchen oder kleine Schlangen in den Mund nehmen
und darauf versichern, sie hatten dieselben aus der Wunde herausgezogen.'
Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 95; see also pp. 83, 91, 94-5. ' Until
now it has not been ascertained that the Indians had any remedy for curing
the sick or allaying their sufferings. If they meet with an accident they in
variably die.' Cornelias' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. 'Ring-worm
is cured by placing the milk of the poison oak in a circle round the af
fected part.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 440. 'Among the Meewocs~~"
stomachic affections and severe travail are treated with a plaster of hot I
396 CALIFORNIANS.
Incremation is almost universal in this part of Cali
fornia.140 The body is decorated with feathers, flowers,
and beads, and after lying in state for some time, is
burned amid the howls and lamentations of friends and
relations. The ashes are either preserved by the family
of the deceased or are formally buried. The weapons
and effects of the dead are burned or buried with them.141
When a body is prepared for interment the knees are
doubled up against the chest and securely bound with
cords. It is placed in a sitting posture in the grave,
which is circular. This is the most common manner of
sepulture, but some tribes bury the body perpendicularly
in a hole just large enough to admit it, sometimes with
the head down, sometimes in a standing position. The
Pomos formerly burned their dead, and since they have
been influenced by the whites to bury them, they inva
riably place the body with its head toward the south.
A scene of incremation is a weird spectacle. The
ashes and moist earth spread on the stomach.' Powers, in Overland Monthly,
vol. x., p. 327. See further: Petit-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 140; Farn-
ham's Life in Cal., p. 370; Holinski, La Californie, p. 173; Humboldt, Et-
sai Pol., torn, i., p. 324; Beechey's Voy., voL ii., pp. 35, 78; San Joaquin
Republican, Sept., 1858; La Pe rouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 63; Gibbs, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 103, 107; WUkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v.,
p. 193; Pickering's Races, in Id., vol. ix.. p. 109; Pages, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 333; also quoted in Marmier, Notice, in Bryant,
Voy. en Cal., p. 237; Knee-land's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52; Kelly's Excur
sion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284; Powers' Porno, MS.; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p.
166; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. ii., p. 94; Delano's Life on the Plains,
p. 295; Laplace, Circumnav., torn, vi., p. 152.
HO « From north to south, in the present California, up to the Columbia
river they burnt the dead in some tribes, and in others buried them. These
modes of sepulture differed every few leagues.' Taylor's Indianology, in
Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. A dead Oleepa was buried by one woman in ' a
Sit about four feet deep, and ten feet in front of the father's door.' Delano's
if eon the Plains, p. 301. At Santa Cruz 'the Gentiles burn the bodies of
their warriors and allies who fall in war; those who die of natural death they
inter at sundown.' Cornelias' Letter, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860. The In
dians of the Bay of San Francisco burned their dead with everything belong
ing to them, 'but those of the more southern regions buried theirs.' Dome-
nech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 363. In the vicinity of Clear Lake all the tribes
with the exception of the Yubas bury their dead. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1858, p. 289.
141 ' Los Runsienes dividian liltimamente entre los parientes las pocas cosas
que componian la propiedad del difunto. Los Eslenes, al contrario, no solo no
repartian cosa alguna, sino que todos sus amigos y siibditos debian contribuir
con algunos abalorios que enterraban con el cadaver del fallecido.' Sutil y
Mexicana, Viage, p. 172. ' If a woman dies in becoming a mother, the child,
whether living or dead, is buried with its mother.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol.
iii., p. 437.
MOUKNING FOR THE DEAD. 397
friends and relatives of the deceased gather round the
funeral pyre in a circle, howling dismally. As the flames
mount upward their enthusiasm increases, until in a
perfect frenzy of excitement, they leap, shriek, lacerate
their bodies, and even snatch a handful of smoldering
flesh from the fire, and devour it.
The ashes of the dead mixed with grease, are smeared
over the face as a badge of mourning, and the compound
is suffered to remain there until worn off by the action
of the weather. The widow keeps her head covered
with pitch for several months. In the Russian River
Valley, where demonstrations of grief appear to be yet
more violent than elsewhere, self-laceration is much
practiced. It is customary to have an annual Dance of
Mourning, when the inhabitants of a whole village col
lect together and lament their deceased friends with
howls and groans. Many tribes think it necessary to
nourish a departed spirit for several months. This is
done by scattering food about the place where the re
mains of the dead are deposited. A devoted Neeshenam
widow does not utter a word for several months after
the death of her husband ; a less severe sign of grief is
to speak only in a low whisper for the same time.142
Regarding a future state their ideas are vague ; some
say that the Meewocs believe in utter annihilation after
death, but who can fathom the hopes and fears that
struggle in their dark imaginings. They are not par
ticularly cruel or vicious ; they show much sorrow for the
142 ' Die nachsten Anverwandten schneideu sich das Haar ab und \verfen
es ins Feuer, wobei sie sich mit Steineu an die Brust schlagen, auf den Bo-
den stiitzen, ja bisweilen aus besonderer Anhanglicbkeit zu dem Verstorbe-
nen sich bhitriinstig oder gar zu Tode stossen; doch sind solche Fiille selten.'
Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 88. ' The body is consumed upon
a scaffold' built over a hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered. '
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112. See also: Tehama Gazette, May,
1859; Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, pp. 171-2; Powers' Porno, MS.; also in Overland
Monthly, vol. ix., p. 502, vol. x., p. 328, vol. xii., p. 28; San Francisco Evening
Bulletin, April 4, 1861; Marfe's Vane. Isl, pp. 448-50; LaPerouse, Voy., torn.
ii., p. 306; Placerville Index, 1857; Marmier, in Bryant, Voy. en Cal, pp. 230,
236; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 437; Wimmel, Californien, p. 178; Farn-
liam's Life in Cal, p, 369; Folsom Dispatch, in Cal. Fanner, Nov. 9, I860;
Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 225; D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 458;
Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p. 242; Forbes' Cal, p. 195.
398 CALIFORNIANS.
death of a relative ; in some instances they are affection
ate toward their families.143
i« In the Russian River Valley the Indians ' siiid weichherzig, und von
Natur nicht rachsiiehtig . . . sie erlernen mit Leichtigkeit maiicherlei Handaiv
beiten und G-ewarbs.' Bur, Slat. u. Elhno., pp. 77-8. Near Fort Ross ' sind
sie sanft und friedfertig, und sehr fahig, besonders in der Auffassung sinn-
licher G-egenstaiicle. Nur in Folge ihrer unmassigen Tragheit und Sorglosig-
keit scheinen sie sehr dunim zu seyn.' Kostromitonow, in Id., pp. 81-2. ' They
appear by no means so stupid' as those at the missions. Kotzebue's
N.'W Voy., vol. ii., p. 25. At Bodega Bay ' their disposition is most liberal.'
Maurelle's Jour., p. 47. At Clear Lake 'they are docile, mild, easily man
aged. . . .roguish, ungrateful, and incorrigibly lazy. . . .cowardly and cringing
towards the whites . . . thorough sensualists and most abandoned gamblers . .
wretchedly improvident.' Revere' s Tour, pp. 120-1. In the Sacramento Val
ley they are ' excessively jealous of their squaws ... stingy and inhospitable.'
Kelly's Excursion to CaL, vol. ii., p. 114. 'A mirthful race, always disposed
to jest and laugh.' Dana, in Hole's Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 222.
' Possessed of mean, treacherous, and cowardly traits of character, and the
most thievish propensities.' Johnson's CaL and 0<jn., p. 143. In the vicinity
of San Francisco Bay ' they are certainly a race of the most miserable be
ings I ever saw, possessing the faculty of human reason.' Vancouver's Voy.,
vol. ii., p. 13. ' For the most part an idle, intemperate race.' Thornton's Oyn.
and CaL, vol. ii., p. 78. 'They are a people of a tractable, free, and loiiing
nature, without guile or treachery.' Drake's World Encomp., p. 131. ' Bas-
tantes rancherias de gentiles muy mansos y apacibles.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist.
Mex.. serie iv., torn, vi., p. 497. ' Son muy mansos, afables, de buenas caras y
los mas de ellos barbados.' Palou, Notidas, in Id., torn, vii., p. 59. At Monte
rey they ' etaient lourds et peu intelligents.' Those living farther from the
missions were not without ' une certaine finasse, commune a tons les hommes
eleves dans 1'etat de nature. ' Pettt-Thouars, Voy., torn, ii., p. 134. ' Ces peuples
sont si peu courageux, qu'ils n'opposent jamais aucune resistance aux trois ou
quatre soldats qui violent si evidement a leur egard le droit des gens.' La Pe-
rousi, Voy., torn, ii., p. 297. ' The Yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thiev
ish, aud every way bad, but brave race.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol.ix.,
p. 306. The Tahtoos were very cowardly and peace-loving. Powers' Porno, M8.
Than the Oleepas ' a more jolly, laughter-loving, careless, and good-natured
people do not exist. . . .For intelligence they are far behind the Indians east
of the Rocky Mountains.' Delano's Life on the Plains, p. 297. The Kaniii-
mares 'were considered a brave and warlike Indian race.' Taylor, in CaL
farmer, March 30, 1860^ The condition of the Wallas ' is the most miserable
that it is possible to conceive; their mode of living, the most abject and des
titute known to man.' Henley, in Ind. Aff. R>pL, 1856, p. 241. The Fresno
River Indians 'are peaceable, quiet and industrious.' Henley, in Ind. Aff.
R'ipL, 1851, p. 3)4. A rational/ calculating people, generally industrious.
Livois, in Lid. Aff. Rept., 1858, p. 291. On the coast range north and east of
Mendocino ' they are a timid and generally inoffensive race.' Bailey, in Ind.
Aff. R^/pL, 1858, p. 304. In Placer County they are industrious, honest, and
temperate; the females strictly virtuous. Brown, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856, p.
243. Lazy, trifling, drunken. Applegate, Ib. In Tuolumne: friendly, gen
erally honest, truthful; men lazy, women industrious. Jewett, Id., p. 244.
In the Yosemite Valley, ' though low in the scale of man, they are not the
abject creatures generally represented; they are mild, harmless, and singu
larly honest. Kneeland's Wonders of Yosemite, p. 52. At Santa Clara they
have no ambition, are entirely regardless of reputation and renown. Van
couver's Voy., vol. ii., p. 21. In stupid apathy 'they exceed every race of
men I have ever known, not excepting the degraded races of Terra del Fuego
or Van Dieman's Land.' Kotze'me's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 97. At Santa Cruz
' they are so inclined to lying that they almost always will confess offences
they have not committed;' very lustful and inhospitable. Cornelias,' Letter, in
CENTRAL CALIFORNIAN CHARACTER. 399
Although nearly all travelers who have seen and de
scribed this people, place them in the lowest scale of
humanity, yet there are some who assert that the char
acter of the Californian has been maligned. It does not
follow, they say, that he is indolent because he does not
work when the fertility of his native land enables him
to live without labor ; or that he is cowardly because he
is not incessantly at war, or stupid and brutal because
the mildness of his climate renders clothes and dwellings
superfluous. But is this sound reasoning ? Surely a peo
ple assisted by nature should progress faster than another,
struggling with depressing difficulties.
From the frozen, wind-swept plains of Alaska to
the malaria-haunted swamps of Darien, there is not a
fairer land than California; it is the neutral ground,
as it were, of the elements, where hyperboreal cold,
stripped off its rugged aspect, and equatorial heat,
tamed to a genial warmth, meet as friends, inviting,
all blusterings laid aside. Yet if we travel northward
Col. Farm°r, April 5, 1860. At Kelsey River they are ' amiable and thievish.'
Gi'i'ts, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 124. ' In general terms, the California
Indians are more timid, peaceable, and joyous than any of their neighbors.'
Stephens, in Pouozrs' Pomo, MS. ' Their stupidity, insensibility, ignorance,
inconstancy, slavery to appetite, excessive sloth and laziness, being absorbed
for the time in the stir and din of night-watching and battle, give them a
new existence.' Farnham's Life in Col., p. 366. 'Faul und jeder Anstren-
gung abgeneigt. ' Oa'swil-l, Calif ornien, p. 63. 'Stupidity seemed to be their
distinctive character.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. '239. 'Loose, lazy, care
less, capricious, childish and fickle.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 2, 1860.
'They are really the most harmless tribes on the American continent.' Ger-
staecker's Nar., p. 212. Revengeful, timid, treacherous and ungrateful. Kelly's
Excursion to Cal., vol. ii., p. 284. ' Cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.'
Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. ' Dull, indolent, phlegmatic,
timid and of a gentle, submissive temper. ' Hak's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.
vi., p. 199. ' In stature no less than in mind are certainly of a very inferior race
of human beings.' Lanysdorff' s Voy., pt. ii., p. 168. ' Pusillanimous.' Forbes'
Cal., p. 183. ' Us sont egalement extremes dans 1'expression de la joie et de
la colere.' Rollin, in La Perouse, Voy., torn, iv., p. 58. 'Seemed to be al
most of the lowest grade of human beings.' King's Rept., in Bayard Taylor's
El Dorado, Appendix, vol. ii., p. 210. 'Die Indianer von Califoriiien sind
physisch und moralish den andern Indianern untergeordnet.' Wimmel, Cali-
fornkn, p. 177. ' Su estupidez mas parece un entorpe*cimiento de las poten-
cias por falta de accion y por pereza caracteristica, qiie limitacion absoluta
de sus facultades intelectuales; y asi quando se las pone en movimiento, y se
ies dan ideas, no clexan de discernir y de aprender lo que se les ensena.'
Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 164. ' I noticed that all the Indians from South
ern to Northern California were low, shiftless, indolent, and cowardly."
Miller's Life Amongst the- Modocs, p. 16. Cowardly and treacherous in the
extreme. Life of Gov. L. W. Boggs, by his Son, MS.
400 CALIFOBNIANS.
from the Isthmus, we must pass by ruined cities and
temples, traces of mighty peoples, who there flourished be
fore a foreign civilization extirpated them. On the arid
deserts of Arizona and New Mexico is found an incipient
civilization. Descending from the Arctic sea we meet
races of hunters and traders, which can be called neither
primitive nor primordial, living after their fashion as
men, not as brutes. It is not until we reach the Golden
Mean in Central California that we find whole tribes
subsisting on roots, herbs .and insects ; having no boats,
no clothing, no laws, no God ; yielding submissively to
the first touch of the invader; held in awe by a few
priests and soldiers. Men do not civilize themselves.
Had not the Greeks and the Egyptians been driven on
by an^unseen hand, never would the city of the Violet
Crown have graced the plains of Hellas, nor Thebes nor
Memphis have risen in the fertile valley of the Nile.
Why Greece is civilized, while California breeds a race
inferior to the lowest of their neighbors, save only per
haps trie Shoshones on their east, no one yet can tell.
When Father Junipero Serra established the Mission
of Dolores in 1776, the shores of San Francisco Bay
were thickly populated by the Ahwashtees, Ohlones,
Altahmos, Romanons, Tuolomos, and other tribes. The
good Father found the field unoccupied, for, in the vocab
ulary of these people, there is found no word for god,
angel, or devil ; they held no theory of origin or desti
ny. A rancheria was situated on the spot where now
Beach street intersects Hyde street. Were it there now,
as contrasted with the dwellings of San Francisco, it
would resemble a pig-sty more than a human habitation.
On the Marin and Sonoma shores of the bay were the
Tomales and Camimares, the latter numbering, in 1824,
ten thousand souls. Marin, chief of the Tomales, was
for a long time the terror of the Spaniards, and his war
riors were ranked as among the fiercest of the Cali-
fornians. He was brave, energetic, and possessed of no
ordinary intelligence. When quite old he consented to
be baptized into the Romish Church.
YOSEMITE VALLEY INDIANS. 401
It has been suspected that the chief Marin was not a
full-bred Indian, but that he was related to a certain
Spanish sailor who was cast ashore from a wrecked galeon
on a voyage from Manila to Acapulco about the year
1750. The ship-wrecked Spaniards, it has been sur
mised, were kindly treated by the natives; they married
native wives, and lived with the Tomales as of them,
and from them descended many of their chiefs ; but of
this we have no proof.
Yosemite Valley was formerly a stronghold to which
tribes in that vicinity resorted after committing their
depredations upon white settlers. They used to make
their boast that their hiding place could never be dis
covered by white men. But during the year 1850, the
marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the
whites arose and drove them into the mountains. Fol
lowing them thither under the guidance of Tenaya, an
old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly
confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. The
Indians, disheartened at the discovery of their retreat,
yielded a reluctant obedience, but becoming again disaf
fected they renewed their depredations. Shortly after
ward the Yosemite Indians made a visit to the Monos.
They were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could
not resist the temptation* to drive off a few stray cattle be
longing to their friends. The Monos, enraged at this breach
of good faith, pursued and gave them battle. The warriors
of the valley were nearly exterminated, scarce half a
dozen remaining to mourn their loss. All their women
and children were carried away into captivity. These
Yosemite Indians consisted of a mixture from various
tribes, outlaws as it were from the surrounding tribes..
They have left as their legacy a name for every cliff and
waterfall within the valley. How marvelous would be
their history could we go back and trace it from the
beginning, these millions of human bands, who through
out the ages have been coming and going, unknowing
and unknown!
VOL. I. 26
402 CALIFOENIANS.
In the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIANS, whose territory lies
south of the thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal
differences than among any people whom we have yet
encountered, whose domain is of equal extent. Those
who live in the south-eastern corner of the State are
thrown by the Sierra Nevada range of mountains into
the Shoshone family, to which, indeed, by affinity they
belong. The chief tribes of this division are the Ca-
huittas and the Dieguenos, the former living around the
8an Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, and the
latter in the southern extremity of California. Around
^each mission were scores of small bands, whose ranche-
ri'as were recorded in the mission books, the natives as
.a whole being known only by the name of the mission.
When first discovered by Cabrillo in 1542, the islands
off the coast were inhabited by a superior people, but
these they were induced by the padres to abandon, fol
lowing which event the people rapidly faded away. The
natives called the island of Santa Cruz Liniooh, Santa
Rosa Hurmal, San Miguel Twocan, and San Nicolas Gha-
lashat.
As we approach the southern boundary of California
a slight improvement is manifest in the aborigines.
The men are here well made, of a stature quite up to
the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and pleas
ant-featured. The children of the islanders are described
.by the early voyagers as being white, with light hair and
ruddy cheeks, and the women as having fine forms,
.beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor.144 The beard is
I** At Santa Catalina ' las mujeres son muy hermosas y honestas, los ninos
•son blancos y rubios y muy risuenos.' Salmeron, Eelaciones, p. 18, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., toni. iv. See also Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 140; Torquemada,
Monarq. hid., torn, i., p. 712. At Santa Barbara, ' son mas altos, dispuestos, y
membrados, que otros, que antes se avian visto.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.,
..torn, i., p. 714. On the coast from San Diego to San Francisco they are ' d'une
•couleur foncee, de petite taille, et assez mal faits.' Fages, in Nouvelles Annales
<des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL,
p. 226. At San Luis Key, ' sont bien faits et d'une taille moyenne.' Id., p.
171; quoted in Marmier, p. 229. An Indian seen at Santa Inez Mission
' was about twenty-seven years old, with a black thick beard, iris of the eyes
light chocolate-brown, nose small and round, lips not thick, face long and
angular.' CaL Farmer, May 4, I860. The Noches ' aunque de buena disposi-
cion son delgados y bastante delicados para andar a pie.' Garces, ill Doc. Hist.
DRESS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 403
plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the
purpose of pincers.
A short cloak of deer- skin or rabbit- skins sewed to
gether, suffices the men for clothing; and sometimes
even this is dispensed with, for they think it no shame
to be naked.145 The women and female children wear a
petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to
the knees; in some districts they also wear short capes
covering the breasts.146 On the coast and, formerly, on
the islands, seals furnished the material.147 The more
industrious and wealthy embroider their garments pro
fusely with small shells. Around Santa Barbara rings of
bone or shell were worn in the nose; at Los Angeles
nasal ornaments were not the fashion. The women had
cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as much as
eight inches in length, attached to the ears by a shell
ring. Bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of
ivory ground round and perforated, small pebbles, and
shells.
Paint of various colors was used by warriors and
dancers. Mr Hugo Reid, who has contributed valu
able information concerning the natives of Los Angeles
County, states that girls in love paint the cheeks spar
ingly with red ochre, and all the women, before they
grow old, protect their complexion from the effects of
Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 295. '.Well proportioned in figure, and of noble
appearance.' Dotnenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 45. 'The women (of the Die-
genos) are beautifully developed, and superbly formed, their bodies as
straight as an arrow.' Michler, in Emory's U. S. and Mex,, Hound. Survey,
vol. i , p. 1U7. The Cahuillas 'are a filthy and miserable-looking set, and
great beggars, presenting an unfavorable contrast to the Indian upon the
Colorado.' Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 134.
145 The ordinary cloak descends to the waist : ' le chef seul en a une qui
lui tombe jusqu'au jarret, et c'est la la seule marque de distinction.' Pages,
in Nouvelles Annales dcs Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 172; see also Marnder, Notice,
in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 229.
146 These capes Father Crespi describes as being ' unos capotillos hechos
de pieles de liebres y conejos deque hacen tiras y tercidas como mecate;
cosen uno con otro y las defienden del frio cubriendolas por la honestidad.'
Crespi, in Doc. Il'ist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., pp. 291-2; see also Id., p. 312.
147 The lobo marine of the Spanish is the common seal and sea calf of the
the English; le veau marin and phoque commun of the French; vecchio ma-
rino of the Italians; Meerwolf and Meerhund of the Germans; Zee-Hund
of the Dutch; Sael-hundof the Danes; Sial of the Swedes; and moelrhcn of
the Welsh. Knight's Eng. Encyc. Nat. Hist., vol. iv., p. 299.
404 CALIFORNIANS.
the sun by a plentiful application of the same cosmetic.148
Vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast painted blue
and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance.
On his asking where they obtained the silver-like ma
terial they showed him a kind of mineral ore, which
they said they used for purposes of ornamentation.149
They take much pride in their hair, which they wear
long. It is braided, and either wound round the head
turban-like,150 or twisted into a top-knot ; some tie it in a
queue behind. According to Father Boscana the girls
are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms.
The most usual method was to prick the flesh with a
thorn of the cactus-plant; charcoal, produced from the
maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and an inef
faceable blue was the result.151
Dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but
little from those of the Central Californians. In shape
they are conical or semi-globular, and usually consist of
a frame, formed by driving long poles into the ground,
covered with rushes and earth.152 On the coast of the
Santa Barbara Channel there seems to have been some
improvement in their style of architecture. It was prob
ably here that Cabrillo saw houses built after the man
ner of those in New Spain.153 It is possible that the
148 Reid, in Los Angeles Star.
i« Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18.
150 This hair turban or coil ' sirve de bolsa para guardar en la cabeza los
abal orios y demas chucherias que se les da.'' Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra,
p. 215. The same custom seems to prevail among the Cibolos of New Mex
ico, as Marmier, in his additional chapter in the French edition of Bryant's
Gal., p. 258, says: 'les homines du peuple tressent leurs cheveux avec des
cordons, et y placent le peu d'objets qu'ils possedent, notamment la corne
qui renferme leur tabac a fumer.'
151 On the subject of dress see also Navarrete, Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana,
Viage, p. Ixiv. ; Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 79; Domenech's Deserts, vol.
ii., p. 45; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL, p. 240; Farnham's Life in Gal.,
p. 138; Garces, in Doc. Mex. Hist., serie ii., torn, i., p. 294; Marmier, Notice, in
Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 229.
ir'2 On the Los Angeles Coast: ' La rancherfa se compone de veiiite casas
hechas de zacate de forma esferica a modo de uno media naranja con su res-
piradero en lo alto por donde les entra la luz y tiene salida el humo.' Crespi,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 314; Hoffmann, in San Francisco Med
ical Press, vol. v., p. 149.
153 'Partieron de alii el 9, entraron en una enseiiada espaciosa, y siguien-
do la costa vieron en ella un pueblo de Indios junto a la mar con casas gran-
des a manera de las de Nueva-Espana.' Navarrete Introd., in Sutil y Mexicana,
DWELLINGS AND FOOD. 405
influences of the southern civilization may have ex
tended as far as this point. Father Boscana's descrip
tion of the temples or vanquechs erected by the natives in
the vicinity of San Juan Capistrano, in honor of their
god, Chinigchinich, is thus translated: " They formed an
enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference,
not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. This they
divided by drawing a line through the centre, and built
another, consisting of the branches of trees, and mats to
the height of about six feet, outside of which, in the
other division, they formed another of small stakes of
wood driven into the ground. This was called the gate,
or entrance, to the vanquech. Inside of this, and close
to the larger stakes, was placed a figure of their god
Chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle. This is
the edifice of the vanquech."154
Almost every living thing that they can lay their
hands on serves as food. Coyotes, skunks, wild cats,
rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls, lizards, frogs, snakes, ex
cepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and other in
sects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. Stranded
whales, animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish,
form the main support of those inhabiting the coast.
Venison they are of course glad to eat when they can
get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury.
When they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same
artifice as their northern neighbors, placing a deer's
head and horns on their own head, and thus disguised
approaching within bow-shot. Bear-meat the majority
Viage, pp. xxix., xxxi., xxxvi. The accounts of Cabrillo's voyage are so con
fused that it is impossible to know the exact locality in which he saw the peo
ple he describes. On this point compare Cabritto, Relation, in Col. Doc. Hist.
Florida, torn, i., p. 173; Browne's Lower Cal., pp. 18, 19; Burney's Chron. Hist.
Discov., vol. i., pp. 221-5; Clavigero, Storia delta Cal., torn, i., pp. 154-5; Hum-
boldt, Essai Pol, torn, i., p. 329; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 210-11; Sal-
meron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18; De Laet, Novus
Orbte, p. 306. 'Nur urn die Meerenge von Santa Barbara fand man, 1769,
die Bewohiier ein wenig gesittigter. Sie bauten grosse Hauser von pyra-
midaler Form, in Dorfer vereint. ' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., pp.
454-5.
tf* Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 259; Bancroft's Nat. Races, vol.
tti., pp. 163-9.
406 CALIFORNIANS.
refuse to eat from superstitious motives.155 Grasshoppers
are eaten roasted. Acorns are shelled, dried, and pound
ed in stone mortars into flour, which is washed and
re washed in hot and cold water until the bitterness is
removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or
baked into bread. Various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs,
berries, and roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw.
Wild fowl are caught in nets made of tules, spread
over channels cut through the rushes in places fre
quented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the
water to allow the birds to swim easily beneath them.
The game is gently driven or decoyed under the nets,
when at a given signal, a great noise is made, and the
terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly en
tangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. Or select
ing a spot containing clear water about two feet deep,
they fasten a net midway between the surface and the
bottom, and strewing the place with berries, which sink
to the bottom under the net, they retire. The fowl
approach and dive for the berries. The meshes of the
net readily admit the head, but hold the prisoner tight
upon attempting to withdraw it. And what is more,
their position prevents them from making a noise, and
they serve also as a decoy for others. Fish are taken in
seines made from the tough bark of the tioiie-tree. They
are also killed with spears having a movable bone head,
attached to a long line, so that when a fish is struck the
barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the
fish is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in.
Many of the inland tribes come down to the coast in the
fishing season, and remain there until the shoals leave,
when they return to the interior. Food is either boiled
by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more fre
quently, in vessels made of soap-stone.156
155 < One of their most remarkable superstitions is found in the fact of
their not eating the flesh of large game. This arises from their belief that
in the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain generations, long since
past, have entered ... A term of reproach from a wild tribe to those more
tamed is, "they eat venison." ' SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. v., pp. 215-6; see
also Reid, in Los Angeles Star.
156 ' All their food was either cold or nearly so Salt was used very spar-
WEAPONS AND WAK. 407
In their cooking, as in other respects, they are excess
ively unclean. They bathe frequently, it is true, but
when not in the water they are wallowing in filth. Their
dwellings are full of offal and other impurities, and ver-*
min abound on their persons.
Bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons
most in use. Sabres of hard wood, with edges that cut
like steel, are mentioned by Father Junipero Serra.157
War is a mere pretext for plunder ; the slightest wrong,
real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe
to attack a weaker one. The smaller bands form tem
porary alliances ; the women and children accompanying
the men on a raid, carrying provisions for the march,
and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows
of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied.
Boscana says that no male prisoners are taken, and no
quarter given ; and Hugo lleid affirms of the natives of
Los Angeles County that all prisoners of war, after be
ing tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably
put to death. The dead are decapitated and scalped.
Female prisoners are either sold or retained as slaves.
Scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly exhibited
at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would
induce them to part with their living captives.158
Among the few articles they manufacture are fish
hooks, needles, and awls, made of bone or shell ; mortars
and pestles of granite, and soap-stone cooking vessels,
and water-tight baskets.159 The clay vessels which are
ingly in their food, from an idea that it had a tendency to turn their hair
gray.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star. 'I have seen many instances of their tak
ing a rabbit, and sucking its blood with eagerness, previous to consuming
the flesh in a crude state.' .Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL, p. 239. ' Viven
muy regalados con varias semillas, y con la pesca que hacen en sus balsas de
tule . .y querieiidoles dar cosa de comida, solian decir, que de aquello no,
que lo que querian era ropa; y solo con cosa de este genero, eran los camba-
laches que hacian de su pescado con los Soldados y Arrieros.' Palou, Vida de
Junipero Serra, p. 79. See also Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 712;
Farnham's Life in CaL, p. 139; Stanley, in Ind. A/. Rept., 1866, p. 102; Id., 1869,
pp. 194-5; Walker, h* Id., 1872, p. 67; BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 125;
Hoffmann, in San Fran-isco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 149; Mollhausen, Reisen
in die Felsengeb., vol. i., pp. 82-3.
157 Palou, Vida de Junipero Serra, pp. 83-4.-
158 Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL, pp. 306-9.
159 The baskets, though water-proof, ' were used only for dry purposes.
408 CALIFOBNIANS.
frequently found among them now, were not made by
them before the arrival of the Spaniards. The stone
implements, however, are of aboriginal manufacture, and
are well made. The former are said to have been pro
cured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the Santa
Rosa islanders.160 The instruments which they used in
their manufactures were flint knives and awls ; the latter
Fages describes as being made from the small bone of a
deer's fore-foot. The knife is double-edged, made of a
flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother of
pearl.161
On this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, al
though the balsa, or tule raft, is also in use. These boats
are made of planks neatly fastened together and paid
with bitumen ;162 prow and stern, both equally sharp, are
elevated above the centre, which made them appear to
Yizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own
junk-like craft. The paddles were long and double-
bladed, and their boats, though generally manned by
three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry
twenty. Canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth
on the outside, with both ends shaped alike, were some
times, though more rarely, used.163 The circulating
The vessels in use for liquids were roughly made of rushes and plastered
outside and in with bitumen or pitch, called by them sanot.' Reid, in Los
Angeles Star; Muhlenpj'ordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. 454-5; and Mollhausen,
Reisen in die Felsengeb\, vol. i., p. 82.
160 ' Leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres uctensiles sont incrustes avec
beaucoup d'art de morceaux de nacre de perle.' Fages, in Nouvellcs Annales
desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 319. 'Mortars and pestles were made of granite,
about sixteen inches wide at the top, ten at the bottom, ten inches high and
two thick.' Soapstone pots were ' about an inch in thickness, and procured
from the Indians of Santa Catalina; the cover used was of the same material.'
Reid, in Los Angeles Star. On the eastern slopes of the San Bernardino
Mountains, blankets are made which will easily hold water. Taylor, in San
Francisco Bulletin, 1862, also quoted in Shuck's Cal. Scrap Book, p. 405. ' To-
das sus obras son primorosas y bien acabadas.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iv., torn, vi., p. 315.
lei Fayes, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., pp. 319-20.
162 ' The planks were bent and joined by the heat of fire, and then payed
with asphaltum, called by them chapapote.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 1,
1860.
163 At Santa Catalina Vizcaino saw ' vnas Canoguelas, que ellos vsan, de
Tablas bien hechas, como Barquillos, con las Popas, y Proas levantadas, y mas
altas. que el Cuerpo de la Barca, 6 Canoa.' Torquemdda, Monarq. Ind., torn, i.,
p. 712; see also Salmerony Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 18.
GOVEKNMENT AND PUNISHMENTS. 409
medium consisted of small round pieces of the white
mussel-shell. These were perforated and arranged on
strings, the value of which depended upon their length.164
I have said before that this money is supposed to have
been manufactured for the most part on Santa Rosa
Island. Hence it was distributed among the coast tribes,
who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the peo
ple of the interior.
Each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it
was to settle disputes.165 levy war, make peace, appoint
feasts, and give good advice. Beyond this he had little
power.166 He was assisted in his duties by a council of
elders. The office of chief was hereditary, and in the
absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest
of kin. She could marry whom she pleased, but her
husband obtained no authority through the alliance, all
the power remaining in his wife's hands until their eldest
boy attained his majority, when the latter at once as
sumed the command.
A murderer's life was taken by the relatives of his
victim, unless he should gain refuge in the temple, in
which case his punishment was left to their god. Yen-
On the coast of Los Angeles Father Crespi saw 'canoas hechas de buenas tablas
de pino, bien ligadas y de uua forma graeiosa con dos proas . . Usan renios
largos de dos palas y vogan con indecible lijeriza y velocidad.' Crespi, in
Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 315. At San Diego Palou describes
' balsas de tule, en forma de Canoas, con lo que eiitran nmy adeiitro del mar.'
Palou, Vida de Juni'pero Serra, p. 79; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL,
p. 240; Marinier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 228. Description of bal
sas, which differ in no respect from those used north.
1G4 < The worth of a rial was put on a string which passed twice and a-half
round the hand, i. e., from end of middle finger to wrist. Eight of these
strings passed for the value of a silver dollar.' CaL Farmer, June 1, 1860.
' Eight yards of these beads made about one dollar of our currency ' Id.,
Jan. 18, 1861.
165 'If a quarrel occurred between parties of distinct lodges (villages),
each chief heard the witnesses produced by his own people; and then, asso
ciated with the chief of the opposite side, they passed sentence. In case
they could not agree, an impartial chief was called in, who heard the state
ments made by both, and he alone decided. There was no appeal from his
decision.' Reid, in Los Angeles Star.
166 ' Pour tout ce qui 'concerne les affaires interieures, 1'influence des
dtfvins est bien superieure a la leur.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 3^3. At
San Diego ' Chaque village est soumis aux ordres absolus d'un chef." Fac/<s,
in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153; or see Marmier, Notice,
in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 226. ' I have found that the captains have very
little authority.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 194.
'410 CALIFORNIANS.
geance was, however, only deferred ; the children of the
murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or
later, upon the murderer or his descendants. When
a chief grew too old to govern he abdicated in favor
of his son, on which occasion a great feast was given.
When all the people had been called together by criers,
"the crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect,
and he was enrobed with the imperial vestments," as
Father Boscana has it; that is to say, he was dressed in
a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat
reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees,
and the rest of his body painted black. He then went
into the temple and performed a pas seul before the god
Chinigchinich. Here, in a short time, he was joined by
the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round
him, accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled
with small stones. When this ceremony was over he
was publicly acknowledged chief.
As I said before, the chief had little actual authority
over individuals; neither was the real power vested in
the heads of families; but a system of influencing the
people was adopted by the chief and the elders, which
is somewhat singular. Whenever an important step was
to be taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the
invasion of an enemy's territory, the sympathies of the
people were enlisted by means of criers, who were sent
round to proclaim aloud the crime and the criminal, or
to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the
hostile tribe ; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain
the desired object.167
The chief could have a plurality of wives, but the
common people were only allowed one.168 The form of
167 Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL, pp. 262-9.
168 Dr. Hoffman states that in the vicinity of San Diego 'their laws allow
them to keep as many wives as they can support.' San Francisco Medical
Press, vol. vi., p. 150. Fages, speaking of the Indians on the coast from
San Diego to San Francisco, says: ' Ces Indiens n'ont qu'une seule femme
a la fois, mais ils en changent aussi souvent que cela leur convient.' Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 153. Of those in the vicinity of San Luis
Bey the same author says : ' Les chefs de ce district ont le privilege de prendre
deux ou trois femmes, de les repudier ou de les changer aussi souvent qu'ils
MARRIAGE IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 411
contracting a marriage varied. In Los Angeles County,
according to Mr Reid, the matter was arranged by a
preliminary interchange of presents between the male
relatives of the bridegroom and the female relatives of
the bride. The former proceeded in a body to the dwell
ing of the girl, and distributed small sums in shell
money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected
there for the occasion. These afterward returned the
compliment by visiting the man and giving baskets of
meal to his people. A time was then fixed for the final
ceremony. On the appointed day the girl, decked in all
her finery, and accompanied by her family and relations,
was carried in the arms of one of her kinsfolk toward
the house of her lover; edible seeds and berries were
scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled
for by the spectators. The party was met half-way by
a deputation from the bridegroom, one of whom now
took the young woman in his arms and carried her to
the house of her husband, who waited expectantly.
She was then placed by his side, and the guests, after
scattering more seeds, left the couple alone. A great
feast followed, of which the most prominent feature was
a character-dance. The young men took part in this
dance in the rules of hunters and warriors, and were
assisted by the old women, who feigned to carry oil' game,
or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case might be.
The spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompani
ment.
According to another form of marriage the man either
asked the girl's parents for permission to marry their
daughter, or commissioned one of his friends to do so.
If the parents approved, their future son-in-law took up
his abode with them, on condition that he should provide
a certain quantity of food every day. This was done to
afford him an opportunity to judge of the domestic qual
ities of his future wife. If satisfied, he appointed a day
for the marriage, and the ceremony was conducted much
le veulent; mais les autres habitants n'en ont qu'une seule et ne peuvent les
repudier qu'en cas d'adultere.' Id., p. 173.
412 CALIFOBNIANS.
in the same manner as that last described, except that
he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in
front of his hut, and that she was disrobed before being
placed by his side.
Children were often betrothed in infancy, kept con
tinually in each other's society until they grew up, and
the contract wras scarcely ever broken. Many obtained
their wives by abduction, and this was the cause of
many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so
constantly engaged.
If a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her
away, after paying back the value of her wedding pres
ents, and then married her to another. Little difficulty
was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground ;
indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated when
ever they grew tired of each other. Adultery was se
verely punished. If a husband caught his wife in the
act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give her
up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter
to himself.
At the time of child-birth many singular observ
ances obtained ; for instance, the old women washed the
child as soon as it was born, and drank of the water;
the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of
urine medicinally, and although the husband did not
affect the sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed
in some manner to affect the unborn child, and he was
consequently laid under certain restrictions, such as not
being allowed to leave the house, or to eat fish and meat.
The women as usual suffer little from child-bearing.
One writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman
in the vicinity of San Diego: li A few hours before the
time arrives she gets up and quietly walks off alone, as
if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. In this
manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides
herself away in some secluded nook, near a stream or
hole of water. At the foot of a small tree, which she can
easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her ' lying-
in-couch/ on which she lies down as soon as the labor
CHILD-BIRTH. 413
pains come on. When the pain is on, she grasps the tree
with both hands, thrown up backward over her head, and
pulls and strains with all her might, thus assisting each
pain, until her accouchement is over. As soon as the
child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with
a bit of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp
scissors, prepared for the occasion, after which the end
is burned with a coal of fire ; the child is then thrown
into the water; if it rises to the surface and cries, it is
taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains,
and is not even awarded an Indian burial. The affair
being all over, she returns to her usual duties, just as if
nothing had happened, so matter of fact are they in such
matters." Purification at child-birth lasted for three
days, during which time the mother was allowed no
food, and no drink but warm water. The ceremony, in
which mother and child participated, was -as follows :i In
the centre of the hut a pit was filled with heated stones,
upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered
with earth, except a small aperture through which water
was introduced. The mother and child, wrapped in
blankets, stood over the pit and were soon in a violent
perspiration. When they became exhausted from the
effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon
the ground and were covered with earth, after which
they again took to the heated stones and steam. The
mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons, after
which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given
her. In some tribes she could hold no intercourse with
her husband until the child was weaned.
Children, until they arrived at the age of puberty,
remained under the control of their parents, afterward
they were subject only to the chief. Like the Spartan
youth, the}7 were taught that abstinence, and indifference
to hardship and privations, constitute the only true
manhood. To render them hardy much unnecessary
169 ' Les veufs des deux sexes, qui veulent se remarier, ne peuvent le faire
qu'avec d'autres veufs.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales dcs Voy., 1844, tcm. ci.,
p. 173; see also Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 23U/
414 CALIFORNIANS.
pain was inflicted. They were forbidden to approach
the fire to warm themselves, or to eat certain seeds and
berries which were considered luxuries.
A youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a
severe ordeal; his naked body was beaten with stinging
nettles until he was literally unable to move ; then he
was placed upon the nest of a species of virulent ant,
while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them
up with sticks. The infuriated ants swarmed over
every part of the sufferer's body, into his eyes, his ears,
his mouth, his nose, causing indescribable pain.
Boscana states that the young were instructed to love
truth, to do good, and to venerate old age.170 At an
early age they were placed under the protection of a
tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of
some animal. To discover the particular beast which
was to guide his future destinies, the child was intoxi
cated,171 and for three or four days kept without food of
any kind. During this period he was continually ha
rassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food,
crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that
the persecution would not cease until he yielded, he
confessed to seeing his divinity, and described what
kind of brute it was. The outline of the figure was
then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the
breast and arms of the novitiate. This was ignited and
allowed to burn until entirely consumed, and thus the
figure of the divinity remained indelibly delineated in
the flesh. Hunters, before starting on an expedition,
would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear
sighted. A girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was
laid upon a bed of branches placed over a hole, which
no « The perverse child, invariably, was destroyed, and the parents of such
remained dishonored.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL, p. 270. 'Ilsne
pensent pas. a dormer d'autre education a leurs enfants qu'a enseigner aux
tils exactement ce que faisait leur pere; quant aux filles, elles out le droit de
choisir 1'occupatioii qui leur convient le mieux.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1814, torn, ci., p. 153.
171 The intoxicating liquor was ' made from a plant called Pibat, which
"was reduced to a powder, and mixed with other intoxicating ingredients.'
Boscana, in liobinson's Life in CaL, p. 271.
AMUSEMENTS. 415
had been previously heated, where she was kept with
very little food for two or three days. Old women
chanted songs, and young women danced round her at
intervals during her purification. In the vicinity of
San Diego the girl is buried all but her head, and the
ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse
perspiration. This is continued for twenty-four . hours,
the patient being at intervals during this time taken out
and washed, and then reimbedded. A feast and dance
follow.172
When the missionaries first arrived in this region,
they found men dressed as women and performing
women's duties, who were kept for unnatural purposes.
From their youth up they were treated, instructed, and
used as females, and were even frequently publicly mar
ried to the chiefs or great men.173
Gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their princi
pal means of recreation. Their games of chance differed
little from those played farther north. That of guess
ing in which hand a piece of wood was held, before de
scribed, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of
four. Another game was played by two. Fifty small
pieces of wood, placed upright in a row in the ground,
at distances of two inches apart, formed the score. The
players were provided with a number of pieces of split
reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points
172 Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 215. For other descriptions of ceremony
observed at age of puberty, see: Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press,
vol. vi., pp. 150-1; McKinstry, in San. Francisco Herald, June, 1853.
173 ' Pero en la Mision de S. Antonio se pudo algo averiguar, pues avi-
sando a los Padres, que en uiia de las casas de los Neofitos se habiaii metido
dos Gentiles, el uno con el traje natural de ellos, y el otro con el trage de
muger, expresandolo con el nombre de Joya (que dicen llamarlos asi en su
lengua nativa) fue luego el P. Misionero con el Cabo y un Soldado a la casa
a ver lo que buscaban, y los hallaron en el acto de pecado iiefando. Casti-
garonlos. aunque no coii la pena inerecida, y afearonles el hecko tan enorme;
y respondi o el Gentil, que aqueila Joya era su muger. . . .Solo en el traino de
la Canal de Santa Barbara, se hallan muchos Joyas, pues raro es el Pueblo
donde no se vean dos 6 tres.' Palou, Vida de Juntpero Serra, p. 222. ' Asi en
esta ranchen'a como eii otros de la canal, hemos visto algunos gentiles con
traje de muger con sus nagiiitas de gamusa, y niuy engruesadasy limpias; no
hemos podido entender lo que sigm'fica, ni a que fin.' Crespi, in Doc. Hist.
3/oB., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 3.5. See also Boscana, in Robinson's Life in CaL,
pp. 283-4; Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 371; Torquemada, Monarq.Ind., torn,
ii., pp. 427; Pages, in Nouvellcs Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., p. 173.
416 CALIFOKNIANS.
down, on the ground, and the thrower counted one for
every piece that remained white side uppermost; if he
gained eight he was entitled to another throw. If the
pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted
also. Small pieces of wood placed against the upright
pegs, marked the game. They reckoned from opposite
ends of the row, and if one of the players threw just so
many as to make his score exactly meet that of his oppo
nent, the former had to commence again. Throwing
lances of reed through a rolling hoop was another source
of amusement. Professional singers were employed to
furnish music to a party of gamblers. An umpire was
engaged, whose duty it was to hold the stakes, count the
game, prevent cheating, and act as referee; he was also
expected to supply wood for the fire.
When they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling,
they were generally dancing; indeed, says Father Bosca-
na, " such was the delight with which they took part
in their festivities, that they often continued dancing day
and night, and sometimes entire weeks." They danced
at a birth, at a marriage, at a burial; they danced to
propitiate the divinity, and they thanked the divinity
for being propitiated by dancing. They decorated them
selves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with
divers colors. Sometimes head-dresses and petticoats
of feathers were worn, at other times they danced naked.
The women painted the upper part of their bodies brown.
They frequently danced at the same time as the men, but
seldom with them. Time was kept by singers, and the
rattling of turtle-shells filled with pebbles. They were
good actors, and some of their character-dances were well
executed; the step, however, like their chanting, was
monotonous and unvarying. Many of their dances were
extremely licentious, and were accompanied with ob
scenities too disgusting to bear recital. Most of them
were connected in some way with their superstitions and
religious rites.174
"« 'In some tribes the men and the women unite in the dance; in others
the men alone trip to the music of the women, whose songs are by no means
CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS. 417
These people never wandered far from their own terri
tory, and knew little or nothing of the nations lying be
yond their immediate neighbors. Mr Reid relates that
one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of his
own domain, returned with the report that he had seen
men whose ears descended to their hips; then he had
met with a race of Lilliputians ; and finally had reached
a people so subtly constituted that they " would take a
rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, in
hale the essence; throwing the rest away, which on ex
amination proved to be excrement."
They had a great number of traditions, legends, and
fables. Some of these give evidence of a powerful imagi
nation ; a few are pointed with a moral ; but the majority
are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and filled with
obscenities. It is said that, in some parts, the Southern
Californians are great snake-charmers, and that they
allow the reptiles to wind themselves about their bodies
and bite them, with impunity.
Feuds between families are nursed for generations;
the war is seldom more than one of words, however, un
less a murder is to be avenged, and consists of mutual
vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each other.
Friends salute by inquiries after each other's health. On
parting one says 1 1 am going,' the other answers ' go.'
They are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of
omens and auguries. An eclipse frightens them beyond
measure, and shooting stars cause them to fall down in
the dust and cover their heads in abject terror. Many
of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish
which he himself had procured, his luck would leave
unpleasant to the ear.' McKinstry, in 8. Francisco Herald, June 1853. 'In
their religious ceremonial dances they differ much. While, in some tribes,
all unite to celebrate them, in others, men alone are allowed to dance, while
the women assist in singing.' Schoolcrqft's Arch., vol. v., p. 214-15.
173 ' La danse est executee par deux couples au son d'une espece de flute,
les autres restent simples spectateurs et se contentent d'augmenter le bruit
en frappant des roseaux sees.' Pages, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn,
ci., p. 176; Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., pp. 289-95; Schooler aft's
Arch., vol. v., pp. 214-15; McKinstry, in 8. Francisco Herald, June 1853;
Reid, in Los Angeles Star; Crespi, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., torn, vi., p. 322.
VOL. I. 27
413 CALIFORNIANS.
him. For this reason they generally hunt or fish in
pairs, and when the day's sport is over, each takes what
the other has killed. Living as they do from hand to
mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their exis
tence, we cannot expect to find much glimmering of the
simpler arts or sciences among them.
Their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count
by lunar months, so that to complete their year they are
obliged to add several supplementary days. All these
months have symbolic names. Thus December and
January are called the month of cold ; February and
March, the rain; March and April, the first grass ; April
.and May, the rise of waters; May and June, the month
•of roots; June and July, of salmon fishing; July and
August, of heat ; August and September, of wild fruits ;
iSepternber and October, of bulbous roots; October and
November, of acorns and nuts; November and Decem
ber, of bear and other hunting.
Sorcerers are numerous,, and as unbounded confidence
is placed in their power to work both good and evil,
their influence is great. As astrologers and soothsayers,
they can tell by the appearance of the moon the most
propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast,
or attack an enemy. Sorcerers also serve as almanacs for
the people, as it is their duty to note by the aspect of
the moon the time of the decease of a chief or prominent
man, and to give notice of the anniversary when it comes
round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. They
•extort black-mail from individuals by threatening them
with evil. The charm which they use is a ball made of
mescal mixed with wild honey ; this is carried under the
left arm, in a small leather bag, — and the spell is effected
iby simply lay ing the right hand upon this bag Neither
•does their power end here; they hold intercourse with
supernatural beings, metamorphose themselves at will,
see into the future, and even con trol the elements. They
are potent to cure as well as to kill. For all complaints,
as usual, they ' put forth the charm of woven paces and
of waving hands/ and in some cases add other reme-
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 419
dies. For internal complaints they prescribe cold baths ;
wounds and sores are treated with lotions and poultices
of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and of a
kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds.
Other maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces
of wood, stone, or other hard substance, which by some
means have entered the flesh, and which they pretend to
extract by sucking the affected part. In a case of paraly
sis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles.
Blisters are raised by means of dry paste made from
nettle-stalks, placed on the bare flesh of the patient, set
on fire, and allowed to burn out. Cold water or an
emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes,
the sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with
a fire close to his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at
his head, and there left for nature to take its course,
while his friends and relatives sit round and howl him
into life or into eternity. Snake-bites are cured by an
internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom
of ants' nests, and an external application of herbs.176
The medicine-men fare better here than their northern
brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery of their
patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just
anger of their god, and consequently the physician is
not held responsible. To avert the displeasure of the
divinity, and to counteract the evil influence of the sor
cerers, regular dances of propitiation or deprecation are
held, in which the whole tribe join.177
The temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as else
where, which renders a description unnecessary.178 The
170 Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 380. ' When the new year begun, no
thought was given to the past; and on this account, even amongst the most
intelligent, they could not -tell the number of years which had transpired,
when desirous of giving an idea of any remote event.' Boscana, in Robinson's
Life in Cal, p. 303.
177 ' For Gonorrhoea they used a strong decoction of an herb that grows
very plentifully here, and is called by the Spanish " chancel agua," and wild
pigeon manure, rolled up into pills. The decoction is a very bitter astringent,
and may cure some sores, but that it fails in many, I have undeniable proof.
In syphilis they use the actual cautery, a living coal of fire applied to the
chaiicer, and a decoction of an herb, said to be something like sarsaparilla,
called rosia.' Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. v. p. 152-3.
178 I am indebted for the only information of value relating to the medi
cal usages of the southern California tribes, to Boscana' s MS., literally trans-
420 CALIFOKNIANS.
dead were either burned or buried. Father Boscana
says that no particular ceremonies were observed during
the burning of the corpse. The body was allowed to lie
untouched some days after death, in order to be certain
that no spark of life remained. It was then borne out
and laid upon the funeral pyre, which was ignited by a
person specially appointed for that purpose. Everything
belonging to the deceased was burned with him. When
all was over the mourners betook themselves to the out
skirts of the village, and there gave vent to their lamen
tation for the space of three days and nights. During
this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the
late death was related, and even the progress of the
disease which brought him to his grave minutely de
scribed in all its stages. As an emblem of grief the
hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation
to or affection for the deceased, but laceration was not
resorted to.180 Mr Taylor relates that the Santa Inez
Indians buried their dead in regular cemeteries. The
body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of
slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of
the dead person.181 According to Reid, the natives of Los
Angeles County waited until the body began to show
signs of decay and then bound it together in the shape of a
ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that purpose, with
offerings of seeds contributed by the family. At the first
news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gath
ered together, and mourned his departure with groans,
each having a groan peculiar to himself. The dirge was
presently changed to a song, in which all united, while
an accompaniment was whistled through a deer's leg-
bone. The dancing consisted merely in a monotonous
lated by Kobinson in his Life in Col., pp. 310-14, and also given in substance
in Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 378-9, and to Eeid's papers on the Indians of
Los Angeles County, in the Los Angeles Star, also quoted in Gal. Farmer, Jen, .
11, 1861.
179 See Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., pp. 377-8, and plate, p. 248, and Hof,'-
mann, in San' Francisco Medical Press, vol. v., p. 152.
iso « The same custom is now in use, but not only applied to deaths, but
to their disappointments and adversities in life, thus making public demon
stration of their sorrow.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal, pp. 314-15.
isi California Farmer, May 22, 1863.
DEATH AND BURIAL. 421
shuffling of the feet.182 Pedro Fages thus describes a
burial ceremony at the place named by him Sitio de los
Pedernales.183 Immediately after an Indian has breathed
his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the
idol which stands in the village, there it is watched by
persons who pass the night round a large fire built for
the purpose; the following morning all the inhabitants
of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony
commences. At the head of the procession marches one
smoking gravely from a large stone pipe; followed by
three others, he three times walks round the idol and
the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is passed
the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows
three puffs of smoke upon the body. When the feet are
reached, a kind of prayer is chanted in chorus, and the
parents and relatives of the defunct advance in succes
sion and offer to the priest a string of threaded seeds,
about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud cries
and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their
shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment.
Care is taken to place near the body articles which have
been manufactured by the deceased during his life-time.
A spear or javelin, painted in various vivid colors, is
planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating the
occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the de
ceased be a woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture
are hung on the javelin.184
Death they believed to be a real though invisible be
ing, who gratified his own anger and malice by slowly
taking away the breath of his victim until finally life
was extinguished. The future abode of good spirits re
sembled the Scandinavian Yalhalla; there, in the dwell
ing-place of their god, they would live for ever and ever,
eating, and drinking, and dancing, and having wives in
abundance. As their ideas of reward in the next world
were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of
182 Reid, in Los Angeles Star.
H The latitude of which he fixes at 34° 33'.
184 Fages, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1844, torn, ci., pp. 173-^4. Quoted
almost literally by Marmier, Notice, in Bryant, Voy. en CaL, p. 230.
422 CALIFOKNIANS.
punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken
limbs or bereavement by death, were attributed to the
direct vengeance of their god, for crimes which they
had committed.185
Though good-natured and inordinately fond of amuse
ment, they are treacherous and unreliable. Under a
grave and composed exterior they conceal their thoughts
and character so well as to defy interpretation. And
this is why we find men, who have lived among them
for years, unable to foretell their probable action under
any given circumstances.
THE SHOSHONE FAMILY, which forms the fourth and
last division of the Californian group, may be said to
consist of two great nations, the Snakes, or Shoshones
proper, and the Utahs. The former inhabit south-east
ern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and the northern
portions of Utah and Nevada, are subdivided into
several small tribes, and include the more considerable
nation of the Bannacks. The Utahs occupy nearly the
whole of Utah and Nevada, and extend into Arizona
and California, on each side of the Colorado. Among
the many tribes into which the Utahs are divided may
be mentioned the Utahs proper, whose territory covers
a great part of Utah and eastern Nevada ; the Washoes
along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, between
Honey Lake and the west fork of Walker River; the
Pah Utes, or, as they are sometimes called, Piutes, in
western and central Nevada, stretching into Arizona
and south-eastern California ; the Pah Vants in the vicin
ity of Sevier Lake, the Pi Edes south of them, and the
.Gosh Uies, a mixed tribe of Snakes and Utahs, dwelling
in the vicinity of Gosh Ute Lake and Mountains.
The Shoshones186 are below the medium stature; the
*85 Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal, p, 317.
186 In spelling the word Shoshone, I have followed the most common
orthography. Many, however, write it Shoshonee, others, Shoshonie, either
of which would perhaps give a better idea of the pronunciation of the word,
as the accent falls on the final e. The word means ' Snake Indian,' accord
ing to Stuart, Montana, p. 80; and 'inland,' according to Ross, Fur Hunters,
THE SHOSHONE FAMILY. 423
Utahs, though more powerfully built than the Snakes,
are coarser-featured and less agile. All are of a dark
bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as usual,
beardless. The women are clumsily made, although
some of them have good hands and feet.187
On the barren plains of Nevada, where there is no
large game, the rabbit furnishes nearly the only clothing.
The skins are sewn together in the form of a cloak, which
is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the body with
vol. i., p. 249. I apply the name Shoshones to the whole of this family; the
Shoshones proper, including the Bannacks, I call the Snakes; the remaining
tribes I iiame collectively Utahs.
W See Ross' Far Hunters, vol. i., p. 249; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp.
228-9; Renty and Brenchly's Journey, vol. i., p. 124; Chandless' Visit, p. 118;
Farnham's Life in Cat., p. 377; Carvalho's Jncid. of Trav., p. 200; Graves,
in Ind. Aff. 'Rept., 1854, p. 178; Beckicith, in Pac. R R. Rept., vol. ii.,
p. 42; Farley's Sanitary Rept., in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p.
154; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 88; Hespe
rian Magazine, vol. x., p. 255; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 197; Prince,
quoted in Col. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Townsend's Nar., pp. 125, 133; Bryant,
Voy. en Cal., pp. 152, 194; Coke's Roc Icy Mountains, p. 276; Fremont's Ex
plor. Ex.. pp. 148, 267; Leicis and Clarke's Trav., p. 312; Figuier's Human
Race, p. 484; Burton's City of the Saints, p. 585. Mention is made by Sal-
meron of a people living south of Utah Lake, who were ' blancas, y rosadas
las mejillas como los franceses.' Doc. Hist. Mex , serie iii., torn, iv., p. 101.
Escalante, speaking of Indians seen in the same region, lat. 39^ 34' 37", says:
' Eraii estos de los barbones, y narices agnjeradas, y en su idioma se nom-
bran Tirangapui, Tian los ciuco, que con su capitaii venieron primero, tan
crecida la barbs, que parecian padres capuchinos o belemitas.' Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 476. Wilkes writes. 'Southwest of the Youta
Lake live a tribe who are known by the name of the Monkey Indians; a
term which is not a mark of contempt, but is supposed to be a corruption of
their name. . . .They are reported to live in fastnesses among high mountains;
to have good clothing and houses; to manufacture blankets, shoes, and vari
ous other articles, which they sell to the neighboring tribes. Their colour is
as light as that of the Spaniards; and the women in particular are very beau
tiful, with delicate features, and long flowing hair. . . .Some have attempted
to connect these with an account of an ancient Welsh colony, which others
had thought they discovered among the Mandans of the Missouri; while
others were disposed to believe they might still exist in the Monkeys of the
Western Mountains. There is another account which speaks of the Monquoi
Indians, who formerly inhabited Lower California, and were partially civil
ized by the Spanish missionaries, but wrho have left that country, and of
whom all traces have long since been lost.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex.,
vol. iv., pp. 502-3. 'On the southern boundary of Utah exists a peculiar
race, of whom little is known. They are said to be fair-skinned, and are
called the "White Indians;" have blue eyes and straight hair, and speak a
kind of Spanish language differing from other tribes.' San Francisco Evening
Bulletin, May 15, 1863. Taylor has a note on the subject, in which he says
that these fair Indians were doubtless the Moquis of Western New Mexico.
Cal. Farmer, «7une26, 1863. Although it is evident that this mysterious and
probably mythic people belong in no way to the Shoshone family, yet as
they are mentioned by several writers as dwelling in a region which is sur
rounded on all sides by Shoshones, I have given this note, wherefrom the
reader can draw his own conclusions.
4:24 CALIFORNIANS.
thongs of the same. In warm weather, or when they
cannot obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children
are, for the most part, in a state of nudity. The hair
is generally allowed to grow long, and to flow loosely
over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the
forehead, and among the Utahs of New Mexico it is
plaited into two long queues by the men, and worn short
by the women. Ornaments are rare; I find mention in
two instances188 of a nose-ornament, worn by the Pah
Utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several
inches in length, thrust through the septum of the nose.
Tattooing is not practiced but paint of all colors is used
unsparingly.189
The Snakes are better dressed than the Utahs, their
clothing being made from the skins of larger game, and
ornamented with beads, shells, fringes, feathers, and,
since their acquaintance with the wrhites, with pieces of
brilliant-colored cloth. A common costume is a shirt,
leggins, and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is
thrown, in cold wreather, a heavy robe, generally of buf
falo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer, elk. or beaver.
The dress of the women differs but little from that of the
men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is
longer.190
188 Beckwith, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. ii., p. 42; Heap's Cent. Eoute, p. 102.
189 Speaking of women: 'their breasts and stomachs were covered with
red mastic, made from an earth peculiar to these rocks, which rendered them
hideous. Their only covering was a pair of drawers of hare-skin, badly sewn
together, and in holes.' Eenty and Brenchley's Journ., vol. ii., p. 386; see also
vol. i., p. 127, and vol. ii., pp. 389, 404, 407. ' The women often dress in skirts
made of entrails, dressed and sewed together in a substantial way.' Prince,
in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. Hareskins 'they cut into cords with the fur
adhering; and braid them together so as to form a sort of cloak with a hole
in the middle, through which they thrust their heads.' Farnham's Life and
Adven., p. 376. The remaining authorities describe them as naked, or
slightly and miserably dressed; see Stansbury's Rept., pp. 8:2, 202-3; Chand-
less' Visit, p. 291; Heap's Cent. Eoute, p. 100; Irving' s Bonneville's Adven., p.
255; Bryant's CoL, p. 194; Forney, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 365; Dodge,
Tt or* A r~ TT- j_ •„ TJI -i o/*rk „ ir»r\o . /~r .. ._ T,7 -iocr^ iTO. /».,.,.
Golden Gate, p. 251; Scenes in the Eocky Mts., p. 197; Brownell's Ind. Eaces
p. 539; Dunn's Oregon, p. 331.
wo Townsend's Nar., pp. 125, 133; De Smet, Voy., p. 25; Dunn's Oregon, p.
325; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 228-30, 308-9; Eoss' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp.
249-50, 257-8, vol. ii., pp. 22-3; Chandless' Visit, p. 118; Carvalho's Incid. of
DKESS OF THE SNAKES. 425
The dress of the Snakes seen by captains Lewis and
Clarke was richer than is usually worn by them now ; it
was composed of a robe, short cloak, shirt, long leggins.
and moccasins.
The robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with
th3 hair on; the collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from
the back of the otter, the head being at one end and the
tail at the other. From this collar were suspended from
one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins,191 or
rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the
head and tail ; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of
twisted silk-grass, which tapered in thickness toward the
tail. The seams were concealed with a fringe of ermine-
skin ; little tassels of white fur were also attached to each
tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. The collar
was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster;
the shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of
deer, was loose and reached half-way down the thigh;
the sleeves were open on the under side as low as the
elbow, — the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow
to the wrist, — and they fitted close to the arm. The col
lar was square, and cut into fringe, or adorned with the
tails of the animals which furnished the hide ; the shirt
was garnished with fringes and stained porcupine-quills ;
the leggins were made each from nearly an entire ante
lope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part
of the thigh. The hind legs of the skin were \vorn upper
most, and tucked into the girdle ; the neck, highly orna
mented with fringes and quills, trailed on the ground
behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were
fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen ene
mies were frequently used.
The moccasins were also of dressed hide, without
the hair, except in wdnter, when buffalo-hide, with the
hair inside, answered the purpose. They were made
with a single seam on the outside edge, and were
Trav., p. 200; White's Ogn., p. 377; Lord's Nat., vol. i., p. 298; Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 244, 281.
191 ' The ermine is the fur known to the north-west traders by the name of
the white weasel, but is the genuine ermine.' Lewis and Clarice's Trav., p. 313.
426 , CALIFOKNIANS.
embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered
with the skin of a polecat, the tail of which dragged be
hind on the ground. Ear-ornaments of beads, neck
laces of shells, twisted -grass, elk-tushes, round bones,
like joints of a fish's back-bone, and the claws of the
brown bear, were all worn. Eagles' feathers stuck in
the hair, or a strip of otter-skin tied round the head,
seem to have been the only head-dresses in use.192 This,
or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy
and prosperous tribes. Like the Utahs, the Snakes paint
extensively, especially when intent upon war.193
The Snakes also build better dwellings than the Utahs.
Long poles are leaned against each other in a circle, and
are then covered with skins, thus forming a conical tent.
A hole in the top, which can be closed in bad weather,
serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three
or four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside
a piece of hide stretched on a stick, which hangs over
the aperture as a door. These skin tents, as is necessary
to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched with very
little labor. When being moved from one place to an
other, the skins are folded and packed on the ponies,
and the poles are hitched to each side of the animal by
one end, while the other drags. The habitations of the
people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are very
primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which
they crawl, or even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi
circular in shape, roofless, arid three or four feet high,
which serves only to break the force of the wind. Some
of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves
and among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles
in the ground. Farnham gives us a very doleful picture
of their condition; he says: " When the lizard, and snail,
and wild roots are buried in the snows of winter, they
192 Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 312-15.
193 < On y rencontre aussi des terres metalliques de differentes couleurs,
telles que vertes, bleues, jaunes, noires, blanches, et deux sortes d'ocres,
1'une pale, 1'autre d'un rouge brillant comme du vermillion. Les Indiens
en font tres-grand cas; ils s'en servent pour se peindre le corps et le visage.'
Stuart, in .Nouvellcs Annales desVoy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 83.
DWELLINGS AND FOOD OF THE SHOSHONES. 427
are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in
the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills,
and, having heated them to a certain degree, deposit
themselves in them, and sleep and fast till the weather
permits them to go abroad again for food. Persons who
have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have
found the ground around these family ovens strewn with
the unburied bodies of the dead, and others crawling
among them, who had various degrees of strength, from
a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that crawled
upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle."194
Naturally pusilanimous, weak in development, sunk be
low the common baser passions of the savage, more im
provident than birds, more beastly than beasts, it may
be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but
I confess my inability to do so.
Pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice,
and occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer
Shoshone tribes. Those living in the vicinity of streams
or lakes depend more or less for their subsistence upon
fish. The Snakes of Idaho and Oregon, and the tribes
occupying the more fertile parts of Utah, having abun
dance of fish and game, live well the year round, but
the miserable root-eating people, partly owing to their
inherent improvidence, partly to the scantiness of their
194 < They remain in a semi-dormant, inactive state the entire winter, leav
ing their lowly retreats only now and then, at the urgent calls of nature, or
to warm their burrows .... In the spring they creep from their holes .... poor
and emaciated, with barely flesh enough to hide their bones, and so ener
vated from hard fare and frequent abstinence, that they can scarcely move.'
Scenes in Rocky Mts., p. 179. Stansbury mentions lodges in Utah, east of
of Salt Lake, which were constructed of ' cedar poles and logs of a consid
erable size, thatched with bark and branches, and were quite warm and com
fortable.' Stansbury's Kept., p. Ill; Stevens, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. i., p.
334; Irviny's Bonneville's Adven., p. 255; Remy and Brenchley'sJourn., vol. i.,
pp. 80-1, 129, vol. ii., pp. 362, 373; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iii., torn, iv., p. 101; Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. iii., p.
154; Farnham's Life in Cal., p. 378; Broicnell's Ind. Races, p. 538; Heap's
Cent. Route, pp. 98-9; De Smet, Voy., p. 28; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 247,
vol. ii., pp. 256-7; Coke's Rocky Mountains, p. 257; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol.
ii., p. 117; White's Ogn., p. 376; Irvine's Astoria, pp. 257, 290; Lewis and
Clarke's Trav., p. 305; Fremont's Explor. Ex., 1842-3, pp. 142, 212, 218;
Townsend's Nar., p. 136; Dunn's Oregon, pp. 325, 331-2, 337-8; Bullfinch's
Oregon, p. J79; Farnham's Trav., pp. 58, 61-2; Simpson's Route to Cal., p.
51;' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 573; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.
428 CALIFORNIANS.
food-supply, never store sufficient provision for the win
ter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they
are invariably reduced to extreme destitution. To avoid
starvation they will eat dead bodies, and even kill their
children for food.194 A rat or a rabbit is prepared for eat
ing by singeing the hair, pressing the oftal from the en
trails and cooking body and intestines together. Lizards,
snakes, "grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish
containing hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted ;
they are then eaten dry or used to thicken soup. Grass
hoppers, seeds, and roots, are also gathered and cooked in
the same manner as by the nations already described.
The Gosh Utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine,
about three feet wide and of considerable length. A
fence of sage-brush is erected across the rabbit-paths, and
on this the net is hung. The rabbits in running quickly
along the trail become entangled in the meshes and are
taken before they can escape. Lizards are dragged from
their holes by means of a hooked stick. To catch ants
a piece of fresh hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill ;
this is soon covered by vast swarms of the insects, which
are then brushed off into a bag and kept there until dead,
when they are dried for future use. Among the hunt
ing tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a
circle of horsemen and beaten to death with clubs. They
are also stalked after the fashion of the Californians pro
per, the hunter placing the head and horns of an ante
lope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised ap
proaching within shooting distance.
Fish are killed with spears having movable heads,
which become detatched when the game is struck, and
are also taken in nets made of rushes or twigs. In the
latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed
by a, bar, the net is then floated down the stream and
on reaching the bar both ends are drawn together. The
fish thus enclosed are taken from the circle by hand,
and the Shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head in
is* Coke's Rocky Mts., p. 275; De Smet, Voy., p. 29; Dennison, in Ind. Aff.
liept., 1854, p. 375; Saint- Amant, Voyages, p. 325.
NATIVE FISH-WEIR. 429
his mouth and kills it with his teeth. Captain Clarke
describes an ingeniously constructed weir on Snake River,
where it was divided into four channels by three small
islands. Three of these channels were narrow "and
stopped by means of trees which were stretched across,
and supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to pre
vent the passage of the fish. About the centre of each
was placed a basket formed of willows, eighteen or twenty
feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and terminating in
a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated
with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the
weir. The main channel of the water was then con
ducted to this weir, and as the fish entered it they were
so entangled with each other, that they could not move,
and were taken out by emptying the small end of the
willow basket. The weir in the main channel was
formed in a manner somewhat different ; there were, in
fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks
quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely
with an aperture in each side of the angle. This is
made by tying a number of poles together at the top, in
parcels of three, which were then set up in a triangular
form at the base, two of the poles being in the range de
sired for the weir, and the third down the stream. To
these poles two ranges of other poles are next lashed
horizontally, with willow bark and withes, and willow
sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form a
kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the
height of three or four feet above the surface of the
water. This is so thick as to prevent the fish from pass
ing, and even in some parts with the help of a little
gravel and some stone enables them to give any direc
tion which they wish to the water. These two weirs
being placed near to each other, one for the purpose of
catching the fish as they ascend, the other as they go
down the river, are provided with two baskets made in
the form already described, and which are placed at the
apertures of the weir."
For present consumption the fish are boiled in water-
430 CALIFOKNIANS.
tight baskets by means of red-hot stones, or are broiled
on the embers ; sometimes the bones are removed before
the fish is cooked ; great quantities are also dried for
winter. Some few of the Utahs cultivate a little maize,
vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at
agriculture are not general. The Snakes sometimes
accompany the more northern tribes into the country of
the Blackfeet, for the purpose of killing buffalo.195
In their persons, dwellings and habits, the Utahs are
filthy beyond description. Their bodies swarm with
195 < They eat the seed of two species of Conifers, one about the size of a
hazel-nut, the other much smaller. They also eat a small stone-fruit, some
what red, or black in colour, and rather insipid; different berries, among
others, those of Vaccinium. They collect the seed of the Atriplex and Cheno-
podium, and occasionally some grasses. Among roots, they highly value
that of a bushy, yellowish and tolerably large broomrape, which they cook
or dry with the base, or root-stock, which is enlarged, and constitutes the
most nutritious part. They also gather the napiform root of a Cirsium acaule,
which they eat raw or cooked ; when cooked, it becomes quite black, resinous
as pitch and rather succulent; when raw, it is whitish, soft, and of a pleasant
flavour. ' Rerny and Brenchley's Journey, vol. i. , p. 129. The Shoshones of Utah,
and Nevada ' eat certain roots, which in their native state are rank poison,
called Tobacco root, but when put in a hole in the ground, and a large fire
burned over them, become wholesome diet.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p.
G97. ' Of the roots used. . . .the pap-pa, or wild potatoe, is abundant.' Id.,
vol. iv., p. 222; see also, Id., vol. v., pp. 199-20U. At Bear River, 'every
living animal, thing, insect, or worm they eat.' Fremont's Explor. Exp.,
p. 142, see also pp. 148, 160, 173-4, 212, 218-19, 267, 273. Inland savages are
passionately fond of salt; those living near the sea detest it. Stuart, in Nou-
vellcs Annales des Voy., 1821, torn, xii., p. 85. The Utahs eat 'the cactus
leaf, piiion-nut, and various barks; the seed of the bunch-grass, and of the
wheat, or yellow grass, somewhat resembling rye, the rabbit-bush twigs,
which are chewed, and various roots and tubers; the soft sego bulb, the root
let of the cat-tail flag, and of the tule, which when sun-dried and powdered
to flour, keeps through the winter and is palatable even to white men.' Bur
ton's City of the Saints, p. 581, see also pp. 573, 577. The Pi-Edes • live
principally on lizards, swifts, and horned toads.' Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p.
145; see also Id., 1854, p. 229; 1856, p. 234; 1861, p. 112; 1859, p. 365; 1866,
pp. 114, 1869; pp. 203, 216; 1870, pp. 95, 114; 1872, p. 59. The Snakes eat a
white-fleshed kind of beaver, which lives on poisonous roots, whose flesh
affects white people badly, though the Indians roast and eat it with impunity.
Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 117, see also vol. i., p. 269-72; Broicnell's Ind.
Races, p. 539; Farnham's Life and Adven., pp. 371. 376-8; Irving' s Bonne-
viUe's Adven., pp. 255, 257, 4*01-2; Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol.v., p.
501; Hale's Etfmog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Bryant's Cal, p. 202;
vol. i., pp. 242, 270, vol. ii., pp. 19, 60, 61, 64, 244, 311; Hutching*' Cal. Mag.,
vol. ii., p. 531; Simpson's Route to Pac., pp. 51-2; Lewis and Clarke's Trav.t
pp. 270, 288-9, 298-9; Bigkr's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.
WEAPONS OF THE SHOSHONES. 431'
vermin which they catch and eat with relish. Some of
the Snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but, gene
rally speaking, the whole Shoshone family is a remark
ably dirty one.196
The bow and arrow are universally used by the Sho-
shones, excepting only some of the most degraded root-
eaters, who are said to have no weapon, offensive or de
fensive, save the club. The bow is made of cedar, pine,
or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner
already described, or, more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn.
The string is of sinew. The length of the bow varies.
According to Farnharn, that used by the Pi Utes is six
feet long, while that of the Shoshones seen by Lewis and
Clark was only two and a half feet in length. The ar
rows are from two to four feet, and are pointed with
obsidian, flint, or, among the lowrer tribes, by merely
hardening the tip with lire. Thirty or forty are usually
carried in a skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for
immediate use. Lances, which are used in some locali
ties, are pointed in the same manner as the arrows when
no iron can be procured. The Snakes have a kind of
mace or club, which they call a poygamoyyon. It con
sists of a heavy stone, sometimes wrapped in leather, at
tached by a sinew thong about two inches in length, to
the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring
nearly two feet. A loop fastened to the end held in the
hand prevents the warrior from losing the weapon in the
fight, and allows him to hold the club in readiness while
he uses the bow and arrow.197 They also have a circular
196 The Wararereeks are ' dirty in their camps, in their dress, and in their
persons.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250. The persons of the Piutes are
' more disgusting than those of the Hottentots. Their heads are white with
the germs of crawling filth.' Farnham's Trav., p. 58. ' A filthy tribe — the
prey of idleness and vermin.' Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 325. Bry
ant says, of the Utahs between Salt Lake and Ogden's Hole, 'I noticed
the females hunting for the vermin in the heads and on the bodies of their
children; finding which they ate the animals with an apparent relish.' Bry-
Snakes are rather cleanly in their persons.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 61.
197 ' A. weapon called by the Chippeways, by whom it was formerly used,
the poggamoggon.' Lewis and Clarice's Trav.. p. 309. Bulfinch, Oregon, p.
126, says the stone weighs about two pounds. Salmeron also mentions a
432 CALIFOBNIAN3.
shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is
considered a very important part of a warrior's equip
ment, not so much from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as
from the peculiar virtues supposed to be given it by the
medicine-men. The manufacture of a shield is a season
of great rejoicing. It must be made from the entire
fresh hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process
is as follows. A hole is dug in the ground and filled
with red-hot stones; upon these water is poured until a
thick steam arises. The hide is then stretched, by as
many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair
can be removed with the hands and it shrinks to the
required size. It is then placed upon a prepared hide,
and pounded by the bare feet of all present, until
the ceremony is concluded. When the shield is com
pleted, it is supposed to render the bearer invulner
able. Lewis and Clarke also make mention of a
species of defensive armor a something like a coat of
mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed
antelope skins, united by means of a mixture of glue and
sand. With this they cover their own bodies and those
of their horses, and find it impervious to the arrow."
I find mention in one instance only, of a shield being
used by the Utahs. In that case it was small, circular,
and worn suspended from the neck. The fishing spear
I have already described as being a long pole with an
elk-horn point. When a fish is struck the shaft is
loosened from its socket in the head, but remains con
nected with the latter by a cord.198 Arrows are occasion-
similar weapon used by the people living south of Utah Lake; concerning
whom see note 187, p. 423.
198 The Utahs ' no usan mas armas que las flechas y algunas lanzas de per-
dernal, ni tienen otro peto, morrion ni espaldar que el que sacaron del vie litre
de susmadres.' Escalante, quoted in Salmeron, EelacAones, in Doc. Hisi. Mts.,
ser. iii., part iv., p. 126. ' Bows made of the horns of the bighorn. . . are
formed by cementing with glue flat pieces of the horn together, covering the
back with sinewes and glue, and loading the whole with an unusual quantity
of ornaments.' Lewis and Clark's Trav., p. 309. At Ogden River, in Utah,
they work obsidian splinters ' into the most beautiful and deadly points,
with which they arm the end of their arrows.' Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol.
>., p. 343. 'Pour toute arrne, un arc, des fleches et un baton pointu.' De
Smet, Voy., p. 28. 'Bows and arrows are their (Banattees) only weapons of
defence.'' Ross1 Fur Hunters, vol. i., p, 251, The arrows of the Pa-Utes ' are
MANNER OF MAKING WAK. 433
ally poisoned by plunging them into a liver which has
been previously bitten by a rattlesnake.199
The tribes that possess horses always fight mounted ,
and manage their animals with considerable address.
In war they place their reliance upon strategy and sur
prise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy's
approach. Prisoners of war are killed writh great tortures,
especially female captives, \vho are given over to the
women of the victorious tribe and by them done to death
most cruelly; it is said, however, that male prisoners
who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in
battle, are frequently dismissed unhurt. Scalps are taken,
and sometimes portions of the flesh of a brave fallen
enemy are eaten that the eater may become endued with
the valor of the slain. He who takes the most scalps
gains the most glory. Whether the warriors who fur
nished the trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator
or not, is immaterial ; he has but to show the spoils and
his fame is established. The Snakes are said to be pe
culiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. When on foot,
they will crouch down in the long grass and remain
motionless while the pursuer passes within a few feet
of them, or when caught sight of they wall double
and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. The
custom of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke,
common to so many of the North American aborigines,.
barbed with a very clear translucent stone, a species of opal, nearly as.
hard as the diamond; and, shot from their long bow, are almost as effective
as a gunshot.' Fremont's Expl. Ex., p. 267. The Pi-Utes and Pitches
' have no weapon of defence except the club, and in the use of that they are
very unskilful.' Farnharn's Trav., p. 58. Southwest of Great Salt Lake,,
'their arms are clubs, with small bows and arrows made of reeds/ Scenes in
the Rocky Mts., p. 180. The Pi-Utes ' make some weapons of defence, as bows
and arrows. The bows are about six feet long; made of the savine (Juniperus .
sabina).' Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 378; see farther, Remy and Brench-
leys Journ., vol. ii., pp. 291, 261; Stansbury's Kept., p. 232; Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. v., p. 198; Heap's Cent, Route, pp. 56, 72, 77, 84, 99; Palmer's Jour.
p. 134; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 129; Irving's Bonneville's Adven., pp. 146, 255,
400; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219; Parker's Explor. Tour.,
pp. 228-9, 233; Irving's Astoria, p. 279; Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy ,
1822, torn, xiii., p. 50; Bigler's Early Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.; Knight's.
Pioneer Life, MS.
199 Remy and Brenchley's Jour., vol. ii., p. 407; Heap's Cent. Route, p.
99; Thornton's Ogn. and Cal., vol. i., p. 171.
VOL. I. 28
434 CALIFORNIANS.
is observed by the Shoshones.200 The pipe, the bowl of
which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with
various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly
passed from mouth to mouth, each smoker blowing the
smoke in certain directions and muttering vows at the
same time.
The only tools used before iron and steel were intro
duced by the whites were of flint, bone, or horn. The
flint knife had no regular form, and had a sharp edge
.about three or four inches long, which was renewed when
it became dull. Elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges,
were used to fell trees. They made water-proof baskets
•of plaited grass, and others of wicker-work covered with
hide. The Snakes and some of the Utahs were versed
in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from
baked clay. These were not merely open dishes, but
•often took the form of jars with narrow necks, having
stoppers.201
200 ' Taking an enemy's scalp is an honour quite independent of the act of
vanquishing him. To kill your adversary is of no importance unless the
rscalp is brought from the field of battle, and were a warrior to slay any
number of his enemies in action, and others were to obtain the scalps or
first touch the dead, they would have all the honours, since they have borne
• off the trophy.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 309; see also p. 265. The Utahs
' will devour the heart of a brave man to increase their courage, or chop it
up, boil it in soup, engorge a ladleful, and boast they have drunk the ene
my's blood.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 581; see also p. 140. The Utahs
never carry arrows when they intend to fight on horseback. Heap's Cent.
Route, p. 77; see also p. 100; Remy and Brenchley's Joum., pp. 97, 99; Stans-
fury's Rept., p. 81; De Srnet, Voy,, pp. 28-9; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p.
'275, vol. ii., pp. 93-6; Bulfinch's Oregon, p. 129; Farnham's Trav., p. 36.
201 The pipe of the chief ' was made of a dense transparent green stone,
very highly polished, about two and a half inches long, and of an oval figure,
the bowl being in the same situation with the stem. A small piece of burnt
• clay is placed in the bottom of the bowl to separate the tobacco from the end
of the stem.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 267. Pots made of 'a stone found
:in the hills. . . .which, though soft and white in its natural state, becomes
very hard and black after exposure to the fire.' Id., p. 312. 'These vessels,
.although rude and without gloss, are nevertheless strong, and reflect much
credit on Indian ingenuity.' Ross' Far Hunters, vol. i., p. 274. Pipe-stems
' resemble a walking-stick more than anything else, and they are generally
of ash, and from two-and-a-half to three feet long.' Id., vol. ii., p. 109.
4 Cooking vessels very much resembling reversed bee-hives, made of basket
work covered with buffalo skins.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 244. Stans-
bury discovered pieces of broken Indian pottery and obsidian about Salt
Lake. Stansbury's Rept., p. 182. The material of baskets ' was mostly willow
twig, with a layer of gum, probably from the pine tree.' Burton's City of the
Saints, p. 573. The Utahs 'manufacture very beautiful and serviceable
blankets.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 200. 'Considering that they have
nothing but stone hammers and flint knives it is truly wonderful to see the
LAWS AND GOVERNMENT. 435
Boats, as a rule, the Shoshones have none. They
usually cross rivers by fording; otherwise they swim, or
pass over on a clumsy and dangerous raft made of
branches and rushes.202 By way of compensation they
all, except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute
their wealth. They have no regular currency, but use
for purposes of barter their stock of dried fish, their
horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess.
They are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke
must invariably precede a bargain.203 Although each
tribe has an ostensible chief, his power is limited to giv
ing advice, and although his opinion may influence the
tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes.
Every man does as he likes. Private revenge, of course,
occasionally overtakes the murderer, or, if the sympa
thies of the tribe be with the murdered man, he may
possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed
laws for such cases. Chieftainship is hereditary in some
tribes ; in others it is derived from prestige.204
The Utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and chil-
exquisite finish and neatness of their implements of war and hunting, as
well as their ear-rings and waist-bands, made of an amalgam of silver and
lead.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. 'Les Indiens en font des jarres,
des pots, des plats de diverses formes. Ces vaisseaux communiquent line
odeur et une saveur tres-agreables a tout ce qu'ils renferment; ce qui pro-
vient sans doute de la dissolution de quelque substance, bitumineuse contenue
dans 1'argile.' Stuart, in Nouvelles Annaiesdes Voy., 1821. torn, xii., p. 83. ' The
pipes of these Indians are either made of wood or of red earth; sometimes
these earthen pipes are exceedingly valuable, and Indians have been known
to give a horse in exchange for one of them.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ.,
vol. i., p. a 30; Parker's Explor. Tour, pp. 128-32, 228-9, 234.
202 Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 274.
203 Among the Snakes in Idaho garments of four to five beaver-skins were
sold for a knife or an awl, and other articles of fur in proportion. Horses
were purchased for an axe each. A ship of seventy-four guns might have
been loaded with provision, such as dried buffalo, bought with buttons and
rings. Articles of real value they thus disposed of cheaply, while articles
of comparatively no value, such as Indian head-dress and other curiosities,
were held high. A beaver-skin could thus be had for a brass-ring, while a
necklace of bears' claws could not be purchased for a dozen of the same
rings. Axes, knives, ammunition, beads, buttons and rings, were most in
demand. Clothing was of no value: a knife sold for as much as a blanket;
and an ounce of vermilion was of more value than a yard of fine cloth. Ross'
Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 257-9. See further, Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 316;
Townsend's Nar., pp. 133, 138; Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Farn-
ham's Trav., p. 61.
204 « They inflict no penalties for minor offences, except loss of character
and disfellowship.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Lewis and Clarke's
Trav., pp. 306-7; Eemy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 128.
436 CALIFOENIANS.
dren into slavery for a few trinkets. Great numbers of
these unfortunates are sold to the Navajos for blankets.
An act which passed the legislature of Utah in 1852,
legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial
slavery has been a customary traffic among the Indians;
that it was a common practice among them to gamble
away their wives and children into slavery, to sell them
into slavery to other nations, and that slaves thus ob
tained were most barbarously treated by their masters;
that they were packed from place to place on mules;
that these unfortunate humans were staked out to grass
and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated and swollen
from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen,
starved, and killed by their inhuman owners ; that fam
ilies and tribes living at peace would steal each other's
wives and children, and sell them as slaves. In view
of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate judge,
or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and chil
dren to suitable white persons for a term not to exceed
twenty years.205
Polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife
is generally bought of her parents ;206 girls are frequently
betrothed in infancy ; a husband will prostitute his wife
to a stranger for a trifling present, but should she be
unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the
forfeit. The women, as usual, suffer very little from the
pains of child-bearing. When the time of a Shoshone
woman's confinement draws near, she retires to some
secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and remains there
205 ' It is virtuous to seize and ravish the women of tribes with whom they
are at war, often among themselves, and to retain or sell them and their
children as slaves.' Drews' Oicyhee Rec6n., p. 17. The Pi-Edes 'barter their
children to the Utes proper, for a few trinkets or bits of clothing, by whom
they are again sold to the Navajos for blankets.' Simpson's Route to CaL, p.
45. ' Some of the minor tribes in the southern part of the Territory (Utah),
near New Mexico, can scarcely show a single squaw, having traded them off
for horses and arms.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 582. ' Viennent trouver
les blancs, et leur vendent leurs enfants pour des bagatelles.' De Smet, Voy.,
p. 29; Knight's Pioneer Life, MS.; Utah, Acts, Resolutions, etc., p. 87.
soe 'A refusal in these lands is often a serious business; the warrior col
lects his friends, carries off the recusant fair, and after subjecting her to the
insults of all his companions espouses her.' Burton's City of the Saints,
p. 582.
GAMBLING AND DUINKING. 437
for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence
as best she can. When the appointed time has elapsed
she is considered purified and allowed to join her friends
again. The weaker sex of course do the hardest labor,
and receive more blows than kind words for their pains.
These people, in common with most nomadic nations,
have the barbarous custom of abandoning the old and
infirm the moment they find them an incumbrance.
Lewis and Clarke state that children are never flogged,
as it is thought to break their spirit.207
The games of hazard played by the Shoshones differ
little from those of their neighbors; the principal one
appears to be the odd-and-even game so often mentioned ;
but of late years they have nearly abandoned these, and
have taken to ' poker,' which they are said to play with
such adroitness as to beat a white man. With the voice
they imitate with great exactness the cries of birds and
beasts, and their concerts of this description, which gen
erally take place at midnight, are discordant beyond
measure. Though they manufacture no intoxicating
liquor themselves, they will drink the whisky of the
whites whenever opportunity offers. They smoke the
kinikkinik leaf when no tobacco can be procured from
the traders.208 In connection with their smoking they
207 « The women are exceedingly virtuous they are a kind of mercan
tile commodity in the hands of their masters. Polygamy prevails among
the chiefs, but the number of wives is not unlimited.' Remy and Brenchly's
Journ., vol. i., pp. 123-8. They are given to sensual excesses, and other
immoralities. FarnJiam's Trav., p. 62; see also p. 60. 'Prostitution and
illegitimacy are unknown .... they are not permitted to marry until eighteen
or twenty years old. . . .it is a capital offence to marry any of another nation
without special sanction from their council and head chief. They allow but
»ne wife.' Prince, in Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. At the time of their con
finement the women ' sit apart; they never touch a cooking utensil, although
it is not held impure to address them, and they return only when the signs
of wrath have passed away.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 573. 'Infidelity
of the wife, or prostitution of an unmarried female, is punishable by death.'
Davies, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1861, p. 133. 'Our Pi-Ute has a peculiar way of
getting a foretaste of connubial bliss, cohabiting experimentally with his in
tended for two or three days previous to the nuptial ceremony, at the end of
which time, either party can stay further proceedings, to indulge other trials
until a companion more congenial is found.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical
Press, vol. iii., p. 155; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 307-8, 315; De Smet,
Voy., p. 27.
208 The Snakes ' ont une sorte de tabac sauvage qui croit dans les plaines
contigues aux montagues du Spanish-River, il a les feuilles plus etroites que
438 CALIFOENIANS.
have many strange observances. When the pipe is
passed round at the solemnization of a treaty, or the
confirmation of a bargain, each smoker, on receiving it
from his neighbor, makes different motions with it; one
turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips ;
another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes
with the bowl in the air; a fourth with the bowl on the
ground, and so on through the whole company. All
this is done with a most grave and serious countenance,
which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on.
The Snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw
off their moccasins as a mark of respect. Any great
feat performed by a warrior, which adds to his reputa
tion and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or success
fully stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of
name. Killing a grizzly bear also entitles him to this
honor, for it is considered a great feat to slay one of
these formidable animals, and only he who has performed
it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the
feet or claws of the victim. To bestow his name upon
a friend is the highest compliment that one man can
offer another.
The Snakes, and some of the Utahs, are skillful riders,
and possess good horses. Their horse-furniture is sim
ple. A horse-hair or raw-hide lariat is fastened round
the animal's neck; the bight is passed with a single half-
hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in
the rider's hand; this serves as a bridle. When the
horse is turned loose, the lariat is loosened from his jaw
and allowed to trail from his neck. The old men and
le notre, il est plus agreable a fumer, ses effets etant bien moins violens.'
Stuart, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 182 1 , torn. xii. , pp. 82-3. The Kinik-kinik
' they obtain from three different plants. One is a Cornus, resembling our
Cornus sanguima; after having detached the epidermic cuticle, they scrape
the bark and dry it, when it is ready for use. Another is a Vacciiiium with
red berries; they gather the leaves to smoke them when dry; the third is a
email shrub, the fruit and flower of which I have never seen, but resembles
certain species of Daphnads (particularly that of Kauai), the leaves of which
are in like manner smoked.' Remy and Brenchley's Journ , vol. i., p. 130; see
also p. 132; Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 250, Lewis and Clarice's Trav., p.
306; Fremont's Explor. Ex., p. 174; De Smet, Voy., pp. 25-6. Parker's Explor.
Tour, pp. 228-9, 237, 242-3.
DISEASES AND BUKIAL. 439
the women have saddles similar to those used for pack
ing by the whites; they are a wooden frame made of
two pieces of thin board fitting close to the sides of the
horse, and held together by two cross-pieces, in shape
like the legs of an isosceles triangle. A piece of hide
is placed between this and the horse's back, and a robe
is thrown over the seat when it is ridden on, The
younger men use no saddle, except a small pad, girthed
on with a leather thong. When traveling they greatly
overload their horses. All the household goods and pro
visions are packed upon the poor animal's back, and then
the women and children seat themselves upon the pile,
sometimes as many as four or five on one horse.209
The poorer Utahs are very subject to various diseases,
owing to exposure in winter. They have few, if any,
efficient remedies. They dress wounds with pine-gum,
after squeezing out the blood. The Snakes are much
affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly
by their being almost constantly in the water fishing,
and by exposure. Syphilis has, of course, been ex
tensively introduced among all the tribes. A few plants
and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medi
cine-men practice their wonted mummeries, but what
particular means of cure they adopt is not stated by the
authorities. I find no mention of their having sweat-
houses.210
Concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. In
some parts the body is burned, in others it is buried.
In either case the property of the deceased is destroyed
at his burial. His favorite horse, and, in some instances,
209 « En deux occasions diverses, je comptai cinq personnes ainsi mon-
tees, dont deux, certes, paraissaient aussi capables, chacune a elle seule, de
porter la pauvre bete, que le cheval etait a meme de supporter leurs poids.'
De Smet, Voy., p. 127; Lewis and Clarke's Trav., pp. 266, 309-11, 316; Graves,
in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 178.
210 ' With strong constitutions generally, they either die at once or readily
recover.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 581. ' There is no lack of pulmonary
difficulties among them.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical Press, vol. lii., p.
155. Syphilis usually kills them. Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 316. 'The
convollaria stellata. . . .is the best remedial plant known among those Indians.'
Fremont'* Explor. Ex., p. 273; Davies, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1861. p. 132; Prince,
in Col. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861; Coke's Rocky Ms., p. 276; Parker's Explor.
Tour., pp. 228-9, 240-2.
440 CALIFORNIANS.
his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he may
not be alone in the spirit land. Laceration in token of
grief is universal, and the lamentations of the dead per
son's relatives are heard for weeks after his death, and
are renewed at intervals for many months. Child-like
in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually
engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear
perfectly indifferent to their loss.211
The character of the better Shoshone tribes is not
much worse than that of the surrounding nations; they
are thieving, treacherous, cunning, moderately brave
after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail them
anything, and exceedingly cruel. Of the miserable root
and grass eating Shoshones, howrever, even this much
cannot be said. Those who have seen them unani
mously agree that they of all men are lowest. Lying
in a state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during
the winter, and in spring crawling forth and eating grass
on their hands and knees, until able to regain their feet ;
having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food, in many
instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imagin
ings for religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth,
putting no bridle on their passions, there is surely room
for no missing link between them and brutes.212 Yet as
211 ' The Yutas make their graves high up the kanyons, usually in clefts
of rock.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 150. At the obsequies of a chief of
the Timpenaguchya tribe ' two squaws, two Pa Yuta children, and fifteen of
his best horses composed the "customs."' Id., p. 577. 'When a death
takes place, they wrap the body in a skin or hide, and drag it by the leg to a
grave, which is heaped up with stones, as a protection against wild beasts.'
Id., p. 582; Remy and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., pp. 131, 345; De Smet, Voy.,
p. 28; Domenech's Deserts, vol. iL, pp. 359, 363.
212 The Shoshones of Carson Valley 'are very rigid in their morals. 'Re-
my and Brenchley's Journ., vol. i., p. 85. At Haw's Ranch, ' honest and trust
worthy, but lazy and dirty.' Id., p. 123. These Kusi-Utahs ' were very inof
fensive and seemed perfectly guileless.' Id., vol. ii., p. 412. The Pai-uches
are considered as mere dogs, the refiise of the lowest order of humanity.
Farnham's Life and Adven., p. 376. The Timpanigos Yutas ' are a noble race
. . . .brave and hospitable.' Id., p. 371. The Pi-utes are ' the most degraded
and least intellectual Indians known to the trappers.' Farnham's Trav., p.
58. ' The Snakes are a very intelligent race.' Id., p. 62. The Bannacks are
'a treacherous and dangerous race.' Id., p. 76. The Pi-Edes are 'timid and
dejected;' the Snakes are 'fierce and warlike;' the Tosawitches 'very treach
erous;' the Bannacks 'treacherous;' the Washoes 'peacable, but indolent.'
Simpson's Route to Cal., p. 45-9. The Utahs 'are brave, impudent, and war
like. . . .of a revengeful disposition.' Graves, in Ind Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 178.
SHOSHONE CHARACTER. 441
in all men there stands out some prominent good, so
in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue:
they are lovers of their country ; lovers, not of fair hills
and fertile valleys, but of inhospitable mountains and
barren plains ; these reptile-like humans love their mis
erable burro wing- places better than all the comforts of
4 Industrious.' Armstrong, in Id., 1856, p. 233. ' A race of men whose cruelty
is scarcely a stride removed from that of cannibalism.' Hurt, in Id., p. 231.
' The Pah-utes are undoubtedly the most interesting and docile Indians on
the continent.' Dodge, in Id., 1859, p. 374. The Utahs are 'fox-like, crafty,
and cunning.' Archuleta, in Id., 1865, p. 167. The Pi-Utes are 'teachable,
kind, and industrious. . . . scrupulously chaste in all their intercourse.' Park
er, in Id., I860, p. 115. The Weber-Utes 'are the most worthless and indo
lent of any in the Territory.' Head, in /(/., p. 123. The Bannocks 'seem to
be imbued with a spirit of dash and bravery quite unusual.' Campbell, in Id.,
p. 120. The Baimacks are ' energetic and industrious.' Danilson, in Id., 1869,
p. 288. The Washoes are docile and tractable. Douglas, in Id., 1870, p. 96.
The Pi-utes are ' not warlike, rather cowardly, but pilfering and treacherous.'
Powell, in Id., 1871, p. 562. The Shoshokoes 'are extremely indolent, but a
mild, inoffensive race.' Irvine/' s Bonnevilk's Adven., p. 257. The Snakes ' are
a thoroughly savage and lazy tribe.' Franchere's Nar., p. 150. The Sho-
shones are 'frank and communicative.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 306.
The Snakes are 'pacific, hospitable and honest.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 325.
'The Snakes are a very intelligent race.' Wliite's Ogn., p. 379. The Pi-utes
' are as degraded a class of humanity as can be found upon the earth. The
male is proud, sullen, intensely insolent. . . .They will not steal. The women
are chaste, at least toward their white brethren.' Farley, in San Francisco
Medical Jour., vol. iii., p. 154. The Snakes have been considered ' as rather a
dull and degraded people . . .weak in intellect, and wanting in courage. And
this opinion is very probable to a casual observer at first sight, or when seen
in small numbers; for their apparent timidity, grave, and reserved habits,
give them an air of stupidity. An intimate knowledge of the Snake charac
ter will, however, place them on an equal footing with that of other kindred
nations, either east or west of the mountains, both in respect to their men
tal faculties and moral attributes.' Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. ii., p. 151. 'Les
Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont. . . .un peuple plus misera
ble, plus degrade et plus pauvre. Les Francois les appellent commuuement
les Dignes-de-pitie, et ce nom leur convient a merveille.' DeSmet, Voy., p. '28.
The Utahs 'paraissent doux et affables, tres-polis et hospitaliers pour les
etrangers, et charitables entre eux.' Id., p. 30. 'The Indians of Utah are
the most miserable, if not the most degraded, beings of all the vast Amer
ican wilderness.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 64. The Utahs 'possess a
capacity for improvement whenever circumstances favor them.' Scenes in
the Rocky Mis., p. 180. The Snakes are 'la plus mauvaise des races des
Peaux-Kouges que j'ai frequentees. Us sont aussi paresseux que peu pre-
voyants.' Saint-Amant, Voy., p. 325. The Shoshones of Idaho are 'highly
intelligent and lively .... the most virtuous and unsophisticated of all the
Indians of the United States.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, April 27, 1860. The
Washoes have ' superior intelligence and aptitude for learning.' Id., June 14,
1861; see also Id., June 26, 1863. The Nevada Shoshones 'are the most
pure and uncorrupted aborigines upon this continent .... they are scrupu
lously clean in their persons, and chaste in their habits .... though whole
families live together, of all ages and both sexes, in the same tent, im
morality and crime are of rare occurrence.' Prince, in Id., Oct. 18, 1861.
The Bannacks 'are cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' Schooler a ft' s
Arch., vol. iv., p. 223. The Utahs are predatory, voracious and perfidious.
Plunderers and murderers by habit. . . .when their ferocity is not excited,
442 CALIFORNIANS.
civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained
by force among the whites, they have been known to
pine away and die.
their suspicions are so great as to render what they say unreliable, if they
do not remain altogether uncommunicative.' Id., vol. v., pp. 197-8. The
Pa-Vants ' are as brave and improvable as their neighbours are mean and
vile.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577. 'The Yuta is less servile, and con
sequently has a higher ethnic status than the African negro; he will not toil,
and he turns at a kick or a blow.' Id., p, 581. The Shoshokoes ' are harm
less and exceedingly timid and shy.' BrownelVs Ind. Races, p. 538.
TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
To the NORTHERN CALIFORNIAXS, whose territory extends from Rogue
Kiver on the north to Eel Eiver south, and from the Pacific Ocean to the
Californian boundary east, including the Klamath, and other lakes, are as
signed, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries : There
are ' the Hoopahs, and the Ukiahs of Mendocino ;' ' the Umpquas, Kowooses
or Gooses, Macanootoony's of the Umpqua river section, Nomee Cults, and
Nomee Lacks of Tehama County; the Copahs, Hanags, Yatuckets, Terwars
and Tolowas, of the lower Klamath river; the Wylaks and Noobimucks of
Trinity county mountains west from Sacramento plains; the Modocs of
Klamath Lake, the Ylackas of Pitt Kiver, the Ukas and Shastas of Shasta
county.' Taylor, in Gal. Farmer, June 8, 1860.
'The Tototins are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located
on the coast, one on the forks of the Coquille, and three on Rogue river.'
' The Tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the whole people
speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the Tototin river, about
four miles from its mouth. Their country extends from the eastern bound
ary of the Yahshutes, a short distance below their village, up the stream
about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the Mackanotins commence.'
'The country of the Euquachees commences at the "Three Sisters," and
extends along the coast to a point about three miles to the south of their
village, which is on a stream which bears their name. The mining town
of Elizabeth is about the southern boundary of the Euquachees, and is
called thirty miles from Port Orford. Next southward of the Euquachees
are the Yahshutes, whose villages occupy both banks of the Tototin or Rogue
river, at its mouth. These people claim but about two and a half miles back
from the coast, where the Tototin country commences. The Yahshutes claim
the coast to some remarkable headlands, about six miles south of Rogue
river. South of these headlands are the Chetlessentuns. Their village is
north of, but near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better
known to the whites as Pistol river. The Chetlessentuns claim but about
eight miles of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like
others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the summit
of the mountains. Next to the Chetlessentuns on the south are the Wish-
tenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing their name.
NORTHERN CALIFORNIANS. 443
They claim the country to a small trading-post known as the Whale's Head,
about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of Rogue River. Next in
order are the Cheattee or Chitco band, whose villages were situated on each
side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small river bearing their name
.The lands of these people extend from Whale's Head to the California
line, and back from the coast indefinitely. . .The Mackanotin village is about
seven miles above that of the Tototins, and is on the same side of the river.
They claim about twelve miles of stream. The Shistakoostees succeed them
(the Mackanotins) . Their village is on the north bank of Rogue river, nearly
opposite the confluence of the Illinois. These are the most easterly band
within my district in the South.' Parrish, in Ind. A/. Kept., 1854, pp. 288-9.
' Dr. Hubbard, in his notes (1856) on the Indians of Rogue River and South
Oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the following list of names of
Rancherias and clans of the Lototen or Tutatamys tribe. Masonah Band,
location, Coquille river; Chockrelatan Band, location, Coquille forks; Qua-
tomah Band, location, Flore's creek; Laguaacha Band, location, Elk river;
Cosulhenten Band, location, Port Orford; Yuquache Band, location, Yugua
creek; Chetlessenten Band, location, Pistol river; Yah Shutes Band, loca
tion, Rogue river; Wishtanatan Band, location, Whale's head; Cheahtoc
Band, location, Chetko; Tototen Band, location, six miles above the mouth
of Rogue river;. Sisticoosta Band, location, above Big Bend, of Rogue river;
Maquelnoteer Band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of Rogue
river.' Cat. Farmer, June 18, 1860. The Tutotens were a large tribe, num
bering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of Oregon. Golden Era,
March, 1856. ' Toutounis ou Coquins, sur la riviere de ce nom et dans 1'in-
terieur des terres.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 'On the lower part of
the Clamet River are the Totutune, known by the unfavorable soubriquet of
the Rogue, or Rascal Indians.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p.
221. The bands of the Tootooton tribe ' are scattered over a great extent of
country — along the coast and on the streams from the California line to
twenty miles north of the Coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the
coast range of mountains.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 259. Taylor
places the Tutunahs in the northwest corner of Del Norte County. MS. Map.
The Hunas live in California a little south of Rogue River, on the way
north from Crescent City. P/e'iffer's Second Journ., p. 314.
Modoc, by some Moddoc, is a word which originated with the Shasteecas,
who applied it indefinitely to all wild Indians or enemies. ' Their proper
habitat is on the southern shore of Lower Klamath Lake, on Hot Creek,
around Clear Lake, and along Lost River in Oregon.5 Powers, in Overland
Monthly, vol. x., p. 535. They own the Klamath River from the lake 'to
where it breaks through the Siskiyou range to the westward.' Id., vol. xi.,
p. 21. In the northern part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map. 'The Modocs
of the Klamath Lake were also called Moahtockna.' Cal. Farmer, June 22,
1860. East of the Klamaths, whose eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty
miles east of the Cascade Range, along the southern boundaiy of Oregon,
' and extending some distance into California, is a tribe known as the Mo-
docks. East of these again, but extending further south, are the Moetwas.'
1 The country round Ancoose and Modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by
444 TEIBAL BOUNDARIES.
the Modoc Indians.' Palmer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, pp. 262-3. 'The Mo-
docs (or Moadoc, as the word is pronounced) known in their language as
the Okkowish, inhabit the Goose lake country, and are mostly within the
State of California The word Modoc is a Shasta Indian word, and means
all distant, stranger, or hostile Indians, and became applied to these Indians
by white men in early days from hearing the Shastas speak of them.' See
Steele, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, p. 121.
The Oukskenalis, in the north-western part of Siskiyou County. MS. Map.
The KlamatJis or Lutuami — ' Lutuami, or Tlamatl, or Clamet Indians.
The first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their
own language. The second is that by which they are known to the Chi-
nooks, and through them to the whites. They live 011 the head waters
of the river and about the lake, which have both received from foreigners
the name of Clamet.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218.
That portion of the eastern base of the Cascade Range, south of the forty-
fourth parallel, ' extending twenty-five or thirty miles east, and south to
the California line, is the country of the Klamath Indians.' Palmer, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 262. The Tlameths 'inhabit the country along the east
ern base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains, and south to the
Great Klameth Lake.' Thompson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 283. The
Clamets inhabit 'Roquas River, near the south boundary' (of Oregon).
Warre and Vavaseur, in Martin's Hudson's Bay, p. 81. 'Lutuami, Clamets;
also Tlamatl — Indians of southwestern Oregon, near the Clamet Lake.'
Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 100. 'Klamacs, sur la riviere de ce noni et dans
1'interieur des terres.' De Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. Clamet: on the
upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake so named. Framboise,
in Lond. Geog. Soc. Jour., vol. xi., p. 255. ' Next east of the Shastas are the
Klamath Lake Indians, known in their language as the Okshee, who inhabit
the country about the Klamath lakes, and east about half way to the Goose
Lake, to Wright Lake, and south to a line running about due east from
Shasta Butte.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, pp. 120-1. 'The name of
Klamath or Tlamath, belonging to the tribes on the lake where the river
rises, is not known among those farther down Thus, at the forks, the
Weitspeks call the river below Pohlik, signifying down; and that above
Pehtsik, or up; giving, moreover, the same name to the population in
speaking of them collectively. Three distinct tribes, speaking different
languages, occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the Shaste,
of which the lowest extends up to Bluff Creek, a few miles above the forks.
Of these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two villages
The names of the principal villages. . . are the Weitspek (at the forks),
Wahsherr, Kaipetl, Moraiuh, Nohtscho, Mehteh, Schvegon, Yauterrh, Pec-
quan, Kauweh, Wauhtecq, Scheperrh, Oiyotl, Naiagutl, Schaitl, Hopaiuh,
Rekqua, and Weht'lqua, the two last at the mouth of the river.' Gibbs, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 138.
The Eurocs inhabit ' the lower Klamath from Weitspeck down, and along
the coast for about twenty miles.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p.
530. The Eurocs ' inhabit the banks of the Klamatb from the junction of
THE TKINITY RIVER TRIBES. 445
the Trinity to the mouth, and the sea-coast from Gold Bluff up to a point
about six miles above the mouth of the Klamath.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Cahrocs live between the Eurocs and the foot of the Klamath Mount
ains, also a short distance up Salmon River. ' On the Klamath River there
live three distinct tribes, called the Eurocs, Cahrocs, and Modocs; which
names mean respectively, ''down the river," "up the river," and "head
of the river." ' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328. Speaking of
Indians at the junction of Salmon and Klamath Rivers, Mr. Gibbs says:
' they do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply
the terms "Kahruk," up, and "Youruk, " down, to all who live above or
below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the
others (at the junction of the Trinity) do ;' Pehtsik," and " Pohlik." School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 151.
The Tolewahs are the first tribe on the coast north of Klamath River.
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139. The Tahlewahs are a 'tribe
on the Klamath River.' Lydewig's Ab. Lang., p. 179. ' In the vicinity of Cres
cent City and Smith's River there are the. . . .Lopas, Talawas, and Lagoons.'
Heintzelman, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, pp. 391-2. 'In Del Norte County
. . . .the Haynaggis live along Smith River, the Tolowas on the Lagoon, and
the Tahatens around Crescent City.' Powers* Porno, MS. The Cops, Hanags,
Yantuckets, and Tolawas, are ' Indian tribes living near the Oregon and Cal
ifornia coast frontiers.' Crescent City Herald, Aug. 1857. The Tolowas at the
meeting point of Trinity, Humboldt, and Klamath counties. MS. Map.
The Terwars, north-west of the Tolowas. MS. Map.
The Weitspeks are the ' principal band on the Klamath, at the junction of
the Trinity.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422; Ludeicig's Ab.
Lang., p. 200.
The Oppegachs are a tribe at Red-Cap's Bar, on the Klamath River. Gibbs,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 148.
The Hoopahs live ' am unteren Rio de la Trinidad, oder Trinity River. '
Buschmann, Das Apache als eine Athhapask. Spr., p. 218. ' Indian tribe on the
lower part of the Trinity River.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 82. The Hoopas
live 'in Hoopa Valley, on the lower Trinity River.' Power's Porno, MS., p.
85. ' The lower Trinity tribe is, as well as the river itself, known to the
Klamaths by the name of Hoopah.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p.
139; see also p. 422. In the northern part of Klamath County. MS. Map.
1 Upon the Trinity, or Hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or
Otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the Okenoke, Agaraits,
Uplegoh, Olleppauh'lkahtehtl and Pephtsoh; and the Haslintah, Ahel-
tah, Sokeakeit, Tashhuanta, and Witspuk above it; A twelfth, the Meyem-
ma, now burnt, was situated just above "New" or "Arkansas" River.
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.
The Copahs, in the extreme north of Klamath county, north of the
Hoopahs. MS. Map. The Cops are mentioned as ' living near the Oregon
and California coast frontiers,' in the Cresent City Herald, Aug., 1857.
The EaUtas live on the south fork of Trinity River. Powers' Porno, MS.
The Pataways occupy the banks of the Trinity, from the vicinity of Big
Bar to South Fork.' Powers' Porno, MS.
446 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Chimalquays lived on New Kiver, a tributary of the Trinity. Powers'
Porno, MS.
The Siahs * occupied the tongue of land jutting down between Eel River,
and Van Dusen's Fork.' Powers' Porno, MS. The Sians or Siahs lived on
the headwaters of Smith River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.
The Ehneks, Eenahs, or Eenaghs, lived above the Tolewas on Smith
River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 139.' Ehnek was the name of
a band at the niouth of the Salmon or Quoratem River.' Id., p. 422; Lude-
wi(fs Ab. Lang., p. 67.
Wishosk 'is the name given to the Bay (Humboldt) and Mad River Indi
ans by those of Eel River.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422;
Ludewg's Ab. Lang., p. 201.
The Weeyots are ' a band on the niouth of Eel River and near Humboldt
Bay.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 200. The Humboldt Bay Indians call them
selves Wishosk; and those of the hills Teokawilk; 'but the tribes to the
northward denominate both those of the Bay and Eel River, Weyot, or Walla-
walloo.' Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.
' The Patawats live on the lower waters of Mad River, and around Hum
boldt Bay, as far south as Arcata, perhaps originally as far down as Eureka.'
Powers' Porno, MS.
Ossegon is the name given to the Indians of Gold Bluff, between Trinidad
and the Klamath. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.
' The Lassies formerly dwelt in Mad River Valley, from the head waters
down to Low Gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the Wheelcuttas. '
Powers' Porno, MS.
Chori was the name given to the Indians of Trinidad by the Weeyots.
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 133.
The Chillulahs l occupied the banks of Redwood Creek, from the coast
up about twenty miles.' Powers' Porno, MS. The Oruk, Tchololah, or Bald
Hill Indians, lived on Redwood Creek. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii.,
p. 139.
The Watties occupy the sandy country north of Humboldt Bay. Overland
Monthly, vol. ii., p. 536.
' The Wheelcuttas had their place on the Upper Redwood Creek, from the
land of the Chillulahs up to the mountains. They ranged across southward
by the foot of the Bald Hills, which appear to have marked the boundary
between them and the Chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to Van
Dusen's Fork, anent the Siahs and Lassies, with whom they occasionally
came in bloody collision.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Veeards 'live around lower Humboldt Bay, and up Eel River to
Eagle Prairie.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Shastas live to the south-west of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hale's
Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. « Saste's, dans 1'interieur au Nord
dela Californie.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 335. 'The Shasta Indians,
known in their language as Weohow — it meaning stone house, from the large
cave in their country — occupy the land east of Shasta river, and south of the
Siskiyou mountains, and west of the lower Klamath lake.' Steele, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1864, p. 120. The Shastas occupy the centre of the county of that
THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS. 447
name. 3/5. Map. ' Indians of south-western Oregon, on the northern fron
tiers of Upper California.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 168. Watsahewah is the
name ' of one of the Scott River bands of the Shasta family.' Gibbs, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422. The name is spelled variously as Shasty,
Shaste, Saste, &c.
The Palcdks live to the southeast of the Lutuamis or Klamaths. Hole's
Ethnog., in U. 8. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218. ' Indians of south-western Oregon,
on the northern frontiers of Upper California.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 145.
On the Klarnath are the Odeeilahs; in Shasta Valley the Ikarucks, Kose-
tahs, and Idakariukes; and in Scott's Valley the Watsahewas and Eehs.
Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch,., vol. iii., p. 171.
' The Hamburg Indians, known in their language as the Tka, inhabit im
mediately at the mouth of Scott's river, known in their language as the Otte-
tiewa river.' Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rtpt., 1864, p. 120.
' The ScoWs Valley Indians, known in their language as the Iddoa, inhabit
Scott's Valley above the canon.' Ib.
The Yreka (a misnomer for Yeka — Shasta Butte) Indians, known in their
language as the Hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of
Klarnath river, and west of Shasta river.' 16.
The Yuka or Uka tribe ' inhabited the Shasta Mountains in the vicinity
of McCloud's fork of Pitt River.' Gal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Ukas are
directly south of the Modocs. 3/5. Map. ' The Yukeh, or as the name is
variously spelt, Yuka, Yuques, and Uca, are the original inhabitants of tb.3
Nome-Cult, or Round Valley, in Tehania County. . . .and are not to be con
founded with the Yukai Indians of Russian River.' Gibbs, in Hist. Mag., vol.
vii., p. 123.
'The Noser or Noza Indians .... live in the vicinity of Lassen's Butte.'
Siskiyou Chronicle, May, 1859.
The Ylakas are to the southeast of the Ukas. 3/5. Map.
The CENTRAL CALIFORNIANS occupy the whole of that portion of Cali
fornia extending north and south, from about 40'J 30' to 35°, and east and
west, from the Pacific Ocean to the Californian boundary. They are tribally
divided as follows :
* The Mattoles have their habitat on the creek which bears their name,
and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of Bear River.
From the coast they range across to Eel River, and by immemorial Indian
usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this river from
about Eagle Prairie, where they border upon the Veeards, up southward to
the mouth of South Fork.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Betumkes live on the South Fork of Eel River. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs
Arch., vol. iii,, p. 634. In the northern part of Mendocino County. 3/5. Map.
The Chowesliaks live on the head of Eel river. Gibbs, in SchoolcrafVs Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 421. Tribes living on the Middle Fork of Eel River, in the valley
caUed by the Indians Betumki were the Naboh Choweshak, Chawteuh Ba-
kowa, and Samunda. Id., p. 116. The Choweshaks lived on the head of Eel
River. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 48.
'The Loloncooks live on Bull Creek and the lower South Fork of Eel
448 TEIBAL BOUNDABIES.
Biver, owning the territory between those streams and the Pacific.' Powers'
Porno, MS.
The Batemdakaiees live in the valley of that name on the head of Eel
Biver. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 17.
The Pomos consist of ' a great number of tribes or little bands, sometimes
one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the region where the
headwaters of Eel and Bussian rivers interlace, along the estuaries of the
coast and around Clear Lake. Beally, the Indians all along Bussian river to
its mouth are branches of this great family, but below Calpello they no longer
call themselves Pomos. . . .The broadest and most obvious division of this
large family is, into Eel river Pomos and Bussian river Pomos.' Powers, in
Overland Monthly, vol. ix., pp. 498-9.
The Castel Pomos ' live between the forks of the river extending as far
south as Big Chamise and Blue Bock.' Id., p. 499.
The Ki-Pomos ' dwell on the extreme headwaters of South Fork, ranging
eastward to Eel Biver, westward to the ocean and northward to the Castel
Pomos.' Ib., MS. Map.
1 The Cahto Pomos (Lake people) were so called from a little lake which
formerly existed in the valley now called by their name.' Powers, in Overland
Monthly, vol. ix., p. 500.
The Choam Chadela Pomos (Pitch Pine People) live inBedwood Valley.
Id., p. 504.
The Matomey Ki Pomos (Wooded Valley People) live about Little
Lake. Ib.
The Camalel Pomos (Coast People) or Usals live on Usal Creek. Ib.
The Shebalne Pomos (Neighbor People) live in Sherwood Valley. Ib.
The Pome Pomos (Earth People) live in Potter Valley. Besides the
Pome Pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in Potter Valley,
each with a different name ; and the whole body of them are called Ballo Ki
Pomos (Oat Valley People). Id.
The Camalel Pomos, Yonsal Pomos, and Bayma Pomos live on Ten Mile,
and the country just north of it, in Mendocino County. Tobin, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1857, p. 405.
' The Salan Pomas are a tribe of Indians inhabiting a valley called Pot
ter's Valley.' Ford, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 257.
The Niahbella Pomos live in the north-west of Mendocino County. MS.
Map.
The Ukiahs live on Bussian Biver in the vicinity of Parker's Banch.
Gibbs, in Schooler aft' s Arch., vol. iii., p. 112, 421. ' The Yuka tribe are those
mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains.' Mendocino Herald,
March, 1871. The Yukai live on Bussian Biver. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 205.
The Ukias are in the south-eastern part of Mendocino County. MS. Map.
The Soteomellos or Sotomieyos ' lived in Bussian Biver valley.' Cal. Farmer,
March 30, 1860.
The Shumeias ' lived on the extreme upper waters of Eel Biver, opposite
Potter Valley.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Tahtoos 'live in the extreme upper end of Potter Valley.' 16.
The Yeeaths live at Cape Mendocino. Tobin, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 406.
KUSSIAN RIVER AND COAST TKIBES. 449
The Kushkish Indians live at Shelter Cove. Id., p. 405.
The Comachos live in Russian River Valley, in Rancheria and Anderson
Valleys. Powers' Porno, MS.
The Kajatschims, Makomas, and Japiams live in the Russian River Valley,
north of Fort Ross. Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80.
The Gallinomeros occupy Dry Creek Valley and Russian River Valley be
low Healdsburg. Powers' Porno, MS.
The Masalla Magoons 'live along Russian river south of Cloverdale.' Id.
The Eincons live south of the Masalla Magoons. Id.
The Gualalas live on Gualala or Wallalla Creek. Id.
The Nahlohs, Carlotsapos, Chowechaks, Chedochogs, Choiteeu, Misalahs,
Bacowas, Samindas, and Cachenahs, Tuwanahs, lived in the country between
Fort Ross and San Francisco Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 634.
Chwachamaju (Russian Severnovskia) or Northerners, is the name of one
of the tribes in the vicinity of Fort Ross. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und
Ethno., p. 80. ' Severnovskia, Severnozer, or "Northerners." Indians north
of Bodega Bay. They call themselves Chwachamaja.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang.,
p. 170.
The Olamentkes live at Bodega. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethnog.,
p. 80; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 20.
The Kainamares or Kainameahs are at Fitch's Ranch, extending as far
back as Santa Rosa, down Russian River, about three leagues to Cooper's
Ranch, and thence across the coast at Fort Ross, and for twenty-five miles
above. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 102. 'The Kanimares had
rancherias at Santa Rosa, Petaluma, or Pataloma, and up to Russian river.'
Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. ' The proper name of Russian river in Sonoma
valley is Canimairo after the celebrated Indians of those parts.' Id., June 8,..
1860. The Indians of the plains in vicinity of Fort Ross, call themselves
Kainama. Kostromitonow, in Baer, Stat. und Ethno., p. 80. The Kyanama-
ras ' inhabit the section of country between the canon of Russian river and
its mouth.' Ford, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1856, p. 257.
The Tumalehnias live on Bodega Bay. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
iii., p. 102.
The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, live in Russian River Valley in the vicinity
of the village of Sanel. Powers' Porno, MS.
The Sonomas, Sonomis, or Sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of So
noma. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. The Sonomas lived in the south-eastern
extremity of what is now the county of Sonoma. MS Map.
The Tchokoyems lived in Sonoma valley. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 421. The Chocuyens lived in the region now called Sonoma
county, and from their chief the county takes its name. Cronise's Nat. Wealth,
p. 22. The word Sonoma means 'Valley of the Moon.' Tuthill's Hist. Cal.,. £-
p. 301. The Tchokoyems live in Sonoma Valley. Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 184.
'The Timbalakees lived on the west side of Sonoma valley.' Cal. Farmer,
March 30, 1860.
The Guillicas lived 'northwest of Sonoma,' on the old Wilson ranch of
1846, Ib.; MS. Map.
VOL. I. 29
450 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Kinklas live in 39° 14' north lat. and 122° 12' long. Wilkes' Nar., in
U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201. The Klinkas are a 'tribu fixee an nord du
Rio del Sacramento.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 358. South of the Rogue
River Indians ' the population is very scanty lintil we arrive at the valley of
the Sacramento, all the tribes of which are included by the traders under
the general name of Kinkla, which is probably, like Tlamatl, a term of Chi
nook origin.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 221.
The Talatui live ' on the Kassima River, a tributary to the Sacramento,
on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth.' Hale's Ethnog., in
17. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 631. Ludevcig's Ab. Lang., p. 180.
The Oleepas live on Feather River, twenty miles above Marysville. Delano's
Life on the Plains, p. 293.
'The Nemshous, as stated by General Sutter, roamed (prior to 1846) be
tween the Bear and American rivers; across the Sacramento were the Yolos
and Colusas; north of the American Fork were the Bashones. On the banks
of the river north of Fort Helvetia, roamed the Veshanacks, the Touserlem-
nies and Youcoolumriies; between the American (plain and hills) and the
Mokalumne roamed the Walacumnies, Cosumnies, Solumnees, Mokelumnees,
;Suraminis, Yosumnis, Lacomnis, Kis Kies and Omochumnies.' Col. Farmer,
June 8, 1860. The Colusas live in the north-eastern corner of Colusa County.
The Yolos, in the northern part of the county of that name. West of them
the Olashes. The Bushones in the south of Yolo County. The Nemshoos
in the eastern part of Placer County. The Yukutneys north of them. The
Vesnacks south-west of the Nemshoos, and north of the Pulpenes. The
Youcoulumnes and Cosumnes are in the eastern part of Amador county.
The Mokelumnes south of them. The Yachachumnes west of the Mokelum-
nes. MS. Map. ' Yolo is a corruption of the Indian Yoloy, which signified
;a region thick with rushes, and was the name of the tribe owning the tule
lands west of the Sacramento and bordering on Cache Creek.' TuthUl's Hist.
•Cal., p. 301. The following are names of rancherias of tame Indians or
^Neophytes in the Sacramento Valley; Sakisimme, Shonomnes, Tawalemnes,
Seywamenes, Mukelemnes, Cosumne. Rancherias of wild Indians or Gen-
•tiles, are: Sagayacumne, Socklumnes, Olonutchamne, Newatchumne, Yu-
magatock, Shalachmushumne, Omatchamne, Yusumne, Yuleyumne, Tam-
locklock, Sapototot, Yalesurnne, Wapoomne, Kishey, Secumne, Pushune,
Oioksecumne, Nemshan, Palanshan, Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock, Sishu,
Mimal, Yulu, Bubu, Honcut. Indian Tribes of the Sacramento Valley, MS.
Tame Indians or Neophites: Lakisumne, Shonomne, Fawalomnes, Mukeem-
nes, Cosumne. "Wild Indians or Gentiles: Sagayacumne, Locklomnee, Olo
nutchamne. Yumagatock, Shalachmushumne, Omutchanme, Yusumne, Yale-
^yumne, Yamlocklock, Lapototot, Yalesumne, Wajuomne, Kisky, Secumne,
Pushune, Oioksecumne, Nemshaw, Palanshawl Ustu, Olash, Yukulme, Hock,
Lishu, Mimal, Ubu, Bubu, Honcut. gutter's Estimate of Indian Population,
1847, MS. The Ochecamnes, Servushamnes, Chupumnes, Omutchumnes,
Sicumnes, Walagumnes, Cosumnes, Sololumnes, Turealemnes, Saywamines,
Nevichumnes, Matchemnes, Sagayayumnes, Muthelemnes, and Lopstatim-
nes, lived on the eastern bank of the Sacramento. The Bushumnes (or Pu-
juni), (or Sekomne) Yasumnes, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yaesumnes, Huk, and
CLEAR LAKE TRIBES. 451
Yucal, lived on the western bank of the Sacramento. Hole's Ethnog., in U. S.
Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 630, 63J.
The Yubas or Yuvas lived on Yuva River, a tributary to the Sacramento.
Fremont's Geog. Memoir, p. 22.
The Meidoos and Neeshenams are on the Yuba and Feather Rivers. ' As
you travel south from Chico the Indians call themselves Meidoo until you
reach Bear River; but below that it is Neeshenam, or sometimes mana or
maidec, all of which denote men or Indians.' Powers' in Overland Monthly,
vol. xii., p. 21.
The Cushnas live near the south fork of the Yuba River. SchoolcrafVs
Arch., vol. ii., 506; Ludewig's Ab. lAing., p. 59. Taylor also mentions the
Cushnas south of the Yuba. Gal. Farmer, May, 31, 1861.
The Guenocks and Locollomillos lived between Clear Lake and Napa. Col.
Farmer, March 30, 1860.
The Lopillamillos or Lupilomis lived on the borders of Clear lake. J6.;
MS. Map.
The Mayacmas and Tyugas dwell about Clear Lake. San Francisco Herald,
June, 1858. The Mayacmas and Tyugas ' inhabited the vicinity of Clear
lake and the mountains of Napa and Mendocino counties.' Col. Farmer, June
22, 1860; MS. Map.
The Wi-Lackees ' live along the western slope of the Shasta mountains
from round Valley to Hay Fork, between those mountains on one side and
Eel and Mad Rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream about
to Low Gap.' Powers' Porno, MS. The Wye Lakees, Nome Lackees, Noi-
mucks, Noiyucans and Noisas, lived at Clear Lake. Geiger, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1859, p. 438.
Napobatin, meaning 'many houses,' was the collective name of six
tribes living at Clear Lake: their names were Hulanapo, Habenapo or stone
house, Dahnohabe, or stone mountain, Moalkai, Shekom, and Howkuma.
Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 109.
The Shanelkayas and Bedahmareks, or lower people, live on the east fork
of Eel River. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 109.
' The Sanels live at Clear lake.' Gibbs, in Schoolcrafts Arch., vol. iii., p. 112.
' The Sanels occupy Russian River Valley in the vicinity of the American vil
lage of Sanel.' Powers' Porno, MS.
The Bochheafs, Ubakheas, Tabahteas, and the Moiyas, live between Clear
Lake and the coast. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 112.
The Socoas, Lamas, and Seacos, occupy Russian River Valley in the vicin
ity of the village of Sanel. Powers' Porno, MS.
The Napas ' inhabited the Salvador Vallejo ranch of Entre-Napa — that is
the place between Napa river and Napa creek.' Hit-tell, in Hesperian Mag., vol.
iv., p. 56; Cal. Farmer, June 7, 1861. 'The Napa Indians lived near that
town and near Yount's ranch.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.
1 The Caymus tribe occupied the tract now owned by G. C. Yount.' Hittell,
in Hesperian Mag., vol. iv., p. 55.
' The Calajomanas had their home on the land now known as the Bale
ranche.' Ib.
452 TKIBAL BOUNDAKIES.
The Mayacomas dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper end
of Napa Valley. Ib.
The Ulucas lived on the east of the river Napa, near the present town-
site. Id., p. 56.
' The Suscols lived on the ranch of that name, and between Napa and Be-
nicia.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. 'The former domain of the Suscol
Indians was afterwards known as Suscol ranch.' Hittdl, in Hesperian Mag.,
vol. iv., p. 56; MS. Map.
The Tulkays lived 'below the town of Napa.' Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.
The'Canaumanos lived on Bayle's ranch in Napa valley. Ib.
The Mutistuls live ' between the heads of Napa and Putos creeks.' Gibbs, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 111.
The Yachimeses originally occupied the ground upon which the city of
Stockton now stands. Cal. Farmer, -Dec% 7, 1860.
The Yachichumnes 'formerly inhabited the country between Stockton
and Mt. Diablo.' San Francisco Evening Bulletin, Sept. 9, 1864.
The Suisunes live in Suisun valley. Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860. Solaiio
County was named from their chief. Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 22; TuthilV*
Hist. Cal., p. 301.
The Uttulatas 'lived on the north side of Suisun Valley.' Cal. Farmer,
March 30, 1860.
The Pulpenes lived on the eastern side of Suisun Valley. Ib.
The Tolenos lived on the north side of Suisun Valley. Ib.
The Karquines lived on the straits of that name. Ib.
The Tomales, Tamales, Tamallos, or Tamalanos, and Bollanos, lived be
tween Bodega Bay and the north shore of San Francisco Bay. Id., March 2,
1860, March 30, 1860.
The Socoisukas, Thamiens, and Gerguensens or Gerzuensens ' roamed in
the Santa Clara valley, between the Coyote and Guadalupe rivers, and
the country west of San Jose city to the mountains.' Id., June 22, 1860.
The Lecatuit tribe occupied Marin county, and it is from the name of
their chief that the county takes its name. Cronise's Nat. Wealth, p. 22.
' The Petalumas or the Yolhios lived near or around that town.' Cal. Farmer,
March 30, 1860.
The Tulares, so called by the Spaniards, lived between the northern shore
of the bay of San Francisco and Sail Rafael. Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. iii., p. 421.
The Wapos inhabited ' the country about the Geysers.' Ford, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1856, p. 257.
The Yosemites inhabited the valley of the same name. The Tosemiteiz
are on the headwaters of the Chowchilla. Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399.
The Ahwahnachees are the inhabitants of Yosemite Valley. HitteWs Yo-
semite, p. 42.
The following names of rancherias which formerly existed in the vicinity
of the Mission Dolores, are taken from the Mission Books : Abmoctac, Amu-
taja, Altanui, Aleytac, Anchin, Aleta, Aramay, Altajumo, Aluenchi, Acnagis,
Assunta, Atarpe, Ananias, Acyum, Anamon, Cachanegtac, Caprup, Cazopo,
Carascan, Conop, Chutchin, Chagunte, Chapugtac, Chipisclin, Chynau,
TRIBES NEAR THE MISSION DOLORES. 453
Chipletac, Chuchictac, Chiputca, Chanigtac, Churrnutce, Chayen, Chupcan,
Elarroyde, Flunmuda, Genau, Guloismistac, Gamchines, Guanlen, Hunctu,
Halchis, Horocroc, Huimen, Itaes, Juniamuc, Josquigard, Juchium, Juris,
Joquizara, Luidneg, Luianeglua, Lamsim, Livangelva, Livangebra, Liban-
tone, Macsinum, Mitline, Malvaitac, Muingpe, Naig, Naique, Napa, Ompi-
vromo, Ousint, Oturbe, Olestura, Otoacte, Petlenum, or Petaluma, Pruristac,
Puichon, Puycone, Patnetac, Pructaca, Purutea, Proqueu, Quet, Sitlintaj,
Suchni, Subchiam, Siplichiquin, Siscastac, Ssiti, Sitintajea, Ssupichum,
Sicca, Soisehme, Saturaumo, Satumuo, Sittintac, Ssichitca, Sagunte, Ssalay-
me, Sunchaque, Ssipudca, Saraise, Sipauum, Sarontac, Ssogereate, Sadanes,
Tuzsint, Tatquinte, Titmictac, Tupuic, Titiyu, Timita, Timsim, Tubisnste,
Timigtac, Torose, Tupuiute, Tnca, Tamalo, or Tomales, Talcan, Totola, Ure-
bure, Uturpe, Ussete, TJchirini, Vectaca, Vagerpe, Yelamii, Yacmui, Yaco-
mui, Yajumui, Zomiomi, Zucigin. . .'.Aguasajuchium, Apuasto, Aguasto, Car-
quin, (Karquines), Cuchian, Chaclan, Chiguau, Cotejen, Chuscan, Guyl-
punes, Huchun, Habasto, Junatca, Jarquin, Sanchines, Oljon, Olpen, Ole-
mos, Olmolococ, Quemelentus, Quirogles, Salzon, Sichican, Saucon, Suchi-
gin, Sadan, Uquitinac, Volvon (or Bolbon). 'The tribes of Indians upon
the Bay of San Francisco, and who were, after its establishment, under the
supervision of the Mission of Dolores, were five in number; the Ahwashtees,
Ohlones (called in Spanish Costanos, or Indians of the Coast), Altahmos,
Romanons, and Tuolomos. There were, in addition to these, a few small
tribes, but all upon the land extending from the entrance to the head of San
Francisco Bay, spoke the same language.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, May 31,
1861. The tribes mentioned by Adam Johnston in Schoolcraft, who lived
around the Missions of Dolores and Yerba Buena, were the ' Ahwashtes,
Ohlones, Altahmos, Romanans, and Tulomos. The Ohlones were likely the
same called by the old priests, Sulones, Solomnies, the Sonomis were an
other.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 506. 'The following races of Califor-
nians were named to us living within the precincts of the Mission -of San
Francisco; Guymen, Utschim, Olumpali, Soclan, Sonomi, Chulpun, Umpin,
Kosmitas, Bulbones, Tchalabones, Pitem, Lamam, Apalamu, Tcholoones,
Suysum, Numpali, Tamal, andUlulato.' Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy., vol. iii.,
p. 51.' On compte dans cette seul mission (San Francisco) plus de quinze
differentes tribus d'Indiens: les Khoulpouni; les Oumpini; les Kosmiti; les
Lamanes; les Bolbones; les Pitemens; les Khalalons; les Apatamnes, ils par-
lent la meme langue et habitent le long des bords du Rio Sacramento; les
Guimen; les Outchioung; les Olompalis; les Tarnals; les Sonons ils parlent
la meme langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de San
Francisco; les Saklans; les Ouloulatines; les Noumpolis; les Souissouns; ils
parlent des langues differentes.' Choris, Voy., pitt., pt.iii., pp. 5, 6. 'Cali
fornia Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and formerly under the super
visions of the Mission Dolores. There were five tribes: Ashwashtes, Ol-
hones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the coast), Altahmos,
Romonans, and Tulomos. A few other small tribes round the bay speak the
same language.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 53. ' Um die Bai von San Francisco
die Matalanes, Salses und Quiroles, deren Sprachen, eine gemeinsame Quelle
haben.' Muhknpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. The Olchones ' inhabit
454: TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
the seacoast between San Francisco and Monterey.' Beechey's Voy., vol. ii.,
p. 78. The Salsonas, 'viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al Sueste
(of San Francisco Bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar.' Palou, Vida de
Junipero Serra, p. 214.
.The Korekins formerly lived at the mouth of the San Joaquin. Kotzebue's
New Voy., vol. ii., p. 141.
' The rancherias of Indians near this Mission, all within eight or ten miles
of Santa Cruz, . . . were: Aulintac, the rancheria proper to the Mission; Cha-
lurnii, one mile north-west of the Mission; Hottrochtac, two miles north
west; . ~ . . Wallanmai ; Sio Cotchmin; Shoremee; Onbi; Choromi; Turami;
Payanmin; Shiuguermi; Hauzaurni. The Mission also had neophytes of
the rancherias of Tomoy, Osacalis (Souquel), Yeunaba, Achilla, Yeunata,
Tejey, Nohioalli, Utalliam, Locobo, Yeunator, Chanech, Huocom, Chicutae,
Aestaca, Sachuen, Hualquilme, Sagin, Ochoyos, Huachi, Apil, Mallin, Lu-
chasmi, Coot, and Agtism, as detailed in a letter from Friar Ramon Olbez
to Governor de Sola, in November, 1819, in reply to a circular from him, as
to the native names, etc., of the Indians of Santa Cruz, and their rancherias. '
Col. Farmer, April 5, 1860.
The Mutsunes are the natives of the Mission of San Juan Baptista. Cat.
Farmer, Nov. 23, and June 22, 1860; Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 205.
The Ansaymas lived in the vicinity of San Juan Bautista. Cal. Farmer,
June 22, 1860. ' Four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the Mission (Mon
terey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of Echilat, called fean
Francisquita. Eslanagan was one on the east side of the river and Ecgeagan
was another; another was Ichenta or San Jose; another Xaseum in the Sierra,
ten leagues from Carmelo; that of Pachhepes was in the vicinity of Xaseum,
among the Escellens. That of the Sargentarukas was seven leagues south
and east of the river in a Canaditta de Palo Colorado.' Cal. Farmer, April 20,
1860.
The Eunsienes live near Monterey. Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The
Rumsen or Runsienes are ' Indians in the neighbourhood of Monterey, Cal
ifornia. The Achastliers speak a dialect of the same language.' Ludewig's
Ab. Lang., p. 163. 'Urn den Hafen von Monterey leben die Rumsen oder
Runsien, die Escelen oder Eslen, die Ecclemaches, und Achastlies.' Muhlen-
pfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. 454. 'La partie septentrionale de la Nou-
velle-Californie est habitee par les deux nations des Rumsen et Escelen
Elles forment la population du preside et du village de Monterey. Dans la
baie de S. Francisco, on distingue les tribus des Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes.'
Hurriboldt, Essai Pol., p. 321. 'Eslen y Runsien que ocupan toda la Cali
fornia septentrional.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 167. 'Urn Monterey woh-
nen zwey Volker. . . .die Rumsen, und im Osten von diesen die Escelen.'
Vater, Mithridates, p. 202. ' The Eslenes clan roamed over the present ran
ches San Francisquito, Tallarcittos, and up and down the Carmelo Valley .'
' The rancheria per se of the Escellens was named by the priests, Santa Clara;
Soccorondo was across the river a few miles. Their other little clans or septs
were called Coyyo, Yampas, Fyules, Nennequi, Jappayon, Gilimis, and Ya-
nostas.' Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860. The Eskelens are ' California Indians,
east of Monterey. The Ekklemaches are said to be a tribe of the Eskelen,
KING'S KIVEE AND TULAEE LAKE TKIBES. 455
and to speak the richest idiom of all the California Indians.' Ludewitfs Ab.
Lang., p. 68. The country of the Ecclemachs extends more than twenty
leagues east of Monterey. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 17, 1862.
The Katlendarucas seem ' to have been situated near the Esteros or La
goons about the mouth of the Salinas river, or in the words of the old priest,
" en los Esteros de la entrada al mar del Bio de Monterey, o reversa de esta
grande Ensenada." Their rancherias were Capanay, Lucayasta, Paysim,
Tiubta, Culul, Mustac, Pytogius, Animpayamo, Ymunacam, and all on the
Pajaro river, or between it and the Salinas.' Cal. Farmer, April 20, 1860;
MS. Map.
The Sakhones had rancherias near Monterey ' on the ranchos now known
as Loucitta, Tarro, National Buena Esperanza, Buena Vista, and lands of
that vicinity.' lb.; MS. Map.
'The Wallalshimmez live on Tuolumne Biver.' Lewis, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1857, p. 399.
'The Potoancies claim the Merced river as their homes.' lb. The Pota-
aches occupy the same region on the MS. Map.
'The Nootchoos. . . live on the headwaters of Chowchilla.' Lewis, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399. The Nootchoos live on the south fork of the Merced.
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.
'The Pohoneeches live on the headwaters of Fresno. Lewis, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1857, p. 399. The Pohoneeches live on the north bank of the Fresno.
Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.
The Pitcatches, the Tallenches, and the Coswas, live on the San Joaquin.
Lewis, in Ind Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399.
' The Wattokes, a nation of Indians, consisting of the Wattokes, Ituchas,
Chokemnies, and Wechummies, live high up on King's river.' Lewis, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 399.
The Watches, the Notonotoos, and the Wemelches, live in the neighborhood
of King's River Farm. lb.
' The Talches and Woowells live on Tulare Lake.' lb.
The Chowchillas, Choocchancies, and Howachez, are mentioned as living at
Fresno Biver Farm. Id., p. 399. The Chowchillas inhabit ' from the Kern
Kiver of the Tulare deltas to the Feather river.' Taylor, in Bancroft's Hand
Book Almanac, 1864, p. 32.
The Wattas live in Tuolumne county. Patrick, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856,
p. 240. There has been much discussion about the word Wallie, or Walla.
Powers asserts that it is derived from the word ' wallim, ' whieh means ' down
below, ' and was applied by the Yosemite Indians to all tribes living below
them. The Wallies live on the Stanislaus and Tuolumne. Powers, in Over
land Monthly, vol. x., p. 325.
The Mewahs live in Tuolumne county. Jewett, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856,
p. 244.
The Meewoc nation ' extended from the snow-line of the Sierra to the San
Joaquin Biver, and from the Cosumnes to the Fresno .... North of the Stan
islaus they call themselves Meewoc ("Indians); south of it, to the Merced,
Meewa; south of that to the Fresno, Meewie. On the upper Merced river
is Wakalla; on the upper Tuolumne, Wakalumy; on the Stanislaus and
456 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Mokelumne, Wakaiurnytoh ... As to tribal distribution, the Meewocs north,
of the Stanislaus, like the Neeshenams, designate principally by the points
of the compass. These are toomun, choomuch, hayzooit, and dlowit (north
south, east, and west), from which are formed various tribal names -as
Toomuns, Toomedocs, and Tamolecas, Choomuch, Choomwits, Choome-
docs, or Chimedocs, and Choomteyas; Olowits, Oldwedocs, Oloweeyas,
etc. Olowedocs is the name applied to all Indians living on the plains, as
far west as Stockton. But there are several names which are employed ab
solutely, and without any reference to direction. On the south bank of the
Cosumnes are the Cawnees; on Sutter Creek, the Yuldnees; on the Stanislaus
and Tuolumne the extensive tribe of Wallies; in Yosemite, the Awanees, on
the south fork of Merced, the Nootchoos ; on the middle Merced, the Choom
teyas, on the upper Chowchilla, the Hethtoyas; on the middle Chowchilla
the tribe that named the stream; and on the north bank of the Fresno the
Pohoneechees.' Powers, in Overland Monthly, vol. x., pp. 322-5; MS. Map.
The Coiich tribe live one hundred and fifty miles east of the Vegas of
Santa Clara. Los Angeles Star, May 18, 1861.
The Notonatos lived on King's river. Maltby's MS. Letter.
The Kakweahs lived on Four Creeks. Ib.
The Yolanchas lived on Tule river. Ib.
The Pokoninos lived on Deer creek. Ib.
The Poloyamas lived on Pasey creek. Ib.
The Polokawynahs lived on Kern river. Ib.
The Ymitches and Cowlahs live on Four Creeks. Henky, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1854, p. 303.
The Waches Notoowthas, Ptolmes, and Chunemnes live on King river. Ib.
The Costrowers, Pitiaches, Talluches, Loomnears and Amonces live on the
San Joaquin. Id., p. 304.
The Chowdas, Chookchaneys, Phonechas, Nookchues, and Howetsers, live on
the Fresno river. Ib.
The Coconoons live on the Merced river. Johnston, in SchoolcrafVs Arch.,
vol. iv., p. 413.
The Monos living west of the Sierra Nevada, live on Fine Gold Gulch and
the San Joaquin river. Ib. East of the Sierra Nevada they occupy the
country south of Mono Lake. MS. Map. ' The Monos, Cosos, and some
other tribes, occupy the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevadas.' Cal. Farmer,
May 8, 1863. ' The Olanches, Monos, Siquirionals, Wasakshes, Cowlmillas,
Chokiamauves, Tenisichs, Yocolles, Paloushiss, Wikachumnis, Openoches,
Taches, Nutonetoos and Choemimnees, roamed from the Tuolumne to Kings
river and the Tejon, on the east of the San Joaquin, the Tulare lakes and in
the Sierra Nevada, as stated by Lieut. Beale, in 1856.' Cal. Farmer, June 8,
1860.
The Tularenos live in the mountain wilderness of the Four Creeks, Por-
siuncula (or Kerns or Current) river and the Tejon; and wander thence
towards the headwaters of the Mohave and the neighborhood of the Cahuil-
las. Their present common name belongs to the Spanish and Mexican times
and is derived from the word Tulare (a swamp with flags). Hayes' MS. ' Tu-
SOUTHEKN CALIFORNIANS. 457
larenos, Habitant la grande vallee delos Tulares de la Calif ornie.' Mofras,
Explor., torn, ii., p. 335.
' The Yocut dominion includes the Kern and Tulare basins and the mid
dle of San Joaquiu, stretching from Fresno to Kern River Falls.' Powers, in
Overland Monthly, vol. xi., p. 105.
Cumbatwas on Pitt river. Roseborough's letter to the author, MS.
Shastas, in Shasta and Scott valleys. Ib.
The SOUTHERN CALIFOKNIANS, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth
parallel, are, as far as is known, tribally distributed as follows:
The Cahuillos ' inhabit principally a tract of country about eighty miles
east from San Bernardino, and known as the Cabeson Valley, and their vil
lages are on or near the road leading to La Paz on the Colorado River. . . .
Another branch of this tribe numbering about four hundred occupy a tract
of country lying in the mountains about forty miles southeast from San Ber
nardino, known as the Coahuila Valley.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, pp.
194-5. 'The Coahuillas are scattered through the San Bernardino and San
Jacinto Mountains and eastward in the Cabesau Valley.' WhUing, in Ind. Aff.
Kept., 1871, p. 691. The Coahuilas live in the San Jacinto Mountains. Park
er, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p. 17. The Cohuillas reside in the northern half
of the country, commencing on the coast, and extending to within fifty miles
of the Colorado river, following the eastern base of the mountains. San Fran
cisco Herald, June, 1853. The Cahuillos or Cawios reside ' near the Pacific,
between the sources of the San Gabriel and Santa Anna.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang.,
p. 26. ' The Cahuillas are a little to the north of the San Luisenos, occupy
ing the mountain ridges and intervening valleys to the east and southeast of
Mount San Bernadino, down towards the Mohava river and the desert that
borders the river Colorado, the nation of Mohavas lying between them and
these rivers. I am unable just now to give the number and names of all their
villages. San Gorgonio, San Jacinto, Coyote, are among those best known,
though others even nearer the desert, are more populous.' Hayes' MS. The
Cohuillas occupy the southwestern part of San Bernardino County, and the
northwestern part of San Diego county. MS. Map. 'The Carvilla Indians
occupy the Country from San Gorgonio Pass to the Arroyo Blanco.' Cram's
Topog. Memoir, p. 119. 'The Cowillers and Telenmies live on Four Creeks.'
Id., p. 400. 'The limits of the Kahweyah and Kahsowah tribes appear to
have been from the Feather river in the northern1 part of the State, to the
Tulare lakes of the south.' Cal. Farmer, May 25, I860.
The Diegenos ' are said to occupy the coast for some fifty miles above,
and about the same distance below San Diego, and to extend about a hun
dred miles into the interior.' W hippie, Ewbank, and Turner's Eept., in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. iii. The Dieguinos are in the southern part of San Diego
County, and extend from the coast to the desert. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1856, p. 240. The Dieguinas reside in the southern part of the country
watered by the Colorado, and claim the land from a point on the Pacific to
the eastern part of the mountains impinging on the desert. San Francisco
Herald, June, 1853. The Comeyas or Diegenos 'occupy the coast for some
fifty miles above, and about the same distance below San Diego, and extend
458 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
about a hundred miles into the interior.' BartktVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 7.
' The Indians round San Diego, Deguinos, Diegenos, were in a savage state,
and their language almost unknown. Bartlett says that they are also called
Comeya; but Whipple asserts that the Comeya, a tribe of the Yumas, speak
a different language.' Ludewig, Ab. Lang., p. 62. On page 220 Ludewig says
that as the name Diegenos means the Indians round San Diego, there is no
such name as Deguinos. ' The villages of the Dieguinos, wherever they live
separately, are a little to the south of the Cahuillas. Indeed, under this
appellation they extend a hundred miles into Lower California, in about an
equal state of civilization, and thence are scattered through the Tecate valley
over the entire desert on the west side of New Paver. . . .Their villages known
to me are San Dieguito (about twenty souls), San Diego Mission, San Pas-
qual, Camajal (two villages), Santa Ysabel, San Jose, Matahuay, Lorenzo,
San Felipe, Cajon, Cuyamaca, Valle de las Viejas.' Hayes' MS.
The Missouris ' are scattered over San Bernardino, San Diego and other
counties in the southern part of the State.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 18G9,
p. 17.
The Kechi inhabit the country about Mission San Luis Rey. Bartlett' s
Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 92.
The Chumas, or Kachumas live three miles from the Mission of Santa
Inez. Cal. Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861.
Los Cayotes was the name given by the Spaniards to the tribe which orig
inally inhabited San Diego county. Hoffman, in San Francisco Medical Press,
vol. v., p. 147.
The New Elver Indians ' live along New River, sixty miles west from Fort
Yuma, and near San Diego.' Jones, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 216.
The Sierras, or Caruanas, the Lagunas, or Tataguas, and the Surillos or
Cartakas are mentioned as living on the Tejon reservation. Wentworth, in
Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, pp. 324-6.
The Serranos lived in the vicinity of San Bernardino. Reid, in Los An
geles Star, Letter L, in Hayes Gol.
Mr Taylor claims to have discovered the exact positions of many of the
places mentioned. His statement, for the accuracy of which I by no means
vouch, is as follows: 'Xucu, or Shucu, on the Ortega farm, near Rincon
Point; Missisissepono on Rafel Gonzale's rancho on Saticoy river, near sea,
sometimes called Pono; Coloc, near Carpentaria beach. Mugu, below Sati
coy some thirty miles, near the sea; Anacbuc or Anacarck, near the islet of
La Patera, near the sea shore. Partocac or Paltocac, the Indian cemetery
on the Mesa of La Patera, near sea ; Aguin at the beach of Los Llagos Can
ada; Casalic, at the Refugio Playa and Canada; Tucumu or playa of Arroyo
Honda. Xocotoc, Cojo, or Cojotoc, near Pt. Concepcion; Pt. Concepcion,
Caiicac or Caacac, or Cacat.' Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 1863.
The following names of rancherias were taken from the archives of the
various missions; in the vicinity of La Purissima: Lajuchu, bilimastus,
Sisolop, Jlaacs, or Slacus, Huasna, Estait, Esmischue, Ausion, Esnispele,
Silisne, Sacspili, Estait, Huenejel, Husistaic, Silimi, Suntaho, Alacupusyuen,
Espiiluima, Tutachro, Sisolop, Naila, Tutachro, Paxpili, or Axpitil, Silino,
Lisahuato, Guaslaique, Pacsiol, Sihimi, Huenepel Ninyuelgual, Lompoc,
SOUTHERN MISSION INDIANS. 4£9
Nahuey, or Nahajuey, Sipuea, Stipu, lalamma, Huasna, Sacsiol, Kachisupal,
Salachi, Nocto, Fax, Salachi, Sitolo, or Sautatho, Omaxtux. Near Santa
Inez, were: Sotomoenu, Katahuac, Asiuhuil, Situchi, Kulahuasa, Sisuchi,
Kuyam, or Cuyama, lonata, Tekep, Kusil, Sanchu, Sikitipuc, Temesathi,
Lujanisuissilac, Tapanissilac, lalamne, Chumuchn, Suiesia, Chunmclm, Ta-
hijuas, Tinachi, Lompoe, lonata, Aguama, Sotonoemu, Guaislac, Tequepas,
Matiliha, Stucu, Aketsum, or Kachuma, Ahuamhoue, Geguep, Achillimo,
Alizway, Souscoc, Talaxano, Nutonto, Cholicus. Near Santa Barbara were
Guainnonost, Sisabanonase, Huelemen, Inoje, Luijta, Cajpilili, Missopeno
(Sopono), Inajalayehua, Huixapa, Calahuassa, Snihuax, Huililoc, Yxaulo,
Anijue, Sisuch, Cojats, Numguelgar, Lugups, Gleuaxcuyu, Chiuchin, Ipec,
Sinicon, Xalanaj, Xalou, Sisahiahut, Cholosoc, Ituc, Guima, Huixapapa,
Eleunaxciay, Taxlipu, Elmian, Anajue, Huililic, Inajalaihu, Estuc, Eluaxcu.
Sihuicom, Liam. Some of these were from rancherias of the valleys east of
the vange on the coast. Some of these Taylor locates as follows: ' Janaya,
above the Mission, Salpilil on the Patera; Aljiman, near the windmill of La
Patera; Geliec, near islet of La Patera; Tequepes, in Santa Ynez Valley;
Cascili, in the Kefugio playa; Miguihui, on the Dos Pueblos; Sisichii, in
Dos Pueblos; Maschal, on Santa Cruz Island; Gelo, the islet of La Patera;
Cuyamu on Dos Pueblos aslo Cinihuaj on same rancho; Coloc, at the Riucon;
Alcax in La Goleta; Allvatalama, near the La Goleta Estero; Sayokenek, on
the Arroyo Burro; Partocac Cemetery, near Sea Bluffs of La Goleta; Hu-
maliju, of San Fernando Mission; Calla Wassa and Anijue, of Santa Ynez
Mission; Sajcay in Los Cruces; Sasaguel, in Santa Cruz Island; Lucuy-
imm, in the same Island, dated November, 1816; Nanahuani and Chalosas
were also on same Island; Eljman was on San Marcos, Xexulpituc and Tax
lipu, were camps of the Tulares.' Cal. Farmer, Aug. 21, 18G3.
Near San Buenaventura Mission were: 'Miscanaka, name of the Mis
sion site. Ojai or Aujay, about ten miles up San Buenavent river. Mugu,
on the coast near sea on Guadalasca rancho, not far from the point so called.
Matillija up the S. B. river towards Santa Inez, which mission also had Ma-
tilija Indians. The Matillija Sierra separates the valleys of S. Buenaventa
and S. Inez. Sespe was on the San Cayetano rancho of Saticoy river, twenty
miles from the sea. Mupu and Piiru were on the arroyos of those names
which came into the Saticoy near Sespe. Kamulas was higher up above
Piiru. Cayeguas (not a Spanish name as spelt on some maps) on rancho of
that name. Somes or Somo near hills of that name. Malico, range of hills
south of Somo. Chichilop, Lisichi, Liam, Sisa, Sisjulcioy, Malahue, Chum-
pache, Lacayamu, Ypuc, Lojos Aogni, Luupsch, Miguigui, and Chihucchihui
were names of other rancherias .... Ishgua or Ishguaget, was a rancheria
near the mouth of the Saticoy river and not far from the beach Hueneme
was a rancheria on the ocean coast a few miles south of Saticoy river. Tapo
and Simi were rancherias on the present Noriega rancho of Simi. Saticoy is
the name of the existing rancheria .... on the lower part of the Santa Paula
or Saticoy rancho, about eight miles from the sea, near some fine springs of
water, not far from the river, and near the high road going up the valleys.'
Cal. Farmer, July 24, 1863. ' The site of San Fernando was a rancheria
called Pasheckno. Other clans were Okowvinjha, Kowanga and Saway
4GO TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Yanga. The Ahapchingas were a clan or rancheria between Los Angeles
and San Juan Capistrano, and enemies of the Gabrielenos or those of San
Gabriel. . . .The following are the names of the rancherias, or clans, living
in the vicinity of San Luis Rey Mission : Enekelkawa was the name of one
near the mission-site, Mokaskel, Cenyowpreskel, Itukemuk, Hatawa, Hame-
chuwa, Itaywiy, Milkwanen, Ehutewa, Mootaeyuhew, and Hepowwoo, were
the names of others. At the Aquas Calientes was a very populous rancheria,
called Hakoopin.' Id., May 11, 1860.
In Los Angeles county, the following are the principal lodges or ranch
erias, with their corresponding present local names: Yangna, Los Angeles,
Sibag-na, San Gabriel; Isanthcagna, Mision Vieja; Sisitcanogna, Pear
Orchard; Sonagna, Mr White's farm; Acuragna, The Presa; Asucsagiia,
Azuza; Cucomogna, Cucamonga Farm; Pasinogna, Rancho del Chino; Awig-
na, La Puente; Chokishgna, The Saboneria; Nacaugna, Carpenter's Farm;
Pineugna, Santa Catalina Island; Pimocagna, Eancho de los Ybarras;
Toybipet, San Jose; Hutucgna, Santa Ana (Yorbes) ; Aleupkigna, Santa
Anita; Maugna, Rancho de los Felis; Hahamogna, Rancho de los Verdugas;
Cabuegna, Caliuenga; Pasecgna, San Fernando; Houtgna, Ranchito de
Lugo, Suangna, Suanga; Pubugna, Alamitos; Tibahagna, Serritos; Cho-
wig-na, PalosVerdes; Kinkipar, San Clemente Island, Harasgna. Held, in
Los Angeles Star, Letter L, in Hayes Collection.
The San Luisienos inhabit the northern part of San Diego, from the
coast east, including the mountains. Henley, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1856, p. 240.
' The villages of the San Luisenos are in a section of country adjacent to the
Cahuillas, between 40 and 70 miles in the mountainous interior from San
Diego; they are known as Las Flores, Santa Margarita, San Luis Rey Mis
sion, Wahoma, Pala, Temecula, Ahuanga (two villages), La Joya, Potrero,
and Bruno's and Pedro's villages within five or six miles of Aqua Caliente;
they are all in San Diego County.' Hayes' MS.
The Noclies are settled along the rivers which flow between the Colorado
and the Pacific Ocean. Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii. p. 45. Garces mentions
the western Noches in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., vol. i., p. 299.
The Tejon Indians were those who inhabited the southern part of Tulare
valley. Mollhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, vol. i., p. 83.
The Playanos were Indians who came to settle in the valley of San Juan
Capistrano. Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Gal, p. 249.
The SHOSHONES, whose territory spreads over south-eastern Oregon, south
ern Idaho, and the whole of Utah and Nevada, extending into Arizona and
New Mexico, and the eastern border of California, I divide into two great
nations, the Snakes or Shoshones, proper, and the Utahs, with their subdi
visions. Wilson divides the Shoshones into the Shoshones and Bannacks,
and the Utahs; the latter he subdivides into seven bands, which will be seen
under Utahs. He adds: 'Among the Shoshonies there are only two bands
properly speaking. The principal or better portion are called Shoshonies,
or Snakes .... the others the Shoshocoes .... Their claim of boundary is to
the east, from the red Buttes on the North fork of the Platte, to its head in
the Park, Decayaque, or Buffalo Bull-pen, in the Rocky Mountains; to the
THE SNAKES. 461
south across the mountains, over to the Yanpapa, till it enters Green, or
Colorado river, and then across to the backbone or ridge of mountains called
the Bear river mountains running nearly due west towards the Salt Lake, so
as to take in most of the Salt Lake, and thence on to the sinks of Marry's or
Humboldt's river; thence north to the fisheries, on the Snake river, in Oregon;
and thence south (their northern boundary), to the Red Buttes, including
the source of Green River.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 697. ' Under va
rious names.... the great race of Shoshones, is found scattered over the
boundless wilderness, from Texas to the Columbia. Their territory is bound
ed on the north and west by. . . .the Blackfeet and Crows.' BrowndVs Ind.
Races, pp. 537-8.
The Snakes, or Shoshones proper, although they form a part only of the
great Shoshone family, are usually termed ' the Shoshones' by the authorities.
They are divided by Dr Hurt into ' Snakes, Bannacks, Tosiwitches, Go-
sha Utes, and Cumumpahs, though he afterwards classes the last two divis
ions as hybrid races* between the Shoshones and the Utahs The Sho
shones claim the northeastern portion of the territory for about four hun
dred miles west, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five miles
south from the Oregon line.' Simpson's Route to CaL, p. 46. ' The great
Snake nation may be divided into three divisions, namely, the Shirrydi-
kas, or dog-eaters; the Wararereekas, or fish-eaters; and the Banattees, or
robbers. But, as a nation, they all go by the general appellation of Sho
shones, or Snakes. . . .The Shirrydikas are the real Shoshones, and live in
the plains hunting the buffalo.' The country claimed by the Snake tribes
'is bounded on the east by the Rocky Mountains, on the south by the Span
ish waters; on the Pacific, or west side, by an imaginary line, beginning at
the west endv or spur, of the Blue Mountains, behind Fort Nez Perces, and
running parallel with the ocean to the height of land beyond the Umpqna
River, in about north lat. 41° (this line never approaches within 150 miles of
the Pacific) ; and on the north by another line, running due east from the said
spur of the Blue Mountains, and crossing the great south branch, or Lewis
River, at the Dalles, till it strikes the Rocky Mountains 20U miles north of the
three pilot knobs, or the place thereafter named the 'Valley of Troubles.'
Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., pp. 249, 251. ' They embrace all the territory of
the Great South Pass, between the Mississippi valley and the waters of the
Columbia .... Under the name of Yampatickara or Root-eaters and Bonacks
they occupy with the Utahs the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake,
extending south and west to the borders of New Mexico and California.'
BrownelVs Ind. Races, pp. 533-7, 540. ' The hunters report, that the proper
country of the Snakes is to the east of the Youta Lake, and north of the Snake
or Lewis river; but they are found in many detached places. The largest
band is located near Fort Boise, on the Snake river to the north of the Bo
nacks.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 501. The Shoshones
'occupy the centre and principal part of the great Basin.' Taylor, in CaL
Farmer, Oct. 18, 1861. ' Inhabit that part of the Rocky Mountains which
lies on the Grand and Green River branches of the Colorado of the West,
the valley of Great Bear River, the habitable shores of the Great Salt Lake,
a considerable portion of country on Snake River above and below Fort Hall,
462 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
and a tract extending two or three hundred miles to the west of that post.'
Farnham's Trav., p. 61. The Shoshones inhabit about one third of the ter
ritory of Utah, living north of Salt Lake ' and on the line of the Humboldt
or Mary River, some 400 miles west and 100 to 125 south of the Oregon line.
The Yuta claim the rest of the territory between Kansas, the Sierra Nevada,
New Mexico and the Oregon frontier.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 575.
'Les Soshonies, c'est-a-dire les deterreurs de racines, surnommes les Ser
pents, .... habitent la partie meridionale du territoire de 1'Oregon, dans le
voisinage de la haute Californie.' De Smet, Voy., p. 24. 'Their country
lies south-west of the south-east branch of the Columbia, and is said to
be the most barren of any part of the country in these western regions.'
Parker's Explor. Tour., p. 83. 'On the south part of the Oregon Terri
tory, adjoining upper California, are located the Shoshones or Snake In
dians.' Ib., p. 308. 'Serpents ou Saaptins, Monquis, Bonacks et Youtas,
toutes les branches du Rio Colombia ou Sud-Est et les environs du lac
Sale au Timpanogos.' Mofras, Explor., torn, ii., p. 385. 'The country of
the Shoshonees proper is south of Lewis or Snake River, and east of the Salt
Lake. There is, however one detached band, known as the Wihinasht, or
Western Snakes, near Fort Boirie, separated from the main body by the tribe
of Bonnaks.' Hole's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 219. 'The Sho
shones are a small tribe of the nation called Snake Indians, a vague denom
ination, which embraces at once the inhabitants of the southern part of the
Rocky mountains, and of the plains on each side.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav.,
p. 305. The Snakes or Shothoucs 'formerly occupied the whole of that
vast territory lying between the Rocky and the Blue Mountains, and extend
ing northward to the lower fork of the Columbia, and to the south as far as
the basin of the Great Salt Lake.' Coke's Rocky Mis., p. 275. ' They occupy
southern and western Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rtpt., 1869, p. 18. ' They
inhabit the southern part of the Rocky Mountains and the plains on each side. '
Bulfinch's Ogn., p. 124. ' They occupy all the country between the southern
branches of Lewis's river, extending from the Umatullum to theE. side of the
Stony Mountains, on the southern parts of Wallaumut river from about 40° to
47° N. Lat. A branch of this tribe reside .... in spring and summer on the W.
fork of Lewis river, a branch of the Columbia, and in winter and fall on the
Missouri/ Morse's Kept,, p. 369. 'The Shoshones dwell between the Rocky
and blue mountain ranges.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter., p. 151. 'The aboriginees of
the Reese River country consist of the Shoshone nation, divided into many
subordinate tribes, each having a distinctive name, and occupying a tract of
country varying from 20 to 50 miles square. Their country is bordered on
the west by the Pi-Utes, the Edwards Creek mountains some 20 miles west
of Reese River, being the dividing line. On the east it extends to Ruby Val
ley, where it joins on the territory of the Goshoots, the Bannocks being their
neighbors on the northeast.' Cal. Farmer, June 26, 1863. ' The Snake tribe,
inhabit the country bordering on Lewis and Bear Rivers, and their various
tributaries.' Palmer's Jour., p. 43. ' The Snake Indians, who embrace many
tribes, inhabit a wide extent of country at the head of Snake River above
and below Fort Hall, and the vicinity of Great Bear River and Great Salt
Lake. They are a migratory race; and generally occupy the south-east-
BANNACKS AND UTAHS. 463
ern portion of Oregon.' Dunn's Ogn., p. 325. The Shoshones inhabit the
great plains to the southward of the Lewis River. Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 143.
The Shoshones occupy ' almost the whole eastern half of the State (Nevada).
The line separating them from the Pai-Utes on the east and south is not very
clearly defined.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p. 114. ' The western bands
of Shoshones range from the Idaho boundary north, southward to the
thirty-eighth parallel; their western limit is the line passing through the
Sunatoya Mountains; their eastern limit Steptoe and Great Salt Lake Valleys.1
Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 95. The Snakes inhabit ' the plains of the Columbia
between the 43d and 44th degrees of latitude.' Franchere's Nar., p. 150. The
Washakeeks or Green River Snakes inhabit the country drained by Green
River and its tributaries. The Tookarikkahs, or mountain sheep-eaters, ' oc
cupy the Salmon river country and the upper part of Snake River Valley,
and Coiners' Prairie, near the Boise mines.' These two bands are the gen
uine Snakes; other inferior bands are the Hokandikahs or Salt Lake Diggers
who 'inhabit the region about the great lake.' The Aggitikkahs or Sal
mon-eaters who ' occupy the region round about Salmon falls, on Snake
river.' Stuart's Montana, p. 80.
' The Bannacks, who are generally classed with the Snakes, inhabit the
country south of here, (Powder River) in the vicinity of Harney lake. . . The
Winnas band of Snakes inhabit the country north of Snake river, and are
found principally on the Bayette, Boise, and Sickley rivers.' Kirkpatrick, in
Ind. Aff. Bept., 1862, pp. 267-8. The Bonacks ' inhabit the country between
Fort Boise and Fort Hall.' Wttkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502.
They ' inhabit the southern borders of Oregon, along the old Humboldt River
emigrant road.' Simpson's Route to CaL, p. 47. ' The Bonaks seem ' to embrace
Indian tribes inhabiting a large extent of country west of the Rocky Moun
tains. As the name imports, it was undoubtedly given to that portion of In
dians who dig and live on the roots of the earth.' Johnston, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 221. The Bonaks inhabit ' the banks of that part of Saptin
or Snake River which lies between the mouth of Boisais or Reeds River and
the Blue Mountains.' Farnham's Trav., p. 76. The Bonax inhabit the
country west of the Lewis fork of the Columbia between the forty-second
and forty-fourth parallels. Parker's Map. The Bannacks range through
northern Nevada, and into Oregon and Idaho. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rejrt.,
1869, p. 18. They 'claim the southwestern portions of Montana as their
land.' Sully, in Id., p. 289. 'This tribe occupies most of that portion of
Nevada north of the forty-first degree of north latitude, with the southeast
ern corner of Oregon and the southwestern corner of Idaho.' Parker, in Id.,
1866, p. 114. The Bannocks drift 'from Boise City to the game country
northeast of Bozeman, Montana, and south as far as Fort Bridger, Wyoming
Territory traveling from Oregon to East of the Rocky Mountains.' High,
in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, pp. 272-3.
The Utah nation occupies all that portion of the territory assigned to the
Shoshone family lying south of the Snakes, between the country of the Cal-
ifornians proper, and the Rocky Mountains. It is divided into several tribes,
the number varying with different authorities. Wilson divides the Utah na
tion into seven tribes: viz., the 'Taos, Yampapas, Ewinte, Tenpenuy Utahs,
464 TRIBAL BOUND ABIES.
Parant Utahs, Sampiches, Pahmetes.' SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. vi., p. 697.
' Besides the Parawat Yutas, the Yampas, 200-300 miles south, on the White
River; the Tebechya, or sun-hunters, about Tete de Biche, near Spanish
lands; and the Tash Yuta, near the Navajos; there are scatters of the nation
along the Calif ornian road from Beaver Valley, along the Santa Clara, Virgen,
Las Vegas, and Muddy Rivers, to New Mexico.' Burton's City of the Saints,
p. 578. ' The tribes of Utah Territory are: Utahs at large, Pi Utahs. roving,
Uwinty Utahs, Utahs of Sampitch Valley, Utahs of Carson Valley, Utahs of
Lake Sevier and Walker River, Navahoes and Utahs of Grand River, Sho-
shonees, or Snakes proper, Diggers on Huinboldt River, Eutahs of New
Mexico.' SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. v., p. 498. The Utahs are composed of
several bands, the most important of which are the Timpanogs who ' range
through Utah valley and the mountains adjoining the valley on the east. . . .
The Uintahs, the principal band of the Utahs, . . range through Uintah val
ley and the Green River country The Pah Vants range through
Pah Vant and Sevier valleys and west to the White mountains.' Irish, in
Ind. Aff. Eept., 1865, p. 145. 'The Yutah nation is very numerous, and is
also made up of many bands, which are to be distinguished only by their
names. .. .Four of these bands called Noaches, Payuches, Tabiachis and
Sogup, are accustomed to occupy lands within the province of New Mexico,
or very near it, to the north and northeast.' Whipple, Ewbank, & Turner's
Kept,, in Pac. E. R. Eept., vol.iii. ' The Utahs are divided into three bands
— Mohuaches, Capotes, and Nomenuches or Poruches.' Delgado, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1865, p. 163; see also pp. 17, 18. ' The Ute tribe Dr. Hurt divides into
the Pah Utahs, Tamp Pah-Utes, Cheveriches, Pah Vants, San Pitches, and
Pyedes. The Utahs proper inhabit the waters of Green River, south of Green
River Mountains, the Grand River and its tributaries and as far south as the
Navajo country. They also claim the country bordering on Utah Lake and
as far south as the Sevier Lake.' Simpson's Eoute to CaL, p. 44. ' The Utahs
are a separate and distinct tribe of Indians, divided into six bands, each with a
head chief, as follows: The Menaches the Capotes the Tabe-naches
the Cibariches .the Tempanahgoes the Piuchas.' Graves, in
Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 178. « The Yutahs are subdivided into four great
bands: the Noaches, the Payuches (whom we believe to be identical with
the Pai* Utahs), the Tabiachis, and the Sogups, who live in perfect harmony
on the north-eastern confined of New Mexico, and at a distance of 500 miles
to the south of the great tribe of the Zuguaganas.' Domenech's Deserts, vol.
ii., p. 8. The Utes are 'those which inhabit the vicinity of the lakes
and streams and live chiefly on fish, being distinguished by the name of Pah
Utahs or Pah Utes, the word Pah, in their language signifying water.' Stans-
Itury's Eept., p. 148. 'The country of the Utaws is situated to the east and
southeast of the Soshonees, at the sources of the Rio Colorado.' De Smet's
Letters, p. 39. ' The Youtas live between the Snake and Green Rivers.' Prich-
ard's Eesearches, vol. v., p. 430. ' The Utahs of New Mexico are a portion of
the tribe of the same name inhabiting the Territory of Utah . . . They inhabit
and claim all that region of country, embracing the sources of the north
western tributaries of the Arkansas river, above Bent's fort, up to the south
ern boundary of Utah Territory, and all the northern tributaries of the Rio
UTAHS. 465
Grande, which lie within New Mexico and north of the 37th parallel of lati
tude.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 169. The Utes 'occupy and
claim that section of country ranging from Abiquiu, northward to Navajo
Kiver and westward somewhat of this line.' Davis, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869,
p. 255. The Eutaws 'reside on both sides of the Eutaw or Anahuac mount
ains, they are continually migrating from one side to the other.' Farnham's
Trav., p. 48. 'The Youtas inhabit the country between the Snake and
Green rivers.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 502. 'The Utahs*
claim of boundaries are all south of that of the Shoshonies, embracing the
waters of the Colorado, going most probably to the Gulf of California.'
Wilson, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. vi., p. 698. The country of the Utaws ' is
situated to the east and southeast of the Shoshones, about the Salt Lake, and
on the head waters of the Colorado river, which empties into the gulf of
California. . . .Their country being in latitude about 41V The Utaws are
decent in appearance and their country, which is towards Santa Fe, is said
to be tolerably good.' Parker's Explor. Tour., pp. 79, 309. The Yutas, Utaws,
or Youtas, ' range between lat. 35° and 42 J North and the Meridians 29° and
37 'J W Long, of Washington. The great Yutas tribe is divided into two fa
milies which are contradistinguished by the names of their respective head
quarters; the Tao Yutas, so called because their principal camp is pitched in
Tao mountains, seventy miles north of Santa Fe ; and the Timpanigos Yutas,
who hold their great camp near the Timpanigos lake.' Farnham's Lifein Cat.,
p. 371. ' Um den Fluss Dolores haben die Yutas Tabeguachis Payuches und
Tularenos ihre Wohnsitze.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 538. The
Utahs live ' on the border of New Mexico.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 196. ' Le
pays des Utaws est situe a Test et au sud-est de celui des Soshonies, aux
sources du Rio-Colorado.' De Smet, Voy., p. 30. 'The Yutas or Eutaws are
one of the most extensive nations of the West, being scattered from the north
of New Mexico to the borders of Snake river and Kio Colorado.' Gregg's
Com. Prairks, vol. i., p. 300.
The Pah Utes occupy the greater part of Nevada, and extend southward
into Arizona and south-eastern California. There is reason to believe that
the Pi Utes are a distinct tribe from the Pah Utes, but as the same localities
are frequently assigned to both tribes by different writers, and as many have
evidently thought them one and the same, thereby causing great confusion,
I have thought it best to merely give the names as spelled by the authorities
without attempting to decide which tribe is being spoken of in either case.
The Pah-Utes ' range principally in the southwestern portion of Utah and
the southeastern portion of Nevada.' Head, in Ind. Aff. Pept., 1866, p. 124.
The Pah Utes ' are spread over the vast tract of territory, between the Sierra
Nevada and the Colorado Eiver, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel,
and extending to the northward through California and Nevada into South
ern Oregon and Idaho.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 92. The Pah-Utes
inhabit the western part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1872, p. 59.
The Pah Utes and Pah Edes range over all that part of Utah south of the city of
Filmore in Millard County. Head, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1868, p. 150. ' The term
Pah Utes is applied to a very large number of Indians who roam through
that vast section of country lying between the Sierra Nevada and the Colo-
VOL. I. 30
466 TEIBAL BOUNDAEIES.
rado, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the
northward through California, Nevada, into Southern Oregon and Idaho.
The Indians of this tribe in Arizona are located in the Big Bend of the Col
orado, on both sides of the river, and range as far east as Diamond Kiver,
west to the Sierra Nevada, and northward into the State of Nevada.' Jones,
in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 216. The Pah Utes 'properly belong in Nevada
and Arizona, but range over in southwestern Utah.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Eept.,
1865, p. 146. The Pah-Utes 'range principally from the borders of Oregon,
en the north, to the southeast boundary of Nevada, and from the Sierra
Nevada" eastward to the Humboldt Eiver and Sink of Carson; there are one or
two small bands of them still further east, near Austin, Nevada. They are
much scattered within these limits.' Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870, pp.
94-5. ' The Pah-utes roam along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada,
from the mouth of the Virgin with the Colorado (in about lat 36° long. 115- )
to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake
country of Fremont's explorations.' Cal. Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'The Pa-
utahs, and Lake Utahs occupy the territory lying south of the Snakes, and
upon the waters of the Colorado of the west and south of the Great Salt
Lake.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 179. 'The Pa Yuta (Pey Utes) 'extend
from forty miles west of Stony Point to the Calif ornian line, and N.W. to the
Oregon line, and inhabit the valley of the Fenelon Eiver, which rising from
Lake Bigler empties itself into Pyramid Lake.' Burton's City of the Saints, p.
576. ' The Womenunche (also known as the Pa Uches) occupy the country
on the San Juan river.' Collins, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1862, p. 238. ' The custom
of designating the different bands of Pah Utes is derived from the name of
some article of food not common in other localities; "Ocki," signifies " trout,"
" toy," " tule," &c. The Ocki Pah Utes. . . .are located on Walker Kiver and
Lake, and the mountains adjacent thereto. The Cozaby Pah Utes. . . .range
from Mono Lake east to Smoky Valley.' Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870,
pp. 112-13. The Pah Utes extend, ' over portions of Utah and Arizona Ter
ritories, also the States of Nevada and California. Fcnton, in Id., p. 113.
The Chemehuevis are a band of Pah-Utahs. Whipple, Eucbank, and Turner's
Kept., in Pac. R. Rcpt.,\ol. Hi., p. 76. The Chimehuevais live about forty miles
below the Colorado Eiver agency, on the California side of the river, and are
scattered over an area of fifty square miles. Tonner, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1872, p.
323. The Chemehuewas are ' located mainly on the west bank of the Colora
do, above La Paz, and ranges along the river from about thirty miles south of
Fort Mohave, to a point fifty miles north of Fort Yuma, to the eastward, but
a short distance.' Sherman, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p. 216. The Chemihuevis
live on the Colorado river, above the Bill Williams fork, a small tribe and
quite unknown. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 387. The Chemehnevis
are 'a band of Pahutahs, belonging to the great Shoshonee family.'
Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 35. ' The Chimchinves are undoubtedly a branch of
the Pah Ute tribe.' Stanley, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1866, p. 102.
The Pi Utes, or Pyutes, ' inhabit Western Utah, from Oregon to New Mex
ico; their locations being generally in the vicinity of the principal rivers and
lakes of the Great Basin, viz., Humboldt, Carson, Walker, Truckee, Owens's,
Pyramid, and Mono.' Simpson's Route to Cal,. p. 48. 'The tribe of Indians
PI TJTES AND GOSH UTES. 467
who inhabit this section (near Fort Churchill) of which the post forms the
centre comes under the one generic name of Piute, and acknowledge as their
great chief Winnemucca. They are split up into small Captaincies and scat
tered throughout a vast extent of territory.' Farley, in San Francisco Medical
Press, vol. iii., p. 154. The Piutes or Paiuches inhabit ' the northern banks
of the Colorado, the region of Severe river, and those portions of the Timpa-
nigos desert where man can find a snail to eat.' Farnham's Life in CaL, p.
371. The Piutes live ' along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada, from
the mouth of the Virgen with the Colorado (in about Lat. 36° Long. 115°)
to the territories of the Washoes north, and as far east as the Sevier Lake.'
Taylor, in CaL Farmer, June 22, 1860. 'Yon 34° nordwarts die Pai Utes.'
Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p. 430. The territory occupied
by the Piutes ' is about one hundred miles broad, and is bounded on the
north by the country of the Bannocks, on the east by that of the Shoshones,
on the south by the State line between Nevada and California and on the
west by the territory of the Washoes.' Parker, in Lid. Aff. Kept., 18G6, p. 115.
The Piutes inhabit ' a country two hundred miles long by one hundred and
twenty broad, lying parallel and east of that of the Washoes South of
Walker lake are the Mono Pi Utes They are closely allied to the Walker
River or Ocki Pi Utes. . . .located in the vicinity of Walker river and lake and
Carson river and Upper lake At the lower Carson lake are the Toy Pi
Utes.' Campbell, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p. 119. ' Upon the Colorado river,
in the northern part of the Territory lives a band, or some bands, of Pi Utes,
occupying both sides of the river, roaming to the limit of Arizona on the
west, but on the east, for some miles, how far cannot be determined.' Whit-
tier, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1868, p. 140. The Pi Ute 'range extends north to the
Beaver, south to Fort Mojave, east to the Little Colorado and San Francisco
Mountains, and on the west through the southern part of Nevada as far as
the California line. . . .the larger portion living in Nevada.' Fenton, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 203. The Pi Utes inhabit the south-west portion of Utah.
Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 142. 'The Pi Ute Indians are scat
tered over a large extent of country in Southeastern Nevada and Southwest
ern Utah.' Powell, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 562. The Pi Utes inhabit the
south-eastern part of Nevada. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 59.
The Gosh Utes inhabit the country west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to
the Pah Utes. They are said by most writers to be of mixed breed, be
tween the Snakes, or Shoshones proper, and the Utahs: 'The Goshautes
live about forty miles west ' of Salt Lake City. Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1858, p. 212. The Goships, or Gosha Utes, range west of Salt Lake. Cooley,
in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17. The Goships 'range between the Great Salt
Lake and the land of the western Shoshones.' Head, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866,
p. 123. The Goship Shoshones ' live, in the western part of Utah, between
Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the Territory,' (Utah). Tour
tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230. The Goshutes are located 'in the
country in the vicinity of Egan Canon. . . .In the Shoshone range.' Douglas,
in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96. ' The Goship Shoshones inhabit that part of
Utah which lies between Great Salt Lake and the western boundary of the
Territory (Utah).' Tourtellotte, in Id., p. 141. The Goshoots 'Dr. Hurt
468 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
classes among the Shoshones; but according to Mr. G. "W. Bean, Capt.
Simpson's Guide in the fall of 1858. . . .they are the offspring of a disaffected
portion of the Ute tribe, that left their nation, about two generations ago,
under their leader or Chief Goship, whence their name Goship Utes since
contracted into Goshutes Reside principally in the grassy valleys west of
Great Salt Lake, along and in the vicinity of Capt. Simpson's routes, as far
as the Ungoweah Range.' Simpson's Route to CaL, pp. 47-8. The Gosh Yutas,
' a body of sixty under a peaceful leader were settled permanently on the
Indian Farm at Deep Creek, and the remainder wandered 40 to 200 miles
west of X>t. S. L. City.' Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577.
The Toquimas live about the head of Reese River Valley, and in the
country to the east of that point. Taylor, in CaL Farmer, June 26, 1863.
The Temoksees live about thirty miles south of Jacobsville. CaL Farmer,
June 26, 1863.
The Pah Vants ' occupy the Corn Creek, Paravan, and Beaver Valleys, and
the valley of Sevier.' Simpson's Eoute to CaL, p. 45. Half the Pavants 'are
settled on the Indian farm at Corn Creek; the other wing of the tribe lives
along Sevier Lake, and the surrounding country in the north-east extremity
of Filmore Valley, fifty miles from the City, where they join the Gosh Yuta.'
Burton's City of the Saints, p. 577. Although Mr Burton gives this as the
fruit of his own observation, it is evidently taken from Forney's Kept., in
Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 364, which reads as follows: 'About half of them
(the Pahvants) have their home on the Corn Creek Indian farm. The other
wing of the tribe lives along Sevier lake and surrounding country, in the
northeast extremity of Fillmore valley, and about fifty miles from Fillmore
city.' The Pah Vants range 'through Pah-Vant and Sevier valleys, and
west to the White Mountains.' Cooky, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1865, p. 17. ' The
Pahveiits occupy the territory in the vicinity of Corn Creek reservation,
and south of the Goship Shoshones.' Tourtdotte, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, p.
230. ' The Pah Vant Indians inhabit the country south of the Goship Sho
shones.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1870, p. 142.
The Pi Edes ' are a band ranging through Beaver and Little Salt Lake
Valley, and on the Virgin and Santa Clara rivers, down to the Muddy, em
bracing the whole southern portion of Utah Territory.' Irish, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1865, p. 145. ' The Py Edes live adjoining the Pahvants, down to the
Santa Clara.' Simpson's Eoute to CaL, p. 45. 'The Pi Ede Indians inhabit
the country south of the Pah Vants.' Tourtelotte, in Ind Aff. Eept., 1870, p.
142. ' The Piede Indians inhabit the extreme southern portion of the terri
tory (Utah) on the Santa Clara and Muddy rivers.' Armstrong, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1856, p. 234. The Piede Indians live on Rio Virgin and Santa Clara
river. Carvalho's Incid. of Trav., p. 223.
The Washoes ' inhabit the country along the base of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, from Honey lake on the north to the west fork of Walker's river
the south.' Dodge, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1859, p. 374. Simpson's Eoute to CaL, on
p. 45, and Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578, repeat this. The Washoes ' are
stated to have boundaries as high up as the Oregon line, along the eastern
flanks of the Sierra Nevada, as far to the east as two hundred miles and to
the south to Walker's river.' CaL Farmer, June 22, 1860. The Washoes live
WASHOES AND SAMPITCHES. 469
in the extreme western part of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1866, p.
115. ' Commencing at the western boundary of the State, we have first the
Washoe tribe, occupying a tract of country one hundred miles long,
north and south, by twenty-five in width.' Campbell, in Id., p. 119. The
Washoes ' live along Lake Bigler and the headwaters of Carson, Walker, and
Truckee rivers, and in Long and Sierra Valleys.' Wasson, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1861, p. 114. The Washoes ' are scattered over a large extent of country along
the western border of the State ' of Nevada. Parker, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869,
p. 18. The Washoes ' frequent the settled portions of the State, principally
the towns of Virginia City, Carson City, Reno, Washoe City, and Genoa.
In summer they betake themselves to the mountains in the vicinity of Lake
Tahoe and Hope Valley.' Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96.
The Sampitches 'range through the Sanpitch valley and creek on the
Sevier river.' Irish, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 145. 'The Sampiches are a
tribe wandering on the desert to the south of Youta Lake.' Prichard's Re
searches, vol. v., p. 430. Burton mentions ' Sampichyas ' settled at San Pete.
City of the Saints, p. 578. The San Pitches ' live in the San Pitch valley and
along the Sevier river.' Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 18. 'The San
Pitches occupy a territory south and east of the Timpanagos.' Tourtellotte,
in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 230. ' The San Pitch Indians inhabit the country
about the San Pete reservation.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1870, p. 142.
* Les Sampectches, les Pagouts et les Ampayouts sont les plus proches voi-
sins des Serpents.' De Smet, Voy., p. 28.
The Uinta Utes 'claim Uinta valley and the country along Green river.'
Forney, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 364. The Uinta Yutas live ' in the mount
ains south of Fort Bridger, and in the country along Green River.' Burton's
City of the Saints, p. 577.
The Yam Pah Utes ' inhabit the country south of the Uinta Valley reserva
tion.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Id., 1869, p. 231.
The Elk Mountain Utes live in the south-eastern portion of Utah. Tour
tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578.
repeats.
The Tosawees or White Knives, or as they are sometimes called Shoshoteos
or Foot-men, on the Huinboldt and Goose Creek. Stuart's Montana, p. 80.
' The Tosawitches, or White Knives, inhabit the region along the Humboldt
River.' Simpson's Shortest Route, p. 47. The Indians about Stony Point are
called Tosawwitches (white knives). Hurt, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1856.
The Weber Utes 'live in the valley of Salt Lake.' Tourtellotte, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 230, also in id., 1870, p. 141. The Weber Utes live in
the vicinity of Salt Lake City. Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 56. The
Weber River Yutas are principally seen in Great Salt Lake City. Their chief
settlement is forty miles to the north. Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578.
The Cum Umbahs 'are mixed-bloods of the Utes and Shoshonees, and
range in the region of Salt lake, Weber and Ogden valleys in northern Utah.'
Irish, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 144.
The Wimmenuches are ' a tribe of the Ute Indians, whose country is prin
cipally from Tierra Amarilla northward to Ellos de los Animas and thence
also to the Rio Grande. They mix with the Pi Utes in Utah.' Davis, in Ind.
470 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES.
Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 255. The Wemenuche Utes 'roam and hunt west of the
San Juan River, and their lodges are to be found along the banks of the Rio
de las Animas, Rio de la Plata and Rio Mancos.' Hanson, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1870, p. 155. The Weminuche Utes live near the San Juan river. Armstrong,
in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1872, p. 307.
The Capote Utes ' roam from within five to fifty miles of the agency, but
the greater part of the time live in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla, from five
to ten miles distant, north and south along the Rio Charmer.' Hanson, in
2nd. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 154; Armstrong, in Id., 1870, p. 307.
' The Sheberetches inhabit the country south of the Yam Pah Utes. Tour-
tellotte, in Ind. Aff. RepL, 1870, p. 142.
The Fish Utes ' inhabit the country about Red Lake, south of the She
beretches.' Tourtellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142.
The Task Utes live near the Navajos. Burton's City of the Saints, p. 578.
The Tabechya, or Sun-hunters, ' live about Tete de Biche, near Spanish
lands.' ' Timpenaguchya, or Tinipana Yuta, corrupted into Tenpenny Utes,
. . . .dwell about the kanyon of that name, and on the east of the Sweetwater
Lake.' Burton's City of the Saints, pp. 577-8. 'The Timpanoge Indians
formerly resided at and about Spanish Fort reservation, but they are now
scattered among other bands and do not now exist as a separate tribe.' Tour
tellotte, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 142; see also Id., 1869, p. 230. The Tim-
panogs inhabit 'Utah valley, and the neighboring mountains.' Cooky, in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 17.
CHAPTER V.
NEW MEXICANS.
GEOGEAPHICAL POSITION OF THIS GROUP, AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE
TERRITORY — FAMILY DIVISIONS: APACHES, PUEBLOS, LOWER CALIFORNIANS,
AND NORTHERN MEXICANS— THE APACHE FAMILY: COMANCHES, APACHES
PROPER, HUALAPAIS, YUMAS, COSNINOS, YAMPAIS, YALCHEDUNES, YAMAJABS,
COCHEES, CRUZADOS, NIJORAS, NAVAJOS, MOJAVES, AND THEIR CUSTOMS —
THE PUEBLO FAMILY: PUEBLOS, MOQUIS, PIMAS, MARICOPAS, PAPAGOS,
AND THEIR NEIGHBORS— THE COCHIMIS, WAICURIS, PfiRICUIS, AND OTHER
LOWER CALIFORNIANS — THE SERIS, SINALOAS, TARAHUMARES, CONCHOS,
TEPEHUANES, TOBOSOS, ACAXES, AND OTHERS IN NORTHERN MEXICO.
The NEW MEXICANS, under which name I group the
nations of New Mexico, Arizona, Lower California, So-
nora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo
Leon, northern Zacatecas, and western Texas, present
some peculiarities not hitherto encountered in this work.
As a groupal designation, this name is neither more nor
less appropriate than some others; all I claim for it is
that it appears as fit as any. The term Mexican might
with propriety be applied to this group, as the majority
of its people live within the Mexican boundary, but that
word is employed in the next division, which is yet more
strictly of Mexico.
The territory of the New Mexicans, which lies for the
most part between the parallels 3 6° and 2 3° and the mer
idians 96° and 117°, presents a great diversity of climate
and aspect. On reaching the northern extremity of the
Gulf of California, the Sierra Nevada and coast ranges of
mountains join and break up into detached upheavals, or
472 NEW MEXICANS.
as they are called k' lost mountains ;' one part, with no great
elevation, continuing through the peninsula, another,
under the name of Sierra Madre, extending along the
western side of Mexico. The Rocky Mountains, which
separate into two ranges at about the forty-fifth paral
lel, continue southward, one branch, known in Utah as
the Wahsatch, merging into the Sierra Madre, while
the other, the great Cordillera, stretches along the
eastern side of Mexico, uniting again with the Sierra
Madre in the Mexican table-land. Besides these are
many detached and intersecting ranges, between which
lie arid deserts, lava beds, and a few fertile valleys.
From the sterile sandy deserts which cover vast areas of
this territory, rise many isolated groups of almost inac
cessible peaks, some of which are wooded, thus affording
protection and food for man and beast, Two great
rivers, the Colorado and the Rio Grande del Norte flow
through this region, one on either side, but, except in
certain spots, they contribute little to the fertilization of
the country. In the more elevated parts the climate is
temperate, sometimes in winter severely cold; but on
the deserts and plains, with the scorching sun above and
the burning sand beneath, the heat is almost insupport
able. The scanty herbage, by which the greater part of
this region is covered, offers to man but a transient food-
supply; hence he must move from place to place or
starve. Thus nature, more than elsewhere on our coast,
invites to a roving life ; and, as on the Arabian deserts,
bands of American Bedouins roam over immense tracts
seeking what they may devour. Here it is that many
a luckless miner and ill-protected traveler pays the pen
alty of his temerity with his life ; here it is, more than
elsewhere within the temperate zones of the two Amer
icas, that the natives bid defiance to the encroachments
of civilization. Sweeping down upon small settlements
and isolated parties, these American Arabs rob, murder,
and destroy, then fleeing to their strongholds bid defiance
to pursuers. In the midst of all this we find another
phenomenon in the semi-civilized towns-people of New
THE APACHES. 473
Mexico and Arizona; a spontaneous awakening from the
ruder phases of savagism.
The families of this division may be enumerated as
follows: The Apaches, under which general name I in
clude all the savage tribes roaming through New Mexico,
the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of north
ern Mexico, and Arizona; the Pueblos, or partially culti
vated towns-people of New Mexico and Arizona, with
whom I unite, though not town-builders, the non-no
madic Pimas, Maricopas and Papagos of the lower Gila
River ; the Lower Calif ornians, who occupy the peninsula ;
and the Northern Mexicans, which term includes the vari
ous nations scattered over the States of Sonora, Sinaloa,
Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and north
ern Zacatecas.
To the APACHES, using the term in the signification of
a family of this division, no accurate boundaries can be
assigned. Owing to their roving proclivities and in
cessant raids they are led first in one direction and then
in another. In general terms they may be said to range
about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni,
consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper, the
Yamparacks, and Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas,
eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and
portions of south-western New Mexico,1 by language
allied to the Shoshone family;2 the Apaches, who call
1 The Comanches ' are divided into three principal bands, to wit: the Co-
manche, the Yamparack and the Tenawa.' Burnet, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
i., p. 230; 'letans, termed by the Spaniards Comanches, and in their own
language Na-uui, signifying "life people." ' PricJiard's Nat. Hist., vol. ii.,
p. 549. 'The Comanches and the numerous tribes of Chichimecas are
comprehended by the Spaniards under the vague name of Mecos.' Prichard's
Researches, vol. v., p. 422. The tribe called themselves Niyuna.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. ii., pp. 575-6; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 231; Neighbors, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1856, p. J75; Mollhausen, Taqebuch, p. 115; Frenches Hist. La., p.
155. ' Se divide en cuatro ramas considerables bajo los nombres de Cuchan-
ticas, Jupes, Yamparicas y Orientales.' Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Bole-
tin, torn, v., p. 318; see also Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 121.
The Jetans or Camanches, as the Spaniards term them, or Padoucas, as they
are called by the Pawnees. Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 214.
2 Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,^ vol. iii., p. 76. ' Los Indies yutas, son
los mismos que los comanches d cumanches, pues yuta eso quiere decir en
la lengua de los lipanes. Por consiguente no se pueden distinguir esos nom'
474 NEW MEXICANS.
themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods/3 and whose
tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones,
Gilenos, Lipanes, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbrefios, Na-
tages, Pelones, Pinaleiios, Tejuas, Tontos and Yaqueros,
roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, north-western Texas,
Chihuahua and Sonora,4 and who are allied by language
to the great Tinneh family;5 the Navajos, or Tenuai,
'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic
bres, que aunque de clos lenguas difereutes espresan una misma nacion.' J5
landier y Thovel, Diario, p. 251. 'The Comanches are a branch of the SI
Ber-
Sho-
shones or Snakes.' Ruxton's Adven., p. 244. 'The Pawnees are descended
from a cousin-germanship of the same stock.' Edward's Hist. Tex., pp. 108-9.
' Si le sang des Azteques existe encore sans melange en Ameriqiie, il doit couler
dans les veines des Comanches.' Domenech's Jour., p. 16; see also Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24; Buschmann, Spuren der Azi. Spr., p. 391.
3 ' Probably because their winter quarters are always located amid the
forests which grow upon the Sierras.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 243.
4 Cordero gives the following tribal names, which he says are used among
themselves: Vinni ettiiieniie, Tontos; Segatajenne, Chiricaguis; Tjuiccu-
jeniie, Gilenos; Iccujenne, Mimbrenos; Yutajenne, Faraones; Sejenne, Mes
caleros; Cuelcajenne, Llaneros; Lipajenne and Yutajenne, Lipans and Na-
vajos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 369, 379-385. ' Los pimas gilenos llaman
; los jamajabs les llaman yavipais y
apaches.' Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp. 265, 352-3.
los yavipais taros 6 nifores; los jamajabs les llaman yavipais y nosotros
'Yavipais Tejua que son los indomitos Apaches.' Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica,
p. 471. ' Yavapais, or Apache Mohaves, as they are more generally called.'
Parker, in Ind. Aff. llept., 1869, p. 217. 'Pueden dividirse en nueve tribus
principales .... Tontos, Chirocahues, Gilenos, Mimbrenos, Faraones, Mezcal-
eros, Llaneros, Lipanes y Navajoes. Todos hablan un mismo idioma .... No
componen una nacion unif orine en sus usos y costumbres, pero coinciden en
la major parte de sus inclinaciones, variando en otras con proporcion a los
terrenos de su residencia, a las necesidades que padecen.' Garcia Conde, in
Soo. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 314. Apaches, ' their name is said to sig
nify 'men.'' Mescaleros, 'the meaning of the name, probably, is drink
ers of mescal.' Cortes, in Pac. R. R.Rept., vol. iii., pp. 118-9. Froebel's Cen
tral Arner., pp. 309, 353, 491; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 161, 223, 425;
Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 285; Wislizenus' Tour, p. 26; Thummel, Mexiko,
p. 351; Ruxton's Adven., p. 194; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 216;
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 212-13; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1857, p.
298; Steck, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1863, p. 108, and Id., 1864, p.' 182, 1858, p. 197;
Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 206; Glum, in Id., 1871, p. 42; BartktVs Pers. Nar., vol.
i., p. 325. Called Coyoteros, because it is believed that ' they feed upon the
flesh of the coyote.' Hardy's Trav., p. 430. 'Les Gilenos ...... avec les
Axuas et les Apaches qui viennent de la Sierra Madre sont confondus sous
le nom de Papagos.' J/o/ras, Explor., torn, i., p. 213; Bustamante, in Cavo,
Tres Siglos, torn, iii., pp. 79-80. ' Tonto, in Spanish means stupid.' ' Tonto
is a Spanish corruption of the original Indian name.' Palmer, in Harper's
Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 5-8; Ayers, in Ind.
Aff. Eept., 1858, p. 175; Collins, in Id., 1860, p. 161; Id., 1861, p. 122; Max
well, in Id., 1863, p. 116; Parker, in Id., 1869, p. 23; Walker, in Id., 1872, p.
53; Glum, in Id., 1871, p. 368; Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 214; Hassel, Mex.
Gnat., p. 275; Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des'Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 308.
5 'The Apaches and their congeners belong to the Athapascan family.'
Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 84, and in Nouvelles Annales des Voy.,
1852, torn., cxxxv., p. 311; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 10.
APACHE NATIONS. 475
affinities with the Apache nation, with which indeed
they are sometimes classed, living in and around the
Sierra de los Mimbres ;6 the Mojaves, occupying both banks
of the Colorado in Mojave Yalley ; the Hualapais, near
the headwaters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on
the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with
the Rio Gila;7 the Cosmnos, who like the Hualapais are
sometimes included in the Apache nation, ranging through
the Mogollon Mountains ;8 and the Yampais, between Bill
Williams Fork and the Rio Hassayampa.9 Of the mul
titude of names mentioned by the early Spanish author
ities, I only give in addition to the above the Yakhe-
dunes, located on the west bank of the Colorado in about
latitude 33° 20', the Yamajabs, on the east bank of the
same river, in about latitude 34°-35°; the Cochees, in the
Chiricagui Mountains of Arizona, the C-ruzados10 in New
Mexico, and finally the Nij&ras*1 somewhere about the
lower Colorado.12
6 ' The Apaches call the Navajoes Yutahkah. The Navajoes call them
selves, as a tribe, Teiiuai (man). The appellation Navajo was unquestion
ably given them by the Spaniards.' Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp.
217, 218. ' The Navajoes and Apaches are identically one people.' Cremony's
Apaches, p. 306; Ruxton's Adven., p. 194; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 229; Pos-
ton, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 18G3, p. 389. ' Navajoes and Apaches have descended
from the same stock.' Carleion, in Ind. Aff., Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 134.
' The Nayajoes are a Pueblo Indian.' Griner, in Id., p. 329. 'Allied to the
Crow Indians.' Fitzpatrick, in Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 133; Thummel,
Mexiko, p. 348. 'Most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America.'
Farnham's Life in Gal., p. 372. The Navajoes ' are a division of the ancient
Mexicans.' Scenes in the Rocky Mis., p. 180.
7 * " Yumah," signifies " Son of the River," and is only applied to the In
dians born on the banks of the Colorado. This nation is composed of five
tribes. . . .among which. . . .the Yabipai's (Yampai's or Yampaos).' Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., p. 65. ' The Cajuenches and Cuchans belong to two dif
ferent divisions of one tribe, which forms part of the great nation of the
Yumas.' Id., p. 10.
8 Cosninos, ' Es ist mehrfach die Ansicht ausgesprochen worden das die
meisten derselben zu dem Stamme der Apaches gehoren, oder vielmehr mit
ihnen verwandt sind.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 330-1; Figuier's Human
Race, p. 482.
9 ' The Yampais form a connecting link between the Gila, Colorado, and
Pueblo Indians.' Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 98. Yampais are
related to the Yumas. Mollhausen, Reisen, torn, i., p. 431. Yampais: 'Unable
to separate them from the Tonto-Apaches.' Movcry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857,
p. 302.
10 ' Llaman a estos indios los cruzados, por unas cruces que todos, chicos
y grandes se atan del copete, que les viene a caer en la frente; y esto hacen
cuando ven a los espanoles.' Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
iii., torn, iii., p. 31.
11 ' Unos dicen que a un lado de estas naciones (Yutas) para hacia al Po-
476 NEW MEXICANS.
The Apache country is probably the most desert of
all, alternating between sterile plains and wooded mount
ains, interspersed with comparatively few rich valleys.
The rivers do little to fertilize the soil except in spots ;
the little moisture that appears is quickly absorbed by
the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out, some
times a hundred miles in length and breadth, like lakes
of sand. In both mountain and desert the fierce, rapa
cious Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and
thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. It is here,
among our western nations, that we first encounter thiev
ing as a profession. No savage is fond of work; in
deed, labor and savagism are directly antagonistic, for
if the savage continues to labor he can but become civ
ilized. Now the Apache is not as lazy as some of his
northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he does,
like the Pueblos who are nothing but partially reclaimed
Apaches or Comanches, he forthwith elevates himself,
and is no longer an Apache; but being somewhat free
from the vice of laziness, though subject in an eminent
degree to all other vices of which mankind have any
knowledge, he presents the anomaly of uniting activity
with barbarism, and for this he must thank his thievish
propensities. Leaving others to do the work, he cares
not whom, the agriculturists of the river-bottoms or the
towns-people of the north, he turns Ishmaelite, pounces
upon those near and more remote, and if pursued retreats
across the jornadas del muerte, or 'journeys of death' as
the Mexican calls them, and finds refuge in the gorges,
canons, and other almost impregnable natural fortresses
of the mountains.
niente esta la nacion de los nijoras, y otros afirman que no hay tal nacion
Nijora, sino que esta palabra nijor quiere decir cautivo, y que los cocomari-
copas les dan de noche a las naciones mas inmediatas y les quitan sus hijos,
los que cautivan y venden a los pimas y estos a los espanoles; si es asi que
hay tal nacion, esta en esta inmediacion del rio Colorado para el rio Salado
6 rio Verde.' Noticias de la Pimeria, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv.,
p. 838. ' Todos estos cautivos llaman por aca fuera Nijores, aunqne hay otra
nacion Hijeras a parte.' Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn,
iv., p. 852.
12 For further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on TKIBAL
BOUNDARIES, at the end of this chapter.
PHYSIQUE OF APACHES. 477
The disparity in physical appearance between some of
these nations , which may be attributed for the most part
to diet, is curious. While those who subsist on mixed
vegetable and animal food, present a tall, healthy, and
muscular development, hardly excelled by the Caucasian
race, those that live on animal food, excepting perhaps
the Comanches, are small in stature, wrinkled, shriveled,
and hideously ugly.13 All the natives of this family,
with the exception of the Apaches proper, are tall, well-
built, with muscles strongly developed, pleasing features,
although at times rather broad faces, high foreheads,
large, clear, dark-colored eyes, possessing generally ex
traordinary powers of vision, black coarse hair and, for
a wonder, beards. Taken as a whole, they are the most
perfect specimens of physical manhood that we have yet
encountered. While some, and particularly females, are
of a light copper color, others again approach near to the
dark California!!. Women are generally plumper, inclin
ing more to obesity than the men. Some comely girls
are spoken of amongst them, but they grow old early.14
13 ' Besonders fiel uns der Untersclried zwischen den im Gebirge, ahnlich
den Wolf en lebenden Yampays und Tontos . '. . . und den von vegetabilischen
Stoffen sich nahrenden Bewohnern des Colorado-Thales auf, iudem erstere
nur kleine hassliche Gestalten mit widrigem tiickischem Ausdruck der Physi
ognomic waren, die anderen dagegen wie lauter Meistervverke der schopfer-
iscben Natur erschienen.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384.
14 The Navajos are ' of good size, nearly six feet in height, and well pro
portioned; cheek-bones high and prominent, nose straight and well shaped;
hair long and black; eyes black;. . . .feet small; lips of moderate size; head
of medium size and well shaped; forehead not small but retreating.' Lether-
mann, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 288. ' Fine looking, physically.' ' Most
symmetrical figure, combining ease, grace and power, and activity.' And the
Comanches ' about five feet ten inches in height, with well proportioned
shoulders, very deep chest, and long, thin, but muscular arms.' Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 49, 305, 15. The Mojave ' men are tall, erect, and finely pro
portioned. Their features are inclined to European regularity; their eyes
large, shaded by long lashes.' The Cuchans are ' a noble race, well formed,
active and intelligent.' \Vhipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 110, 114.
The Navajos are distinguished 'by the fullness and roundness of their eyes.'
IVhipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rtpt., p. 31, in Pac. R. R. Rfpt., vol. iii.,
' The Camanches are small of stature. . . .wear moustaches and heads of long
hair.' Pope, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 15. The Comanches ' que da tin
aspecto bien particular a estas naciones, es la falta completa de cejas, pues
ellos se las arraucan; algunos tienen una poca barba.' Berlandier and Thovel,
Diario, p. 253. The Yumas ' if left to their natural state, would be fine look
ing, ' but the Hualpais ' were squalid, wretched-looking creatures, with splay
feet, large joints and diminutive figures features like a toad's They
present a remarkable contrast to our tall and athletic Mojaves.' The Nava
jos are ' a fine looking race with bold features.' 'The Mojaves are perhaps
478 NEW MEXICANS.
In contradistinction to all this the Apaches proper, or
Apache nation, as we may call them, are slim, ill de
veloped, but very agile. Their height is about five feet
as fine a race of men physically, as there is in existence. Ives' Colorado
Elver, pp. 44, 54, 97-8, 108, 73, 128, 19, 39, 59,^ 66, plate p. 66. The Co-
manches are 'de buena estatura.' Beaumont, Cronica de Mechoacan, MS., p.
527. The people between the Colorado and Gila rivers. 'Es geiite bien
agestada y corpnlenta, triguenos de color.' Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. His.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. The Cruzados are described as ' bien ages-
tados y nobles y ellas hermosas de lindos ojos y amorosas.' Salmeron, Relaci-
ones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 31; see also Cordoue, in Ternaux-
Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 446. In New Mexico Allegre describes
them as ' corpulentos y briosos, pero mal agestados, las orejas largas. . .tieuen
ecstasies over the splendid figures of the lower Colorado people, whom he
calls the personification of the ancient gods of the Romans and Greeks, says
further that they are 'grosse, schon gewachsene Leute,' and describes their
color as ' dunkelkupferfarbig.' Of the women he adds ' Ganz im Gegensatze
zu den Mannern sind die Weiber der Indianer am Colorado durcligangig
klein, untersetzt und so dick, das ihr Aussehen mituiiter an's komische
granzt.' Comparing the Hualapais with the Mojaves he writes ' auf der eine
Seite die unbekleideten, riesenhaften und wohlgebildeteii Gestalten der Mo-
haves. . . .auf der andern Seite dagegen die ini Vergleich mit erstern, zwerg-
ahnlichen, hagern . . . . Figuren der Wallpays, mit ihren verwirrten, struppi-
gen Haaren, den kleinen, geschlitzten Augen und den falschen, gehassigen
Ausdruck in ihren Zugen.' The Cosninos he calls 'hasslich und verkum-
mert.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 331, 382-8; Mollhausen, Reisen, torn, i., pp.
123-4, 199, 215, 274, 293, 318, torn, ii., pp. 43, 37, and plate frontispiece.
Mollhausen, Mormonmmfidclien, torn, ii., p. 140. The Comanche 'men are
about the medium stature, with bright copper-coloured complexions. . . .the
women are short with crooked legs. . . .far from being as good looking as the
men.' In the Colorado Valley 'are the largest and best-formed men I ever
saw, their average height being an inch over six feet.' Marcy's Army Life,
pp. 25, 279. ' Les Comanches out la taille haute et elancee, et sont presq'ue
aussi blancs que les Europeens.' Soc. Geog., Buletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192.
And of the Comanches see further. Dragoon Camp, p. 153. ' Robust, almost
Herculean race.'" Footers Texas, vol. i., p. 298. 'Exceedingly handsome.'
Calderonde la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. ii., p. 308; Hartmann and Mittard's
Texas, p. 109. 'Women are ugly, crooklegged, stoop-shouldered.' Parker's
Notes on Tex., pp. 189, 232, 194; Mexikanische Zustande, torn, i., p. 373; Froe-
bel's Cent. Am., p. 267; see also Froebel, Aus America, torn, ii., p. 101; Gregg's
Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 37-8; Domenech, Journ., p. 132. The Yuma ' wom
en are generally fat.' ' The men are large, muscular, and well formed.' Bart-
lett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii.,pp. 180, 178. Navajo women are 'much handsomer
and have lighter complexions than the men.' Pattie's Pers. Nar., pp. 218-19;
Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 52; Domenech' 's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 7, 10, 24,
65, plate 8. The Navajos have ' light flaxen hair, light blue eyes .... their skin
is of the most delicate whiteness. ' Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 545; Hughes' Don-
iphan's Ex., p. 203. On the Mojaves see further, Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls,
p. 138; Sitgreaves' Zufd Ex., p. 18; Cal. Mercantile Jour., vol. i., p. 227, plate;
Glum, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 363. And on the Yumas. Poston, in Ind.
Rept. Aff., 1863, p. 387; Browne's Apache Country, p. 61; Taylor, in Cal
Farmer, Feb. 22, 1860. Women's 'feet are naturally small.' Emory's Rept.,
in U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 109. The Yampais are broad-
faced, and have 'aquiline noses and small eyes.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag.,
vol. xvii., p. 460. Indian Traits, in Hayes Col.
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES. 479
four to five inches; features described as ugly, repulsive,
emotionless, flat, and approaching the Mongol cast, while
the head is covered with an unkempt mass of coarse,
shocky, rusty black hair, not unlike bristles. The women
are not at all behind the men in ugliness, and a pleasing
face is a rarity. A feature common to the family is re
markably small feet; in connection with which may be
mentioned the peculiarity which obtains on the lower
Colorado, of having the large toe widely separated from
the others, which arises probably from wading in marshy
bottoms. All the tribes whose principal subsistence is
meat, and more particularly those that eat horse and
mule flesh, are said to exhale a peculiar scent, something
like the animals themselves when heated.15
15 ' Their average height is about five feet four or five inches. They are
but slimly built, and possess but little muscular development. . . .light brown
ish red color.' Some have 'a Chinese cast of countenance. .. .rusty black
hair.' Smart, in Smithsonian Rcpt., 1867, p.4J8. Their ' features were flat,
negro-like small legged, big-bellied and broad-shouldered.' Emory's
Reconnaissance, p. 52. 'More miserable looking objects I never beheld;'
legs, 'large and muscular.' Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav., p. 139.
' Wiederliche Physiognomien und Gestalten . ..unter rnittlerer Grosse....
grosse Kopfe, vorstehende Stirii uud Backenknochen, dicke Nasen, aufge-
worfene Lippen und kleine geschlitzte Augen....Ihr Gesicht war dunkler
als ich es jemals bei Indianern gefunden.' Jllollhausen, Tayebuch, p. 360. ' Von
zottigen weit abstehenden Haupthaaren bedeckt.' Mollhausen, Fluchtliny, torn,
iii., p. 49. ' Ill-formed, emaciated, and miserable looking race. . . .had all a
treacherous-fiendish look.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 327. ' Physically
of a slighter build than any Indians I have seen.' Clum, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1871, p. 47. ' Most wretched looking Indians I have ever seen.' Sitgreaves'
Zuni Ex., p. 14. ' Small in stature. . . .Coal-black eye.' Peters' Life of Carson,
p. 326. 'Hair is very black and straight, much resembling horse hair. . . .
appears to belong to the Asiatic type.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v.,
p. 211. ' Gipsy looking with an eye singularly wild.and piercing.' Houstoun's
Terns, p. 227. ' Have very light complexions.' Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 580.
' Die Lipanis haben blondes Haar, und sind schiine Leute.' Muhlenpfordt, Me-
jico, torn, i., p. 215, torn, ii., pt. ii., p. 421. ' Sont des beaux hommes.' Lacha-
pelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82. 'Tall, majestic in figure; muscular.' Brantz-
Mayer's Mex. Aztec., etc., vol. ii. p. 123. ' Fine physical conformation.' Foote's
Texas, vol. i., p. 298. 'Their skin looked whiter than I have ever seen it in
the Indians.' Wizlizenus' Tour, p. 71. ' Crian pie menor que los otros iiidios.'
3. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p.
son morenos. cuerpo bien proporcionado, ojos vivos, cabello largo y lam-
Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564. ' Todos
pifios.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 265. ' Su talla y color diferencian
algo en cada tribu, variando este desde el bronceado al moreno. Son todos
bien proporcionados . . . .y ninguna barba.' Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog.,
Boletin, torn, v., p. 314; see also Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 370-1.
1 Though not tall, are admirably formed, with fine features and 'a bright com
plexion, inclining to yellow.' Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 117. ' Son altos, rubios
y de bellisimas proporciones.' Revista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 55. ' Taille ordi
naire, de eouleur fence.' ' Comme ces Indiens ne font leur nourriture que
480 NEW MEXICANS.
All the natives of this region wear the hair much in
the same manner, cut square across the forehead, and
flowing behind.16 The Mojave men usually twist or plait
it, while with the women it is allowed to hang loose.
Tattooing is common, but not universal; many of the
Mojave women tattoo the chin in vertical lines like the
Central Californians, except that the lines are closer to
gether.17 Paint is freely used among the Mojaves, black
and red predominating, but the Apaches, Yumas, and
others use a greater variety of colors.18 Breech-cloth and
moccasins are the ordinary dress of the men,19 while the
de chair et principalement de celle de 1'ane et du millet, ils exhalent une
odeur si penetrante que les chevaux et suvtout les mules rebroussent chemin
aussitot qu'ils les eventent.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 187.
16 ' Cut their hair short over the forehead, and let it hang behind.' Dom-
enech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 65. Distinguished ' durch den vollstandig gleich-
massigen Schnitt ihrer schwarzen Haare.' Mollhausen, Reisen indie Felsengeb.,
torn, i., p. 274; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384; Brown's Apache Country, 107;
Sitgreaves' Zuni. Ex., pp. 15, 18; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., pp.
460, 461; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii., pp. 98, 110.
17 Mojave girls, after they marry, tattoo the chin ' with vertical blue lines.'
Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463. Yumas: ' Doch ist ihnen das
Tatowiren nicht fremd; dieses wird indessen mehr von den Frauen ange-
wendet welche sich die Mundwinkel und das Kinn mit blauen Punkten und
Linien schmiicken,' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., p. 124; Moll
hausen, Tagebuch, p. 385; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 151-2; Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., and plate;
Michler, in Emory's Rept., U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 110; Soc.
Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Treasury of Trav., p. 32.
U 'Das Gesicht hatten sich alle Vier (Mojaves) auf gleiche Weise be-
malt, namlich kohlschwarz mit einem rothen Striche, der sich von der Stirue
iiber Nase, Mund und Kinn zog.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 383, 385, 388;
plate, 394. ' Painted perfectly black, excepting a red stripe from the top of
his forehead, down the bridge of his nose to his chin.' Ives' Colorado Riv.,
p. 67. The Apaches ' Se tinen el cuerpo y la cara con bastantes colores.' Doc.
Hist. N. Vizcaya, MS., p. 5. ' Pintura de greda y almagre con que se untan
la cara, brazos y piernas.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371; Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 11; Velasco, Noticias de'Sonora, p. 266;
Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 211; Hardy's Trav., p. 337; Smart, in
Smithsonian Rept., 1867, "p. 418; Whipple, Ewliank, and Turner's Rept., p. 33,
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., and plate; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
iii., p. 110; Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 858.
19 'Naked with the exception of the breech-cloth.' Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex.,
?p. 14, 18; see also plates; Mojave men ' simply a breech-cloth.' Touner, in
nd. Aff. Rept., 1871. ' No clothing but a strip of cotton The Yumas dis
play ' a ludicrous variety of tawdry colors and dirty finery.' Ives' Colorado
Rept., pp. 54, 59, 66. See colored plates of Yumas, Mojaves, and Hualpais,
' Andan enteramente desnudos.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill;
Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 383; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62; Hardy's Trav.,
pp. 336, 342; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 138; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 149;
Walker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1872, p. 162; Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.,
p. 124; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 33; Cremony''s Apaches, pp.
29, 132; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Indian Traits, vol. i.,
iii Hayes Col.
DBESS OF APACHES AND MOJAVES. 481
women have a short petticoat of bark.20 The dress of
the Mojaves and Apaches is often more pretentious, being
a buckskin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins of
the same material ; the latter, broad at the toes, slightly
turned up, and reaching high up on the leg, serve as a
protection against cacti and thorns.21 It is a common
practice among these tribes to plaster the head and body
with mud, which acts as a preventive against vermin and
a protection from the sun's rays.22 In their selection
20 ' A few stripes of the inner bark of the willow or acacia tied scantily
Ives' Colorado Riv., p. 66. ' Nude, with the exception of a diminutive breech
cloth.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 29. 'Las rnas se cubren de la cintura hasta
las piernas con la cascara interior del sauce.' Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex.t
serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. ' Las mugeres se cubren de la cintura a la rodilla
con la cascara interior del sauce.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill;
Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 384; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., p.
123; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 138; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96,
p. 186; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 114; Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept., p. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. hi., plate and cuts; Touner,
in IneZ. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 364; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 130; Mich-
ler, in Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 109, 110,
with plate.
21 * Partly clothed like the Spaniards, with wide drawers, moccasins and
leggings to the knee . . . their moccasins have turned-up square toes . . mostly
they have no head-dress, some have hats, some fantastic helmets.' Cults'
Conq. of CaL, p. 184. 'They prefer the legging and blanket to any other
dress.' Bartldt's Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 320, 328. 'Mexican dress and sad
dles predominated, showing where they had chiefly made up their wardrobe.'
Emory's Reconnoisance, p. 61. 'Los hombres, se las acomodan alrededor
del cuerpo, dejando desambarazados los brazos. Es en lo general la gamuza
o piel del venado la que emplean en este servicio. Cubren la cabeza de un
bonete 6 gorra de lo mismo, tal vez adomado de plumas de aves, o cuernos
de animates. . . .El vestuario de las mujeres es igualmente de pieles.' Cordero,
in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371. ' Cervinis tergoribus amiciuntur tarn
fceminse quam mares.' Benavides, in De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 316; Alarchon,
in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., pp. 431, 437; Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564; Doc. Hist. N. Vizcaya, MS., p. 5; Pattie's
Pers. Nar., p. 117; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 214; Peters' Life of Carson, p:
451; Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., pp. 210, 211; Walker, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1872, p. 174; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 248; Roedel, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 397; Niza, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix.,
pp. 266, 268; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 161, 424; see also Froebel's
Cent. Am., pp. 309, 490; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., pp. 46, 166,
167; Linati, Costumes, plate xxii; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Moll
hausen, Fluchtling, torn, ii., p. 173; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p.
417; Lachapelle, Raousset de Boulbon, p. 82.
22 The hair of the Mohaves is occasionally ' matted on the top of the head
into a compact mass with mud.' Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex., p. 18. 'Their pig
ments are ochre, clay, and probably charcoal mingled with oil.' Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., pp. 33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'Ihr
Hauptschmuck dagegen sind die langen, starken Haare, die mittelst nasser
Lehmerde in Rollen gedreht.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p.
VOL. I. 31
482 NEW MEXICANS.
of ornaments the Mojaves show a preference for white,
intermixed with blue; necklaces and bracelets made
from beads and small shells, usually strung together,
but sometimes sewed on to leather bands are much in
vogue. The Apache nation adopt a more fantastic style
in painting and in their head-dress; for ornament
they employ deer-hoofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and
occasionally porcupine-quills, with which the women em
broider their short deer-skin petticoats.23 The Nav-
ajoes, both men and women, wear the hair long, tied or
'Clubbed up behind; they do not tattoo or disfigure
themselves with paint.24 The ordinary dress is a species
•of hunting-shirt, or doublet, of deer-skin, or a blanket
confined at the waist by a belt ; buckskin breeches, some
times ornamented up the seams with pieces of silver or
porcupine-quills; long moccasins, reaching well up the
124. The Axuas ' Beplastered their bodies and hair with mud.' Hardy's
Trav., pp. 34:3-4, 356, 368, 370; .Browne's Apache Country, pp. 61, 63.
23 Small white beads are highly prized by the Mohaves. Ives' Colorado
Elver, pp. 68-9. 'The young girls wear beads. . . .a necklace with a single
sea-shell in front.' The men 'leather bracelets, trimmed with bright but
tons. . . .eagles' feathers, called "sormeh," sometimes white, sometimes of a
•crimson tint. . . .strings of wampum, made of circular pieces of shell.' Whip-
pie, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 114, 115. 'Shells of the pearl-oyster,
.and a rough wooden image are the favorite ornaments of both sexes ' with
the Apaches. Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 210. ' Sus adornos en
el cuello y brazos son sartas de pesunas de venado y berrendos, conchas,
espinas de pescado y raices de yerbas odoriferas. Las familias mas pudi-
eutes y aseadas bordan sus trajes y zapatos de la espina del puerco-espin.'
Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 371. ' Adornanse con gargantillas de
•caracolillos del mar, entreverados de otras cueutas, de conchas coloradas
redondas.' Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. 'Las
mugeres por arracadas 6 aretes, se cuelgan conchas enteras de nacar, y otras
mayores azules en cada oreja.' Alegre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill;
Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 424; Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 61; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 222; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., pp. 166, 167; Pattie's
Pers. Nar., p. 149; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 181; Almanza, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 837; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463;
Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Browne's Apache Country, pp. 60-64; Mich-
.Zer, in Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, pp. 109-110; Whipple,
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 93; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p.
:33, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 389, 394, 399;
Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 210; Hardy's Trav., p. 364; Smart, in Smith-
.sonian Rept., 1867, pp. 418-19; Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp.
266, 268, 273; Alarchon, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 437; Mexikanische Zu-
stande, torn, i , p. 64.
24 The 'hair is worn long and tied up behind ' by both sexes; Letherman,
in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 290. ' Langes starkes Haar in eiiien dicken
Zopf zusammengeknotet. ' Mollhausen, Fluchtliny, torn, iv., p. 36; Bartlett's
Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329.
COMANCHE DKESS AND ORNAMENT. 483
leg, and a round helmet-shaped cap, also of buckskin,
surmounted with a plume of eagle or wild turkey feath
ers, and fastened with a chin-strap. The women wear
a blanket and waist-belt, breeches and moccasins. The
belts, which are of buckskin, are frequently richly orna
mented with silver. They sometimes also use porcupine-
quills, with which they embroider their garments.25
The Comanches of both sexes tattoo the face, and
body generally on the breast.20 The men do not cut the
hair, but gather it into tufts or plaits, to which they
attach round pieces of silver graduated in size from top
to bottom; those who cannot obtain or afford silver use
beads, tin, or glass.27 Much time is spent by them in
25 'Tolerably well dressed, mostly in buckskin They dress with great
er comfort than any other tribe, and wear woolen and well-tanned buckskin
. . .the outer seams are adorned with silver or brass buttons.' Davis' El Gringo,
pp. 406, 411, 412. Leggins made of deer-skin with thick soles a leath
ern cap shaped like a helmet, decorated with cocks', eagles' or vultures'
feathers. Fiyuier's Hum. Race, pp. 481, 482. 'Auf dem Kopfe tragen sie
eine helmartige Lederkappe die gewiihnlich mit einem Busch kurzer, glan-
zender Truthahnfedern und einigen Geier oder Adlerfedern geschmiickt ist.'
Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 229, 230. ' A close banded cap is worn by the men
which is gracefiilly ornamented by feathers, and held under the chin by a
small throat-latch.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 435, and plate vii., Fig. 3,
p. 74. 'Their wardrobes are never extravagantly supplied.' Backus, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. The women 'wear a blanket.' Ives' Col
orado Riv., p. 128, and plate. The women 'wore blankets, leggins and
moccasous.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 51, 52, 81. ' Over all is thrown
a blanket, under and sometimes over which is worn a belt, to which are at
tached oval pieces of silver.' Letherman, in SmWisonian Sept., 1855, p. 290.
The women's dress is ' chiefly composed of skins. . . .showily corded at the
bottom, forming a kind of belt of beads and porcupine quills.' Pattie's Pers.
Nar., pp. 118-9. BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329; Mollhausen, Reisen in die
Felsenqeb., torn, ii., pp. 220, 224, 235; Mollhausen, Fluchtling, torn, iv., pp. 36,
37; Wliipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 31, in Pac. R. R. RepL, vol. iii.;
Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 344; Cremony's Apaches, p. 30'5.
26 'Tattooed over the body, especially on the chest.' Domenech's Deserts,
vol. ii., p. 281. 'Tattoo their faces and breasts.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 25.
' Mares juxta atque foaminae facies atque artus lineis quibusdani persignant.'
De Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 310; Warden, Recherches, p. 79; Famham's Trav.,
p. 32.
27 'They never cut the hair, but wear it of very great length, and orna
ment it upon state occasions with silver and beads.' Marcy's Army Life, p.
25. ' Their heads are covered with bits of tin and glass.' Shepard's Land of
the Aztecs, p. 182. ' Der dicke und lang iiber den Riicken hinabhangende
Zopf^mit abwarts immer kleiuer werdenden silbernen Scheiben belastet, die,
im Nacken mit der Grosse einer massigen Untertasse begiiinend, an der
Spitze .des Zopfes met der Grosse eines halben Thalers endigten.' Froebel,
Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 100, and Froebel's Cent. Am., p. 266. They 'never
cut their hair, which they wear long, mingling with it on particular occasions
silver ornaments and pearls.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24. ' Todos ellos
lie van la cabeza trasquilada desde la rnitad hasta la f rente, y dejan lo demas del
484 NEW MEXICANS.
painting and adorning their person — red being a favor
ite color; feathers also form a necessary adjunct to their
toilet.28 Some few wear a deer-skin shirt, but the more
common dress is the buffalo-robe, which forms the sole
covering for the upper part of the body ; in addition, the
breech-cloth, leggins, and moccasins are worn. The
women crop the hair short, and a long shirt made of
deer-skin, which extends from the neck to below the
knees, with leggins and moccasins, are their usual at
tire.29
pelo colgando.' Beaumont, Cron, de Mechoacan, MS., p. 527; Revista Cientifica,
torn. i., p. 162; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 191; Dragoon Camp., p. 153; Moll-
hausen, Tagebuch, p. 115; Wliipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Ilept., p. 27, in Pac.
R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 299; Combier,
Voy., p. 224.
28 ' Im Gesichte mit Zinnober bemalt, auf dem Kopfe mit Adlerfedern ge-
schmiickt.' Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 100. 'It takes them a con
siderable time to dress, and stick feathers and beads in their hair.' Dome-
nech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 281. 'Fond of decking themselves with paint,
beads and feathers.' Marcy's Army Life, pp. 25, 26, 30. ' Vederbosschen
op't hoofd.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 209. 'En quanto a los colores,
varian mucho, no solamente en ellos, sino tambien en los dibujos que se
hacen en la cara.' Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 299. The Co-
manches ' de tout sexe portent im miroir attache au poignet, et se teignent
le visage en rouge.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192; Whipple, Ew-
lank, and Turner's Rept., p. 27, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Palmer, in
Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 450; Pattie's Pe?'s. Nar., pp. 35, 36; Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Parker's Notes on Tex., pp. 181, 194, 197, 202; Wislize-
nus' Tour., p. 71; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 119; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de
Jesus, torn, i., p. 332; Combier, Voy., p. 224; Hartmann and Millard, Texas,
p. 110; Larenaudiere, Mex. et Guat., p. 147, plate; Tempsky's Mitla,p. 80; GUI-
iam's Trav., p. 305; Horn's Captivity, p. 25.
29 'The Camanches prefer dark clothes.' Parker's Notes on Tex., pp. 180,
181, 202. 'Les guerriers portent pour tout vetement une peau de buffle en
manteau.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. 'Las mugeres andan
vestidas de la cintura para abajo con unoo cueros de venado adobado en
forma de faldellines, y cubren el cuerpo con unos capotillos delmismocuero.'
Beaumont, Cron, de Mechoacan, MS., p. 527. ' Vistense galanos . . . asi hombres
como mugeres con mantas pintadas y bordadas.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.,
torn, i., p. 681. ' Sus vestidos se componen de unas botas, un mediano de-
lantal que cubre sus vergiienzas, y un coton, todo de pieles: las mugeres
usan una manta cuadrada de lana negra muy estrecha.' Alegre, Hist. Comp.
de Jesus, torn, i., p. 332. 'Tarn mares quam fceminaB gossypinis tunicis et
ferarum exuviis vestiebantur ad Mexicanorum norniam et quod insolens bar-
baris, ideoque Hispanis novum visurn, utebautur calceis atque ocreis quse e
ferarum tergoribus et taurino corio consuta erant. Fceminis capillus bene
pexus et elegantur erat dispositus, iiec ullo prseterea velamine caput tegebant. '
De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 311; Froebel, Aus Amerika, pp. 99, 101; Dragoon
Camp., p. 153; Warden, Recherches, pp. 79, 80; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex.,
torn, i., p. 299; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp.
25, 31, 91; Revista Cientijica, torn, i., p. 162; Horn's Captivity, p. 22; Marcy's
Army Life, pp. 25, 29, 45; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 450; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 15; Larenaudiere, Mex. et Guat, p. 147, plate; Gallatin, in Nouve'llcx
Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 252, 272, 273; Montanus, Nieuwe Wecr-
DWELLINGS OF THE APACHES. 485
Nomadic and roving in their habits, they pay little
attention to the construction of their dwellings. Sel
dom do they remain more than a week in one locality f°
hence their lodges are comfortless, and diversified in
style according to caprice and circumstances. The
frame-work everywhere is usually of poles, the Coman-
ches placing them erect, the Lipans bringing the. tops
together in cone-shape, while the Apaches bend them
over into a low oval ;31 one or other of the above forms
is usually adopted by all this family,32 with unimportant
differences depending on locality and variations of cli
mate. The framework is covered with brushwood or
eld, p. 216, and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 243; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans,
Voy., serie i., torn, iv., p. 127; Wislizenus' Tour., p. 71; Parker, in Lid. Aff.
Rept., 1809, p. 109; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Grega's Com.
Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 38, 310, 312; Foster's Pre-Hist. Hac.es, p. 228; Hartmann
and Millard, Texas, p. 110; Domenech, Jour., pp. 134, 135; Maillard, Hist. Tex.,
p. 240; Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 372, 377;
Castano de Soza, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, iv., p. 331; Houstoim's
Tex., p. 227; Alcedo, Dicdonario, torn, iii., p. 184; Farnham's Trav., p. 32;
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 24.
30 The Apaches 'rarely remain more than a week in any one locality.'
Cremony's Apaches, p. 240. ' Cette nation etant uomode et toujours a la pour-
suite du gibier.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn. p. 133;
Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 266; Marcy's Army Life, p. 44; Henry, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. v. p. 212; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 202; Backus, in Id.,
p.
31 'The principal characteristic I believe, is the form of their wigwams;
one sets up erect poles, another bends them over in a circular form, and the
third gives them a low oval shape.' Barilett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 106.
Other tribes make their lodges in a different way, by a knowledge of which
circumstance, travelers are able to discover on arriving at a deserted camp
whether it belongs to a hostile or friendly tribe.' Parker's Notes on Texas, p.
213; Hartmann and Millard, Texas, p. 110; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog.,
Buletin, torn, v., p. 315.
32 Sus chozas o jacales son circulares, hechas de ramas de los arboles, cu-
biertas con pieles de caballos, vacas, 6 cibolos.' Orozco y Berra, Geoyrafia,^ p.
371. 'I did expect . . .to find that the Navajos had other and better habita
tions than the conical, pole, brush, and mud lodge.' Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon., p. 77. ' The Camanches make their lodges by placing poles in the
ground in a circle and tying the tops together.' Parker's Notes on Texas, p.
213. Huts are only temporary, conical, of sticks. Letherman, in Smitlisonian
Rept., 1855, p. 289. ' Sie bestanden einfach aus grossen Lauben von Cedern-
zweigen, deren Wolbung auf starken Pfahlen ruhte, und von Aussen theil-
weise mit Erde, Lehm, und Steinen bedecktwar.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die
Felsenyeb., torn, ii., pp. 15, 220-233. 'Tin grand nombre de forme ronde.'
Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p 379. 'Their lodges
are rectangular.' Sityreaves' Zufti Ex., p. 18; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans,
Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 194; Ivcs' Colorado River, p. 100; Figuierts Hum.
Race, p. 482.
486 NEW MEXICANS.
skins, sometimes with grass or flat stones. They are
from twelve to eighteen feet in diameter at the widest
part, and vary from four to eight feet in height,33 which
is sometimes increased by excavation.34 A triangular
opening serves as a door, which is closed with a piece of
cloth or skin attached to the top.35 When on or near
rocky ground they live in caves, whence some travelers
have inferred that they build stone houses.36 A few of
33 t They make them of upright poles a few feet in height .... upon which
rest brush and dirt.' Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i.,
pp. 111-12. ' The very rudest huts hastily constructed of branches of cedar
trees, and sometimes of flat stones for small roofs.' Eaton, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. These huts are about eight feet high, eighteen i'eet
in diameter at base, the whole being covered with bark or brush and mud.
Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 60. ' Exceedingly rude structures of sticks
about four or five feet high.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 213.
'The Comanches make their lodges in a conical shape which they
cover with buffalo hides.' Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 213. ' Us habitent sous
des tentes.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., torn. 96, p. 192; Davis' El Gringo., p.
414; Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Bent, in Id., vol. i.. p. 243;
Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 290; Browne's Apache Country, p. 96; Farn-
ham's Trav., p. 32; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 299; Vil-
la-Senor y Sanchez, Theairo, torn. ii. p. 413; Dufey. Resume de I' Hist., torn, i.,
p. 4; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 279; Domenech, Jour., p. 131;
Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 97; Ludecus, Reise, p. 104; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 205;
Thummel, Mexiko, p. 352; Emory's Recon., p. 61; Marcy's Rept., p. 219; Gal-
latin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cli., p. 274; Jaramillo, in Ter-
naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 372-9; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoa-
can, p. 417; Alarchon, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 431; Dapper, Neue Welt,
p. 239; see also, Montanus, Nieuve Weereld, p. 209; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp.
109-115; Humboldt, Essai, Pol., torn, i., p. 230; Cordoue, in Temaux-Compans,
Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 443; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 301; Brownett's Ind.
Races, p. 544; Hardy's Trav., p. 336.
34 Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex., p. 18. 'This compels the Navajoes to erect
substantial huts of an oval form, the lower portion of the hut being ex
cavated.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 306. 'They live in brush houses, in the
winter time, digging a hole in the ground and covering this with a brush
roof.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 130; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p.
218; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 136; Maillard's Hist. Tex,, p. 241.
35 ' Their lodges are. . . .about four or five feet high, with a triangular
opening for ingress or egress.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 213.
The most they do is to build small huts with thick poles for the arches
and a small door through which a single person can hardly pass. Velasco,
Noticias de Sonora, p. 266. A rancheria of the Cuabajai is described as
' formada como una grande galeria en una pieza muy larga adornada con
arcos de sauz, y cubierta con esteras de tule muy delgadas y bien cocidas ;
tenia ventanas para la luz y desahogar el humo y dos puertas, una al Oriente
y otra al Poniente, a los dos lados de la pieza habia varios camaras 6
alojamientos para dormir.' Arricivita, Cronica Serdftca, pp. 474-5.
36 'Some live in caves in the rocks.' Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept.,
1855, p. 289. ' They do not live in houses built of stone as has been repeat
edly represented, but in caves, caverns, and fissures of the cliffs.' Eaton, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. ' Us habitaient des cavernes et des lieux
souterrains, ou ils deposaient leurs recoltes.' Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 309. Most of theNavajos ' live in houses built
NEW MEXICAN DWELLINGS. 487
the Mojave dwellings are so superior to the others that
they deserve special notice. They may be described as
a sort of shed having perpendicular walls and sloping
roof, the latter supported by a horizontal beam running
along the center, the roof projecting in front so as to
form a kind of portico. The timber used is cotton wood,
and the interstices are filled up with mud or straw.37
None of their houses have windows, the door and smoke-
hole in the roof serving for this purpose ; but, as many
of them have their fires outside, the door is often the
only opening.38
Small huts about three feet in height constitute their
medicine-lodges, or bath-houses, and are generally in
form and material like their other structures.39 The
Mojaves also build granaries in a cylindrical form with
conical, skillfully made osier roofs.40
The food of all is similar;41 most of them make more
or less pretentions to agriculture, and are habituated to
a vegetable diet, but seldom do any of them raise a suffic
ient supply for the year's consumption, and they are
therefore forced to rely on the mesquit-bean, the pinon-
of stone.' Scenes in the Pocky Mts., p. 180; Thummcl, Mexiko, p. 352; Alman-
za, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 825; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.,
torn, i., p. 679; Sanchez, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., tom.i., p. 93; Gordon's
Hist, and Geog. Mem., p. 88.
37 ' The large cottonwood posts and the substantial roof of the wide shed
in front, are characteristic of the architecture of this people.' Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 23, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. ' They are built
upon sandy soil and are thirty or forty feet square; the sides about two feet
thick of wicker-work and straw their favorite resort seems to be the roof,
where could usually be counted from twenty to thirty persons, all appar
ently at home.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 464.
38 See plate in Marcy's Army Life, p. 48. • The fire is made in the front
of the lodge.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 70.
39 ' In every village may be seen small structures, consisting of a frame
work of slight poles, bent into a semi-spherical form and covered with buf
falo hides. These are called medicine lodges and are used as vapor-baths.'
Marcy's Army Life, p. 60. ' They make huts three feet high for bath-rooms
and heat them with hot stones.' Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p.
289.
40 Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xviii., p. 464; Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Rept., p. 23, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.
41 ' Us sont tres-laborieux; ils cultivent les melons, les haricots, et d'autres
legumes; ils recoltent aussi en abondance le mais.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie
v., No. 96, p. 186. ' Bohnen, Mais, Weizen, feingeriebenes Mehl, Kurbisse
und Melonen.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 385, 396-7. ' The Yumas and other
tribes on the Colorado, irrigate their lands, and raise wheat, corn, melons,
&c.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 263, 180, 181; Lachapelle, Raousset-
488 NEW MEXICANS.
nut and the maguey-plant, agave mexicana, and other
wild fruits, which they collect in considerable quanti
ties.42 They are but indifferent hunters, and secure
only a precarious supply of small game, such as rabbits
and squirrels, with ultimate recourse to rats, grasshop
pers, lizards and other reptiles.43 A few fish are taken
W those living in the neighborhood of rivers.44 The
Boulbon, p. 81; Arridvita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de
Jesus, torn, i., p. 332; Ives' Colorado River, pp. 60, 67, 70, 73; Emory's
Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 117, 128, 129; Stratton's
Ca.pt. Oatman Girls, p. 123; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 40, 65, 66; Sit-
greaves' Zuiii Ex., p. 18; Browne's Apache Country, pp. 51, 52, 107; Mowry's
Arizona, p. 33; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 91; Mexicanische ZusUinde, torn, i., p. 64;
Mdllhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, torn. 1., p. Ill; Champagnac, Voyageur.
p. 84; Bent, in Schoolcraft' 's Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Eaton, 'in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., pp. 13, 120, in
Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 349; Gallatin, in Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 288-9; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man,
vol. ii., p. 567; Farnham's Life in CaL; Davis' El Gringo, p. 411; Clark, in
Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280'; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
hi., torn, iv., pp. 25-6.
42 ' A small but agreable nut called the Pinon, grows abundantly in this
country; and during a period of scarcity, it sometimes constitutes the sole
food of the poorer class of natives for many successive weeks.' Backus, in
Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. 'Living upon the fruit of the mezquit
and tornilla trees.' Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex., pp. 10, 19; Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112. ' Tambien tienen para su sustento
mescali, que es conserva de raiz de maguey.' Salmeron, Rdaciones, in Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 31; Henry, in Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol. v., p.
212; Hardy's Trav., pp. 338; Mdllhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 147, 331, 350, 396,
397; Cord'oue, \nTernaux-C ompans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 446; Castaneda,
in Id., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 53, 54; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 217; Bart-
lett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 234.
43 ' The quail and hare of the valley, and the deer and lizards of the plains,
together furnish but a scanty supply.' Ehrenberg, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p.
110. ' They ate worms, grasshoppers, and reptiles.' Stratton's ('apt. Oatman
Girls, pp. 115-116. ' An den dttnnen Gurt hatten unsere Besucher uoch Rat-
ten, grosse Eidechsen und Frosche befestigt.' Mdllhausen, Tagebuch, p. 383.
'Depending upon game and roots for food.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870,
p. 137, and 1869, p. 92. ' Mas para ellos es plato regaladisimo el de ratones
iv., p. 212; Cremony's Apaches, p. 297.
44 On the Rivers Colorado and Gila. ' Usan de hilo torcido unas redes y
otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas, en que for-
man a modo de un pequeno barquito para pescar del infinite pescado que
hay en el rio.' Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851.
The Cajuenches when the produce is insufficient, live on fish. Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., p. 10. The Navajos 'live by raising flocks and herds,
instead of hunting and fishing.' Davis' El Gringo, p. 411. The Apaches
' no comen pescado alguno, no obstante de lo que abundan sus rios.' Cor-
dero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 375. ' El Apache no come el pescado,
aunque los hay abundantes en sus rios.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 285;
Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123; Stratton's Capt.
FOOD AND AGEICULTUEE. 489
Navajos, Mojaves, and Yumas, have long been ac
quainted with the art of agriculture and grow corn,
beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegetables, and also
some wheat; some attempt a system of irrigation, and
others select for their crops that portion of land which
has been overflowed by the river. The Navajos possess
numerous flocks of sheep, which though used for food,
they kill only when requiring the wool for blankets.
Although in later years they have cows, they do not
make butter or cheese, but only a curd from sour milk,
from which they express the whey and of which they
are very fond.45
Their method of planting is simple ; with a short sharp-
pointed stick small holes are dug in the ground into
which they drop the seeds, and no further care is given
to the crop except to keep it partially free from weeds.46
Maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between
two stones; From this paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are
made which are baked on a hot stone. To cook the
maguey, a hole is made in the ground, in which a fire is
kindled ; after it has burned some time the maguey-bulb
is buried in the hot ashes and roasted. Some concoct a
gypsy sort of dish or ollapodrida ; game, and such roots
or herbs as they can collect, being put in an earthen pot
with water and boiled.47
Oatman Girls, p. 149; Hardy's Trav., p. 373; Mollhausen, Belsen in die Felsen-
geb, torn, i., pp. 227-8.
45 ' They do not make butter and cheese Some who own cattle make
from the curd of soured milk small masses, which some have called cheese.'
Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., J855, p. 292. ' They never to my knowledge
make butter or cheese, nor do I believe they know what such things are.'
Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. The Navajoes 'make butter
and cheese.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts., p. 180. Some of the 'men brought
into camp a quantity of cheese.' Ives' Colorado River, pp. 128, 130.
« Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112. ' They
plant corn very deep with a stake and raise very good crops.' Ind. Aff. Rept.,
Spec. Com., 1867, p. 337; Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 172.
47 ' The metate is a slightly hollowed hard stone, upon which soaked
maize is laid and then reduced to paste The paste so formed is then
patted between the hands until it assumes a flat, thin and round appearance
when it is laid on a hot pan and baked into a tortilla. ' Cremony's Apaches,
Ep. 145-6. ' Us recoltent aussi en abondance le mais dont ils font de tortil-
LS.' Spc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. ' Their meat was boiled with
water in a Tusquin (clay kettle) and this meat-mush or soup was the staple
of food among them.' Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, pp. 114, 115. 'A large
Echino Cactus hollowed so as to make a trough. Into this were thrown
490 NEW MEXICANS.
As before mentioned, the roving Apaches obtain most
of their food by hunting and plunder; they eat more
meat and less vegetable diet than the other Arizona
tribes. They have a great partiality for horse-flesh, sel
dom eat fish, but kill deer and antelope.48 When hunt
ing they frequently disguise themselves in a skin, and
imitating closely the habits and movements of the animal,
they contrive to approach within shooting-distance.49
Whether it be horse or deer, every portion of the carcass
with the exception of the bones, is consumed, the entrails
being a special delicacy. Their meat they roast par
tially in the fire, and eat it generally half raw. When
food is plenty they eat ravenously and consume an enor-
the soft portions of the pulpy substance which surrounds the heart of the
cactus; and to them had been added game and plants gathered from the
banks of the creek. Mingled with water, the whole had been cooked by
stirring it up with heated stones.' Whipple, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 96.
* Us mangent des pains de mai's cuits sous la cendre, aussi gros que les gros
pains de Castille.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p.
49; Hardy's Trav., p. 238; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 63; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol.
i., p. 291; Castano de Soza, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ine'd., torn, iv., pp. 330-1.
48 ' The Apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of the cattle and sheep they
can steal they are said, however, to be more fond of the meat of the
mule than that of any other animal.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 290-1.
' A nonproductive race, subsisting wholly on plunder and game.' Cremony's
Apaches, p. 141. The Jicarilla Apaches: 'the chase is their only means of
support.' Carson, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 18GO, p. 164. 'They live entirely by
hunting.' Delgado, in Ind.* Aff. Eept., 1866, p. 138. 'Die Nahrung der
Aapches besteht hauptsachlich in dem Fleische der Binder und Schaf e
doch soil, wie man sagt, Maulthierfleisch ihre Lieblingspeise sein.' Thum-
mel, Mexiko, p. 352. ' Ihre besten Leckerbissen sind Pferde und Maulesel-
fleisch, welches sie braten und dem Rindfleische vorzieheii.' Ochs, in Murr,
Nachrichten, p. 289. Their daintiest food is mule and horseflesh. Apostolicos
Afanes, p. 432. ' Anteriormente antes que en la frontera abundase el gan-
ado, uno de sus alimentos era la carne del caballo, y la caza de diferentes
animales.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 2G6-7; Edward's Hist. Texas, p. 95;
Emory's Eept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 112; Barllett's
Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 327; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 187; Stratton's
Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 116; Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 580; Armin, Das Heutige
Mexiko, p. 282; Stanley's Portraits, p. 57; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii.,
p. 460; Edwards' Campaign, p. 05; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276; Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 202; see' further Ind. Aff. Eepts., from 1854-73; Gallatin, in
Nouvettes Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 308; Peters' Life of Carson,
p. 452; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 679.
49 < What I would have sworn was an antelope, proved to be a young In
dian, who having enveloped himself in an antelope's skin with head,
horns and all complete, had gradually crept up to the herd under his dis
guise.' Cremony's Apaches, pp. 28, 194. ' Se viste de una piel de los mismos
animales, pone sobre su cabeza otra de la clase de los que va a buscar, y ar-
mado de su arco y flechas andando en cuatro pies, procura mezclarse en una
banda de ellos.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 375; Garcia Conde,
in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 372; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Ferry,
Scenes de la VieSauvage, p. 262.
BUFFALO HUNTING. 491
mous quantity ; when scarce, they fast long and stoically.
Most of them hate bear-meat and pork. So Jew-like is
the Navajo in this particular that he will not touch pork
though starving.50
The Comanches do not cultivate the soil, but subsist
entirely by the chase. Buffalo, which range in immense
herds throughout their country, are the chief food, the
only addition to it being a few wild plants and roots;
hence they may be said to be almost wholly flesh-eaters.51
In pursuit of the buffalo they exhibit great activity,
skill, and daring. When approaching a herd, they ad
vance in close column, gradually increasing their speed,
and as the distance is lessened, they separate into two or
more groups, and dashing into the herd at full gallop,
discharge their arrows right and left with great rapidity ;
others hunt buffalo with spears, but the common and
more fatal weapon is the bow and arrow. The skinning
and cutting up of the slain animals is usually the task
of the women.52 The meat and also the entrails are
avoid
lett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p.
panther meat, but seldom touch that of the bear.' Cremony's Apaches, p. -226.
'Tambien matan para comer osos.' Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iii., torn. iv. p., 25. The Navajoes ' never kill bears or rattlesnakes un
less attacked.' Letherman, in Smithsonian liept., 1855, p. 291. ' 5Sie verehreu
den Baren, der nie von ihnen getiidtet wird, und desseii Fleisch zu essen sie
sich schenen. Schweinefleisch verschmahen sie desgleichen; bem iargsten
Hunger konnen sie es nicht fiber sich gewinuen, davon zu kosten.' Arntin,
Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 278; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 370.
51 'The Northern and Middle Comanches. . . subsist almost exclusively up
on the flesh of the buffalo, and are known among the Indians as buffalo-eaters.'
Marcy's Army Life, pp. 19, 26, 46. ' They plant no corn, and their only food
is meat, and a few wild plants that grow upon the prairies.' Marcy's Kept.,
p. 188. The Comanches are a ' nation subsisting solely by the chase.' Pike's
Explor. Trav., p. 214. 'Subsist mainly upon the buffalo.' Graves, in Ind.
Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 180. 'Acknowledge their entire ignorance of even the
rudest methods of agriculture.' Baylor, in Ind. Aff. Rej)t., 1856, p. 177;
Sent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 575;
Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 103, and Frond's Cent. Anier., p. 268; Corn-
bier, Voy., p. 292; French's Hist. Coll. La., pt. i'., p. 155; Mollhausen, Tagebuch,
p. 115; Gregg's Com. Prairies, pp. 214-16, 30< ; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 480;
Ludecus, Reise, p. 104; Dragoon Camp-., p. 153; Foote's Texas, p. 298; Hoc. Geog.,
Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. .192; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 21; Domenech,
Jour., p. 469; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 345; Holley's Texas, p. 153; Dufey,
Resume, torn, i., p. 4; Dewees' Texas, p. 233; Frost's Ind. Battles, p. 385.
52 ' Luego que los cibolos echan a huir, los cazadores sin apresurarlos de-
masiado los persiguen a un galope corto, que van activando mas y mas hasta
que rompen en carrera ...el indio sin cesar de correr, dispara su arco en
492 NEW MEXICANS.
eaten both raw and roasted. A fire being made in a
hole, sticks are ranged round it, meeting at the top, on
which the meat is placed. The liver is a favorite morsel,
and is eaten raw ; they also drink the warm blood of the
animal.53 No provision is made for a time of scarcity,
but when many buffalo are killed, they cut portions of
them into long strips, which, after being dried in the sun,
are pounded fine. This pemican they carry with them
in their hunting expeditions, and when unsuccessful in
the chase, a small quantity boiled in water or cooked
with grease, serves for a meal. When unable to procure
game, they sometimes kill their horses and mules for
food, but this only when compelled by necessity.54 In
common with all primitive humanity they are filthy—
never bathing except in summer55 — with little or no
sense of decency.56
tpdas direcciones, y va sembrando el campo de reses .... Las indias al mismo
tiempo van dessollando cada una de aquellas reses, recogiendo la piel y la
came.' Revista Cientifica, torn, i., pp. 165-6. At a suitable distance from
their prey they divide into two squadrons, one half taking to the right, and
the other to the left, and thus surround it.' Edwards' Hist. Tex., p. 108;
French's Hist. Coll. La., pt. ii., p. 155; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 214-
216. Women when they perceive a deer or antelope ' give it chase, and return
only after capturing it with the lasso.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 249.
53 ' When any game was killed, the Indians would tear out the heart, liver,
and entrails, and eat them raw.' Frost's Ind. Battles, p. 385. ' Ces Indiens
se nourissent de viande crue et boivent du sang Us coupent la viande en
tranches tres-minces et la font secher au soleil; ils la recluisent ensuite en
poudre pour la conserver.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i.,
torn, ix., pp. 190-1. ' They "jerked " or dried the meat and made the pemmi-
can.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 18. ' Comen las criadillas crudas, recogiendo la
sangre que corre del cuerpo con unas tutundas 6 jicaras, se la beben caliente.'
Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 528; Farnham's Trav., p. 32; Horn's
Captivity, pp. 16, 23; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 345.
54 ' At one time their larder is overstocked and they gorge themselves to re
pletion. ' Marcy's Army Life, pp. 32, 44, 46. 'Catch and tame these wild horses,
and when unsuccessful in chase, subsist upon them.' Holley's Texas, p. 153.
' When pressed by hunger from scarcity of game, they subsist oil their young
horses and mules.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., pp. 132-3. ' Have a rare ca
pacity for enduring hunger, and manifest great patience under its infliction.
After long abstinence they eat voraciously.' Burnd, in Schoolcraft's Arch.,
vol. i., p. 231; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 235; Edwards' Hist. Tex., p. 108.
55 The tribe 'lived in the most abject condition of filth and poverty.'
Browne's Apache Country, p. 96. 'With very few exceptions, the want of
cleanliness is universal — a shirt being worn until it will no longer hang to
gether, and it would be difficult to tell the original color.' LetJierman, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290. ' They are fond of bathing in the summer,
. . . .but nothing can induce them to wash themselves in winter.' Cremony's
Apaches, p. 302. They give off very unpleasant odors. Mollhausen, Reisen
in die Felsengeb., torn, 'i., p. 307. 'They seem to have a natural antipathy
WEAPONS. 493
Throughout Arizona and New Mexico, the bow and ar
row is the principal weapon, both in war and in the chase ;
to which are added, by those accustomed to move about
on horseback, the shield and lance ;57 with such also the
Mexican riata may now occasionally be seen.58 In bat
tle, the Colorado River tribes use a club made of hard
heavy wood, having a large mallet- shaped head, with a
small handle, through which a hole is bored, and in
which a leather thong is introduced for the purpose of
securing it in the hand.59 They seldom use the torna-
against water, considered as the means of cleansing the body. .. .water is
only used by them in extreme cases; for instance, when the vermin become
too thick on their heads, they then go through an operation of covering the
head with mud, which after some time is washed out.' Dodt, in Ind. Aff.
Kept, 1870, p. 130; lues' Colorado Riv., 108; Baclcus, in Schoolcrafl's Arch.,
vol. iv., p. 214; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 203; Arridvita, Cronica Serdficu,
p. 470.
56 ' They defecate promiscuously near their huts; they leave offal of every
character, dead animals and dead skins, close in the vicinity of their huts.'
Ind. Aff. RepL Spsc. Com., 1867, p. 339; Strattoris Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 114;
Hardy's Trav., p. 380.
57 The Mojave 'arms are the bow and arrow, the spear and the club.'
Sitgreaves' Zuni. Ex., p. 18. 'Armed with bows and arrows.' Fremont and
Emory's Notes of Trav,, p. 39. The Querechos 'use the bow and ar
row, lance and shield.' Marcy's Army Life, pp. 19, 23. 'The Apache will
invariably add his bow and arrows to his personal armament.' Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 15, 75-6, 103, 189. 'Neben Bogenund Pfeilen f iihren sie noch
sehr lange Lanzen.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 230. ' They use the bow and ar
row and spear.' Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 293. 'Armed with
bows and arrows, and the lance.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p.
214. For colored lithograph of weapons see Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's
Rept., p. 50, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'El armamento de los apaches se
cornponen de lanza, arcoy flechas.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p.
372. 'Lasarmas de los apaches son fusil, flechas y lanza.' Garcia Conde,
in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 315. 'Los Yumas son Indios de
malas armas, muchos 110 lie van arco, y si lo lie van es mal dispuesto, y con
dos 6 tres flechas.' Garces, in Arridvita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Seddmair,
Reladon, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de
Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill ; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 399; Parker's
Notes on Tex., p. 190; Drew, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 188$, p. 105; Odin, in Domenech,
Jour., p. 450; Wlslizenus' Tour, p. 71; Dewees' Texas, p. 233; Holley's Texas,
p. 153; Browntll's 2nd. Races, p. 543; Dragoon Camp., p. 153; Moore's Texas,
p. 33; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 602; Mtihlenpfordt, Mfjico, vol. ii., pt. ii ,
p. 421; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82; Combier, Voy., p. 224; Brantz-
Mayer's Mex. Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 123; Thummel, Mexiko, p. 444; Peters' Life
of Carson, p. 452; Cutts' Cong. of^Cal., p. 185; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp.
328-9, 451; Pages' Travels, vol.* i., p. 107; Linati, Costumes, plate xxii.; Armin,
Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 274; Mollhausen, Mormonenmadchen, torn, ii., p. 152;
Figuier's Hum. Race, pp. 480-2, with cut.
58 ' Their weapons of war are the spear or lance, the bow, and the laso.'
Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 173.
59 Among ' their arms of offence ' is ' what is called Macana, a- short club,
like a round wooden mallet, which is used in close quarters.' Hardy's Trav.,
p. 373. 'War clubs were prepared in abundance.' Stratton's Capt. Oatman
494 NEW MEXICANS.
hawk. Some carry slings with four cords attached.60
The bows are made of yew, bois d'arc, or willow, and
strengthened by means of deer-sinewTs, firmly fastened
to the back with a strong adhesive mixture. The length
varies from four to five feet. The string is made from
sinews of the deer.61 A leathern arm-guard is worn
round the left wrist to defend it from the blow of the
string.62 The arrows measure from twenty to thirty
inches, according to length of bow, and the shaft is com
posed of two pieces; the notch end, which is the longer,
consisting of a reed, into wrhich is fitted a shorter piece
Girls, p. 176. Die Apachen ' nur Bogen, Pfeile uud Keulen.' Thilmmel, Mex-
iko, p. 444. ' Their clubs are of mezquite wood (a species of acacia)
three or four feet long.' Emory's Rept. (J. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey,
vol. i., p. 108. 'Us n'oiit d'autre arme qti'un grand croc et une massue.'
/b'oc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. ' Arma sunt . . .oblongi lignei
gladii multis acutis silicibus utrimque muniti.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 311.
' Sus Armas son Flechas, y Macanas.' Torquemadci, Moncirq. 2nd., torn, i., p.
681. Among the Comanches: 'Leur massue est une queue de buffle a 1'ex-
tremite de laquelle ils iiiserent une boule en pierre ou en metal.' Soc. Geog.,
Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 193; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1857, p. 302.
60 ' Mit vierstreifigen Strickschleudern bewaffnet.' Mexikanische Zustande,
toni. i., p. 64. ' Sie fechten mit 'Lanzen, Biichsen, Pfeileu uiid Tamahaks.'
Ludecus, Reise, p. 104. ' Une petite hache en silex.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie
v., No. 96, p. 193; MuMenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., p. 539; Treasury of Trav.,
p. 31; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Domenech's Deserls,\ol. ii.,
p. 272.
cl The Querecho ' bows are made of the tough and elastic wood of the
"bois d'arc," or Osage orange (Maclura Aurantiaca), strengthened and re-
enforced with the sinews of the deer wrapped firmly around them, and strung
with a cord made of the same material.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 24. The
Tonto ' bow is a stout piece of tough wood. . . .about five feet'long, strength
ened at points by a wrapping of sinew. . .which are joined by a sinew string.'
Smart, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 418. The Navajo ' bow is about four
feet in length. . . .and is covered on the back with a kind of fibrous tissue.'
Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 293. The Yuma 'bow is made
of willow.' Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 108.
' Langen Bogen von Weidenholz.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i.,
p. 124. Apaches: 'the bow forms two semicircles, with a shoulder in the
middle; the back of it is entirely covered with sinews, which are laid on. ...
by the use of some glutinous substance.' Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 338. 'Los
tamanos de estas armas son differentes, s§gun las parcialidades que las usan.'
Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 372; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 360;
Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,
vol. iii., p. 98; Pattie's Pers. Nar., pp. 117, 149; Palmer, in Harper's Mag.,
vol. xvii., p. 450.
62 The Apaches : ' Tous portaient au poignet gauche le bracelet de cuir . . .
Ce bracelet de cuir est une espece de paumelle qui entoure la main gauche,
Le premier sert a arnortir le coup de fouet de la corde de 1'arc quand il
se detend, la seconde empeche les pennes de la fleche de declarer la peau de
la main. ' Ferry, Scenes de la vie Sauvage, p. 256. * With a leather bracelet
on one wrist and a bow and quiver of arrows form the general outfit.' Smai't,
in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 418.
BOW AND LANCE. 495
made of acacia, or some other hard wood, and tipped
with obsidian, agate, or iron. It is intended that when
an object is struck, and an attempt is made to draw out
the arrow, the pointed end shall remain in the wound.
There is some difference in the feathering ; most nations
employing three feathers, tied round the shaft at equal
distances with fine tendons. The Tontos have their
arrows winged with four feathers, while some of the
Comanches use only two. All have some distinguish
ing mark in their manner of winging, painting, or carv
ing on their arrows.63 The quiver is usually made of
the skin of some animal, deer or sheep, sometimes of a
fox or wild-cat skin entire with the tail appended, or of
reeds, and carried slung at the back or fastened to a waist-
belt.64 The lance is from twelve to fifteen feet long, the
point being a long piece of iron, a knife or sword blade
socketed into the pole.65 Previous to the introduction
C3 The Coyoteros ' use very long arrows of reed, finished out with some
hard wood, and an iron or flint head, but invariably with three feathers at
the opposite end.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 103. Navajoes: 'the arrow is about
two feet long and pointed with iron.' Ldherman, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855,
p. 293. The Querechos' ' arrows are twenty inches long, of flexible wood,
with a triangular point of iron at one end, and two feathers .... at the opposite
extremity.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 24. The Apache 'arrows are quite long,
very rarely pointed with flint, usually with iron. The feather upon the ar
row is placed or bound down with fine sinew in threes, instead of twos. . . .
The arrow-shaft is usually made of some pithy wood, generally a species of
yucca.' Henri/, in Schooler -aft's Arch., vol. v., p. 209. ' Sagittae acutis silicibus
asperata3.' De Laet, NovusOrbis, p. 311. ' Arrows were . . . pointed with a head
of stone. Some were of white quartz or agate, and others of obsidian.' Whip-
ple, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 98. The Tonto 'arrows are three
feet long the cane is winged with four strips of feather, held in place by
threads of sinew . . . which bears on its free end an elongated triangular piece of
quartz, flint, or rarely iron.' Smart, in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 418. The
Lipan arrows ' have four straight flutings; the Comanches make two straight
black flutings and two red spiral ones.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 270;
Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex., p. 18; Ternpsky'8 Mitla, p. 82; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 270;
Gander's Mex. Guat., vol. ii., p. 76; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 360; Mollhausen,
Fluchtling, torn, iv., p. 31; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 149.
64 The Apache ' quivers are usually made of deer-skin, with the hair
turned inside or outside, and sometimes of the skin of the wild-cat, with the
tail appended.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 210. ' Quiver of
sheep-skin.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 461. ' Quiver of fresh-
cut reeds.' Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav., p. 39. 'Un carcax 6 bolsa
de piel de leopardo en lo general.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p.
372; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Eept., p. 31, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol.
iii.; Tempsky's Mitla, p. 80.
to ' The spear is eight or ten feet in length, including the point, which is
about eighteen inches long, and also made of iron.' Letherntan, in ^Snrith-
sonian Eept., 1855, p. 293. Should the Apaches possess any useless firearms,
496 NEW MEXICANS.
of iron, their spears were pointed with obsidian or some
other flinty substance which was hammered and ground
to a sharp edge. The frame of the shield is made of
light basket-work, covered with two or three thicknesses
of buffalo-hide; between the layers of hide it is usual
with the Comanches to place a stuffing of hair, thus
rendering them almost bullet proof. Shields are painted
in various devices and decorated with feathers, pieces
of leather, and other finery, also with the scalps of
enemies, and are carried on the left arm by two straps.6"
Their fighting has more the character of assassination
and murder than warfare. They attack only when
they consider success a foregone conclusion, and rather
than incur the risk of losing a warrior will for days lie
in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising the foe
presents itself.67 The ingenuity of the Apache in pre
paring an ambush or a surprise is described by Colonel
Cremony as follows : l ' He has as perfect a knowledge of
' generalmente vieneii a darles nuevo uso, haciendo cle ellas lanzas, cuchillos,
lengiietas de flechas.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 372. 'La
lanza la usanmuy larga.' Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p.
315. 'Lance of fifteen feet in length.' Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 338; Ilassel,
Mex. Guat., p. 276; Holley's Texas, p. 153; Cults' Conq. of Gal., p. 242; Re-
vista, Cienti'fica, torn, i., p. 162; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 195; Pattie's Pers.
Nar., p. 298.
66 The Comanche ' shield was round .... made of wicker-work, covered
first with deer skins and then a tough piece of raw buffalo-hide drawn over,
. . . .ornamented with a human scalp, a grizzly bear's claw and a mule's tail
. . . .for the arm were pieces of cotton cloth twisted into a rope.' Parker's
Notes on Tex., p. 195. 'En el brazo izquierdo llevaba el chimal, que es un
escudo ovalado, cubierto todo de plumas, espejos, chaquiras y adornos de
pano encarnado.' Eevista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 162. Their shield ' is generally
painted a bright yellow.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 268. ' Shield of cir
cular form, covered with two thicknesses of hard, undressed buffalo hide, ....
stuffed with hair . . .a rifle-ball will not penetrate it unless it strikes perpen
dicular to the surface.' Marcy's Army Life, pp. 24-5; Mollhausen, Fluchtling,
torn, iv., p. 31; Tempsky's Mitla, p. 80. A ' Navajo shield. . . .with an image
of a demon painted on one side border of red cloth, . trimmed with
feathers.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 454; Linati, Costumes,
plate xxii.; Shepard's Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Edwards' Hist. Tex, p. 104.
67 ' Wherever their observations can be made from neighboring heights
with a chance of successful ambush, the Apache never shows himself.' Cre
mony' s Apaches, pp. 79, 189. ' Attacking only when their numbers, and a
well-laid ambush, promise a certainty of success.' Smart, iuSmWisorian liept.,
1867, 419. ' Colocan de antemano una eniboscada.' Cordero, in Orozco y
Berra, Geografia, p. 375; Parker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869, pp. 221-3, 256;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 4; Emory's Eeconnoissance, p. 47; Emory's Eept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, p. 107; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276; Soc.
Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Davis, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1868, p.
161.
APACHE WAEKIOKS. 497
the assimilation of colors as the most experienced Paris
modiste. By means of his acumen in this respect, he
can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass,
behind brown shrubs, or gray rocks, with so much ad
dress and judgment that any but the experienced would
pass him by without detection at the distance of three or
four yards. Sometimes they will envelope themselves
in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of earth,
will so resemble a granite boulder as to be passed \vith-
] in near range without suspicion. At others, they will
cover their persons with freshly gathered grass, and lying
prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the field. Again
they will plant themselves among the Yuccas, and so
closely imitate the appearance of that tree as to pass for
one of its species."
Before undertaking a raid they secrete their families
in the mountain fastnesses, or elsewhere, then two by
two, or in greater numbers, they proceed by different
routes, to a place of rendezvous, not far from where the
assault is to be made or where the ambuscade is to be
prepared. When, after careful observation, coupled with
the report of their scouts, they are led to presume that
little, if any, resistance will be offered them, a sudden
assault is made, men, women and children are taken
captives, and animals and goods secured, after which
their retreat is conducted in an orderly and skillful
manner, choosing pathways over barren and rugged
mountains which are known only to themselves.68 Held
asunder from congregating in large bodies by a meager-
ness of provisions, they have recourse to a system of
signals which facilitates intercourse with each other.
During the day one or more columns of smoke are the
68 ' Salen . . . . generalmente divididos en pequenas partidas para ocultar
mejor sus rastros . . . . Es imponderable la velocidad con que huyen despues
que han ejecutado un crecido robo. . . .las montaiias que encumbran, los de-
siertossin agua que atraviesan.' Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn.
v., p. 316. 'They steal upon their enemies under the cover of night.'
Emory's Eept. U. 8. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 107; Murr, Nach-
richten, p. 303; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 83; Apostolicos Afanes, p.
434; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 375-6; Browne's Apache
Country, p. 279; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 480; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276.
VOL. I. 32
498 NEW MEXICANS.
signals made for the scattered and roaming bands to
rendezvous, or they serve as a warning against approach
ing danger. To the same end at night they used a fire
beacon ; besides these, they have various other means of
telegraphing which are only understood by them, for
example, the displacement and arrangement of a few
stones on the trail, or a bended twig, is to them a note
,of warning as efficient, as is the bugle-call to disciplined
troops.69
They treat their prisoners cruelly ; scalping them, or
burning them at the stake; yet, ruled as they are by
greediness, they are always ready to exchange them for
horses, blankets, beads, or other property. When hotly
pursued, they murder their male prisoners, preserving
only the females and children, and the captured cattle,
though under desperate circumstances they do not hesi
tate to slaughter the latter.70 The Apaches returning to
their families from a successful expedition, are received
by the women with songs and feasts, but if unsuccessful
they are met with jeers and insults. On such occasions
says Colonel Cremony, "the women turn away from them
with assured indifference and contempt. They are up-
.braided as cowards, or for want of skill and tact, and are
69 'La practica, que observan para avisarse los unos a los otros. . .es levan-
'tar humaredas.' Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 394. ' Smokes are
of various kinds, each one significant of a particular object.' Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 183-4. ' In token of retreate sounded on a certaine small trum
pet. . . .made fires, and were answered againe afarre off. . . .to giue their fel-
lowes vnderstanding, how wee marched and where we arriued.' Coronado, in
Hakluyfs Voy., torn, iii., p. 376; Mollhausen, Fluchtling, torn, ii., p. 157; Smart,
in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 419.
70 « La suma crueldad con que tratan a los vencidos atenaccandolos vivoa
y comiendose los pedazos de la carne que la arrancan.' Doc. Hist. N. Vizca-
ya, MS., p. 4. 'Their savage and blood-thirsty natures experience a rea!
pleasure in tormenting their victim.' Cremony' s Apaches, p. 266. ' Hang
their victims by the heels to a tree and put a slow fire under their head.'
Browne's Apache Country, pp. 201, 93, 96. Among the Navajos, ' Captives
taken in their forays are usually treated kindly.' Letherman, in Smith'
sonian Eept., 1855, p. 295. ' Us scalpent avec la corde de leur arc, en In
tournant rapidement autour de la tete de leur victime.' Lachapelle, Eaousset-
Boulbon, p. 82; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 303; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, pp.
, 138,
114-118, 138, 149, 218; Farnham's Trav., p. 32; Graves, in Ind. Aff.
1854, p. 180; Labadi, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1862, p.<247; Malte-Brun, Precis d?
la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Scenes in the Eocky Mis., p. 180; Stone, in Hist.
Mag., vol. v., p. 167; Henry, in Schoolcraft'sArch., vol. v.,. p. 212; Doc. 7/ist,
Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p, 10; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p, 118,
COMANCHE WARRIORS. 499
told that such men should not have wives, because they
do not know how to provide for their wants. When so
reproached, the warriors hang their heads and offer no
excuse for their failure. To do so would only subject
them to more ridicule and objurgation ; but Indian-like,
they bide their time in the hope of finally making their
peace by some successful raid." If a Mojave is taken
prisoner he is forever discarded in his own nation, and
should he return his mother even will not own him.71
The Comanches, who are better warriors than the
Apaches, highly honor bravery on the battle-field.
From early youth, they are taught the art of war, and the
skillful handling of their horses and weapons ; and they
are not allowed a seat in the council, until their name
is garnished by some heroic deed.72 Before going on
the war-path they perform certain ceremonies, promi
nent among which is the war-dance.73 They invariably
fight on horseback with the bow and arrow, spear and
shield, and in the management of these weapons they
have no superiors.
Their mode of attack is sudden and impetuous; they
advance in column, and when near the enemy form sub
divisions charging on the foe simultaneously from oppo
site sides, and while keeping their horses in constant
motion, they throw themselves over the side, leaving
only a small portion of the body exposed, and in this
position discharge their arrows over the back of the ani
mal or under his neck with great rapidity and precision.
7-t
71 Cremony's Apaches, p. 21G; WJityple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p.
72 ' Obran en la giierra con mas tactica que los apaches.' Garcia Conde, in
Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., 318. 'A young man is never considered
worthy to occupy a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in
battle.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 34; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 22; Dome-
nech, Jour., pp. 140-i; Foote's Texas, vol. i., p. 298; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i.,
p. 346; Halliard's Hist. Tex., p. 243.
73 ' When a chieftain desires to organize a war-party, he ... rides around
through the camp singing the war-song.' Marcy'sArmy Life, p. 53. ' When
a chief wishes to go to war . . the preliminaries are discussed at a war-dance. '
Schoolcraft'sArch., vol. ii., p. 132; Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 280; Gregg's
Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 315.
7* ' They dart forward in a column like lightning At a suitable distance
from their prey, they divide into two squadrons.' Holley's Texas, p. 153. ' A
Comanche will often throw himself upon the opposite side of his charger, so
500 NEW MEXICANS.
fA few scalps are taken, for the purpose of being used at
the war or scalp dance by which they celebrate a vic
tory. Prisoners belong to the captors and the males
are usually killed, but women are reserved and become
the wives or servants of their owners, while children of
both sexes are adopted into the tribe.75 Peace ceremo
nies take place at a council of warriors, when the pipe
is passed round and smoked by each, previous to which
an interchange of presents is customary.76
Household utensils are made generally of wickerwork,
or straw, which, to render them watertight, are coated
with some resinous substance. The Mojaves and a few
of the Apache tribes have also burnt-clay vessels, such
as water-jars and dishes.77 For grinding maize, as before
as to be protected from the darts of the enemy.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol.
ii., pp. 312-13; Dewees' Texas, p. 23i; Shepard's Land of the Aztecs, p. 182;
Ludecus, Reise, p. 104.
73 ' Us tuent tons les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent vivre que les enfants,
qu'ils elevent avec soin pour s'en servir comme d'esclaves.' Humboldt, Essai
PoL, torn, i., p. 290. ' Invariably kill such men as offer the slightest impedi
ment to their operations, and take women and children prisoners. ' Marcy's
Army Life, pp. 24, 54. ' Prisoners of war belong to the captors.' Burnet, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 232; Farnham's Trav., p. 32; Figuier's Hum.
Race, p. 480; Pottle's Pers. Nar., p. 41; Foote's Texas, vol. i., p.' 298; Horn's
Captivity, p. 15; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 205.
76 ' Ten chiefs were seated in a circle within our tent, when the pipe,
the Indian token of peace, was produced. . . .they at first refused to smoke,
their excuse being, that it was not their custom to smoke until they had
received some presents.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 39.
77 ' I saw no earthenware vessels among them ; the utensils employed in
the preparation of food being shallow basins of closely netted straw. They
carried water in pitchers of the same material, but they were matted all over
with a pitch.' Smart, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 419. 'Aus Binsen und
Weiden geflochtene Gefasse, mitunter auch einige ausThon geformte;'. . . .by
the door stood ' einbreiter Stein. . . .auf welchem mittelst eineskleineren die
Mehlfriichte zerrieben wurden.' Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 396, 404. ' Panniers
of wicker-work, for holding provisions, are generally carried on the horse by
the women.' Henry, in Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol. v., p. 210; Neighbors, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 129. 'Their only implements are sticks.' Greene,
in 'Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 140. < They (the Axuas of Colorado Kiver) had
a beautiful fishing-net made out of grass.' . . . . ' They had also burnt earthen
jars, extremely well made. The size of each of them might be about two feet
in diameter in the greatest swell; very thin, light, and well formed.' Hardy's
Trav., p. 338. 'Nets wrought with the bark of the willow.' Domenec'h's
Deserts, vol. i., p. 220; Broivne's Apac.he Country, p. 200. ' Tienen mucha
loza de las coloradas, y pintadas y negras, platos, caxetes, saleros; almofias,
xicaras muy galanas: alguna de la loza esta vidriada. Tienen mucho aper-
cibimiento de lena, e de madera, para hacer sus casas, en tal manera, a lo
que nos dieron a entender, que cuando uno queria hacer casa, tiene aquella
madera alii de puesto para el efecto, y hay mucha cantidad. Tiene dos
guaxexes a los lados del pueblo, que le sirven para se banar, porque de otros
ojos de agua, a tiro de arcabuz, beben y se sirven. A un cuarto de legua
IMPLEMENTS. 501
stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is
nothing more than a convex and a concave stone.78 Of
agricultural implements they know nothing; a pointed
stick, crooked at one end, which they call Jcishishai, does
service as a corn-planter in spring, and during the later
season answers also for plucking fruit from trees, and
again, in times of scarcity, to dig rats and prairie dogs
from their subterranean retreats. Their cradle is a
flat board, padded, on which the infant is fastened;
on the upper part is a little hood to protect the head,
and it is carried by the mother on her back, suspended
by a strap.79 Their saddles are simply two rolls of straw
covered with deer or antelope skin, which are connected
by a strap; a piece of raw hide serves for girths and
stirrups. In later years the Mexican saddle, or one
approaching it in shape, has been adopted, and the
Navajos have succeeded in making a pretty fair imita
tion of it, of hard ash. Their bridles, which consist of a
rein attached to the lower jaw, are very severe on the
animal.80 Although not essentially a fish-eating people,
va el rio Salado, que decimos, por donde fue nuestro camino, aunque el agua
salada se pierde de muchas leguas atras.' Castano de Sosa, in Pacheco, Col.
Doc. Ine'd., torn, iv., p. 331; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Feb. 14th, 1862; Browne's
Apache Country, p. 200. ' Their only means of farming are sharpened sticks. '
Colyer, in 2nd. Aff. Kept., 1871, p. 50.
78 ' Their utensils for the purpose of grinding breadstuff, consist of two
stones; one flat, with a concavity in the middle; the other round, fitting partly
into the hollow of the flat stone.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p.
209; Smart, in Smithsonian Sept.. 1867, p. 418; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p.
282.
79 ' The cradle of the Navajo Indians resembles the same article made by
the Western Indians. It consists of a flat board, to support the vertebral
column of the infant, with a layer of blankets and soft wadding, to give ease
to the position, having the edges of the frame-work ornamented with leather
fringe. Around and over the head of the child, who is strapped to this plane,
is an ornamented hoop, to protect the face and cranium from accident. A
leather strap is attached to the vertebral shell-work, to enable the mother to
sling it on her back.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 435-6, and plate p. 74.
so ' The saddle is not peculiar but generally resembles that used by the
Mexicans. They ride with a very short stirrup, which is placed further to
the front than on a Mexican saddle. The bit of the bridle has a ring at
tached to it, through which the lower jaw is partly thrust, and a powerful
pressure is exerted by this means when the reins are tightened.' Letherman,
in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 292. ' Sa selle est faite de deux rouleaux de
paille relies par une courroie et maintenus par une sangle de cuir.' Lacha-
pelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82; Tempsky's Mitla, p. 80. The Navajos have
' aus za'hem Eschenholz gefertigten Sattelbogen.' Mollhausen, Fluchtting, torn,
iv., p. 39.
502 NEW MEXICANS.
the Mojaves and Axuas display considerable ingenuity
in the manufacture of fishing-nets, which are noted for
their strength and beauty. Plaited grass, or the fibry
bark of the willow, are the materials of which they are
made.81 Fire is obtained in the old primitive fashion of
rubbing together two pieces of wood, one soft and the
other hard. The hard piece is pointed and is twirled
on the softer piece, with a steady downward pressure
until sparks appear.82
The Navajos excel all other nations of this family in
the manufacture of blankets.83 The art with them is
perhaps of Mexican origin, and they keep for this in
dustry large flocks of sheep.84 Some say in making
blankets cotton is mixed with the wool, but I find no
notice of their cultivating cotton. Their looms are of
the most primitive kind. Two beams, one suspended
and the other fastened to the ground, serve to stretch the
warp perpendicularly, and two slats, inserted between
the double warp, cross and recross it and also open a
passage for the shuttle, which is simply a short stick
with some thread wound around it. The operator sits
81 ' Das Netz war weitmaschig, aus feinen, aber sehr starken Bastfiiden
geflochten, vier Fuss hoch, und ungefahr dreissig Fuss lang. Von vier zu
vier Fuss befandeii sich laiige Sta'be an demselben, mittelst welcher es im
Wasser, zugleich aber auch auf dem Boden und aufrecht gehalten wurde.'
Mollhausen, Eeisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p. 227; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i.,
p. 220.
82 'El apache para sacar lumbre, usa. . . .un pedazo de sosole y otro de
lechuguilla bien secos. Al primero le forman una puuta, lo que frotan con
la segunda con cuanta velocidad pueden a la manera del ejercicio de nues-
tros molinillos para hacer el chocolate : luego que ambos palos se calientaii
con la frotacion, se encienden y producen el fuego.' Velasco, Noticias de
Sonora, p. 282.
83 The Navajos ' manufacture the celebrated, and, for warmth and dura
bility, unequaled, Navajo blanket. The Navajo blankets are a wonder
of patient workmanship, and often sell as high as eighty, a hundred,
or a hundred and fifty dollars.' Walker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1872, p. 53.
' Navajo blankets have a wide and merited reputation for beauty and excel
lence.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 305; Ind. Aff. Eept., Spec. Com., 1867, p. 341;
Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 314; Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Eept., pp. 13, 32, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii.; Davis'
El Gringo, p. 411; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 203; Scenes in the Eocky Mis.,
p. 180; 'Figuier's Hum. Eace, p. 481; Peters' Life of Carson, p. 125; Pritchard's
Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 567; Farnham's Life in CaL, pp. 373-4.
84 ' This art may have been acquired from the New Mexicans, or the Pueblo
Indians.' Eaton, in SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iv., p. 217. ' This manufacture
of blankets .... was originally learned from the Mexicans when the two
people, lived on amicable terms.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 307.
NAVAJO BLANKETS. 503
%
on the ground , and the blanket, as the weaving pro
gresses, is wound round the lower beam.85 The wool,
after being carded, is spun with a spindle resembling a
boy's top, the stem being about sixteen inches long and
the lower point made to revolve in an earthen bowl by
being twirled rapidly between the forefinger and thumb.
The thread after being twisted is wound on the spindle,
and though not very even, it answers the purpose very
well.86 The patterns are mostly regular geometrical
figures, among which diamonds and parallels predomi
nate.87 Black and red are the principal variations in
color, but blue and yellow are at times seen. Their
colors they obtain mostly by dyeing with vegetable sub
stances, but in later years they obtain also colored manu
factured materials from the whites, which they again
unravel, employing the colored threads obtained in this
manner in their own manufactures.88 They also weave
85 ' The blanket is woven by a tedious and rude process, after the manner
of the Pueblo Indians. .. .The manner of weaving is peculiar, and is, no
doubt, original with these people and the neighboring tribes.' Letherman, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 291; Schooler aft's Arch., vol. iv.,'p. 437.
86 ' The spinning and weaving is done. . . .by hand. The thread is made
entirely by hand, and is coarse and uneven.' Letherman, in Smithsonian
Eept., 1855, p. 291. 'The wool or cotton is first prepared by carding. It
is then fastened to the spindle near its top, and is held in the left hand. The
spindle is held between the thumb and the first finger of the right hand, and
stands vertically in the earthen bowl. The operator now gives the spindle a
twirl, as a boy turns his top, and while it is revolving, she proceeds to draw
out her thread, precisely as is done by our own operatives, in using the com
mon spinning-wheel. As soon as the thread is spun, the spindle is turned
in an opposite direction, for the purpose of winding up the thread on the
portion of it next to the wooden block.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
iv., p. 436.
87 Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 436. 'The colors are woven
in bands and diamonds. We have never observed blankets with figures
of a complicated pattern.' Letherman, in Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 291.
88 ' The colors, which are given in the yarn, are red, black, and blue.
The juice of certain plants is employed in dyeing, but it is asserted by recent
authorities that the brightest red and blue aVe obtained by macerating strips
of Spanish cochineal, and altamine dyed goods, which have been purchased
at the towns.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 436. 'The colors
are red, blue, black, and yellow; black and red being the most common. The
red strands are obtained by unravelling red cloth, black by using the wool
of black sheep, blue by dissolving indigo in feimented urine, and yellow is
said to be by coloring with a particular flower.' Lethtrman, in Smithsonian
Kept., 1855, p. 291. The women ' Welche sich in der wahl der Farben und
der Zusammenstellung von bunten Streifen und phantastischen Figuren in
dem Gewebe gegenseitig zu iibertreffen suchen. Ursprimglich trugen die
Decken nur die verschiedenen Farben der Schaafe in breiten Streifen, doch
seit die Navahoes farbige, wollene Stoffe von Neu-Mexiko beziehen konnen,
504 NEW MEXICANS.
a coarse woolen cloth, of which they at times make shirts
and leggins.89 Besides pottery of burnt clay, wicker-
work baskets, and saddles and bridles, no general in
dustry obtains in this family.90 Featherwork, such as
sewing various patterns on skins with feathers, and
other ornamental needlework, are also practiced by the
N avajps.91
Of the Comanches, the Abbe Domenech relates that
they extracted silver from some mines near San Saba,
verschaffen sie sicla solche, um sie in Faden aufzulosen, und diese dann
zu ihrer eigeuen Weberei zu verwenden.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb.,
torn, ii., p. 235; Ruxton's Adven. Mex.. p. 195.
89 'Us (the Apaches) travaillent bien les cuirs, font de belles brides.'
Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 82. 'They manufacture rough leather.'
Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 335. 'Man macht Leder.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p.
195. ' It has been represented that these tribes (the Navajos) wear leather
shoes .... Inquiry from persons who have visited or been stationed in New
Mexico, disaffirms this observation, showing that in all cases the Navajo
shoes are skins, dressed and smoked after the Indian method.' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 204; Cremony's Apaches, p. 305; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol.
i., p. 286. They 'knit woolen stockings.' Davis' El Gringo, p. 411. 'They
also manufacture .... a coarse woolen cloth with which they clothe them
selves.' Clark, in Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p.
403, vol. ii., pp. 244-5. "The Navajoes raise no cotton.' Backus, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 212. Sie sind ' noch inner in einigen Baumwollen-
geweben ausgezeichnet.' Thummel, Mexiko, p. 349. ' These people (the in
habitants of Arizona in 1540) had cotton, but they were not very carefull
to vse the same: because there was none among them that knew the arte
of weauing, and to make apparel thereof.' Alarchon, in HakluyVs Voy., vol.
iii., p. 433; Bent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Ten Broeck, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 89; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 680; Al~
cedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 184.
90 The Xicarillas, ' manufacture a sort of pottery which resists the action
of fire.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 8; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854,
p. 177. The Yuma ' women make baskets of willow, and also of tule, which
are impervious to water; also earthen ollas or pots, which are used for cook
ing and for cooling water.' Emory's Kept. U. S. and Mtx. Boundary Survey,
vol. i., p. Ill; Revillagigedo, Carta, MS., p. 21. ' Figure 4. A scoop or
dipper, from the Mohave tribe, and as neat and original an article in earthen
ware as could well be designed by a civilized potter.' Whipple, Ewbank, and
Turner's Kept., p. 46, in Pac. E. R. Rept., vol. iii. ' Professor Cox was in
formed that the New Mexican Indians colored their pottery black by using
the gum of the mezquite, which has much the appearance and properties of
gum arabic, and then baking it. Much of the ancient pottery from the Colo
rado Chiquito is colored, the prevailing tints being white, black, and red.'
Foster's Pre-Hist. Races, p. 250; Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 195. The Yampais
had ' some admirably made baskets of so close a texture as to hold water; a
wicker jar coated with pine tree gum.' Sitgreaves' Zuni. Ex., p. 10; Bent, in
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 243. •
91 Gregg's Com. Prairies, p. 286. ' In regard to the manufacture of plum
age, or feather-work, they certainly display a greater fondness for decora
tions of this sort than any Indians we have seen. . . .1 saw no exhibition of
it in the way of embroidery.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 79; Thummel,
Mexiko, p. 349.
PROPEKTY. 505
from which they manufactured ornaments for themselves
and their saddles and bridles.92
They have no boats, but use rafts of wood, or bundles
of rushes fastened tightly together with osier or willow
twigs, and propelled sometimes with poles; but more
frequently they place upon the craft their property and
wives, and, swimming alongside of it, with the greatest
ease push it before them.93 For their maintenance,
especially in latter days, they are indebted in a great
measure to their horses, and accordingly they consider
them as their most valuable property. The Navajos
are larger stock owners than any of the other nations,
possessing numerous flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle
as well as horses and mules. These, with their blankets,
their dressed skins, and peaches which they cultivate,
constitute their chief wealth.9* Certain bands of the
Apache nation exchange with the agriculturists pottery
and skins for grain.95 Among the Navajos, husband and
wife hold their property separate, and at their death it
92 ' Mines cV argent exploiters par les Comanches, qui en tirent des oriie-
mentspour eux et pour leurs chevaux, ainsi que des balles pour leurs fusils.'
Domenech, Jour., p. 132.
93 The Mescaleros had ' a raft of bulrush or cane, floated and supported
by some twenty or thirty hollow pumpkins fastened together.' Mulchings'
Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 56. The Yumas had 'batteaus which could hold 200
or 300 pounds weight.' Id., vol. iv., p. 540. The Mojaves had " Flossen, die
von Binsen-Biindeln zusammengefugt waren (die einzige Art von Fahrzeug,
welche ich bei den Bewolmern des Colorado-Thales bemerkte).' MdQhavsen,
Tagebuch, p. 401. ' Merely bundles of rushes placed side by side, and se
curely bound together with willow twigs. . .their owners paddled them about
with considerable dexterity.' Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 117,
and plate. Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., pp. 238, 254; Ives' Col
orado Riv., p. 69.
94 ' Immense numbers of horses and sheep, attesting the wealth of the
tribe.' Ives' Colorado Riv., pp. 128, 130. 'They possess more wealth than
all the other wild tribes in New Mexico combined.' Graves, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1854, p. 179. 'They are owners of large flocks and herds.' Bent, in School"
craft's Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 217;
Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 211, 212; Scenes in the Rocky Mts.,
p. 180; Davis' El Gringo, p. 411; Lelherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, pp.
291-2; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 289;
Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 567; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 173;
Peters' Life of Carson, p. 124; Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 349; Simpson's Jour.
Mil. Recon., p. 79; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 254; Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 60.
95 The Jicarilla Apaches ' manufacture a species of coarse earthenware,
which they exchange for corn and wheat.' Keithly, in Ind. Aff '." Rept., 1863,
p. 115. Stratlon's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 123.
506 NEW MEXICANS.
becomes the inheritance of the nephew or niece. This
law of entail is often eluded by the parents, who before
death give their goods to their children.96 Their ex
changes are governed by caprice rather than by estab
lished values. Sometimes they will give a valuable
blanket for a trifling ornament. The Mojaves have a
species- of currency which they call pook, consisting of
strings of shell beads, whose value is determined by the
length.97 At the time of Coronado's expedition, in 1540,
the Comanches possessed great numbers of dogs, which
they employed in transporting their buffalo- skin tents
and scanty household utensils.98 When a buffalo is
killed, the successful hunter claims only the hide; the
others are at liberty to help themselves to the meat ac
cording to their necessities.99 In their trading transac
tions they display much shrewdness, and yet are free
from the tricks usually resorted to by other nations.100
Their knowledge of decorative art is limited, paint-
96 ' Das Eigenthum des Vaters nicht auf den Sohn iibergeht, sondern dass
Neffen mid Nichten als die rechtmassigen Erben anerkaunt werden wenn
nicht der Vater bei Lebzeiten schon seine Habe an die eigenen Kinder ge-
schenkt hat.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 234. 'The hus
band has no control over the property of his wife. . . .Property does not de
scend from father to son, but goes to the nephew of the decedent, or, in
default of a nephew, to the niece. . . .but if, while living, he distributes his
property to his children, that disposition is recognised.' Letherman, in Smith
sonian Kept., 1855, pp. 294-5. 'When the father dies. . . .a fair division is
not made; the strongest usually get the bulk of the effects.' Bristol, in Ind.
Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357.
97 'The blankets, though not purchasable with money. .. .were sold, in
some instances, for the most trifling article of ornament or clothing.' Simp
son's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 81. Shell beads, which they call 'pook,' are their
substitute for money.' Wkipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 115.
98 The Querechos encountered by Coronado had with them ' un grand trou-
peau de chiens qui portaient tout ce qu'ils possedaient.' Castaneda, in Ter-
naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 117. 'The only property of these
people, with the exception of a few articles belonging to their domestic econ-
onay, consists entirely in horses and mules.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 22; Dom-
enech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 23; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 347; Marcy's Kept.,
p. 188; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 116-17.
99 ' There are no subdivisions of land acknowledged in their territory,
and no exclusive right of game.' Neighbors, in Schoolcraft's Arch , vol. ii., p.
131. ' Their code is strictly Spartan.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 23.
100 « They are sufficiently astute in dealing.' Burnet, in Schoolcraft's A rch.,
vol. i., p. 232. 'Le chef des Indiens choisit, parmi ces objets, ceux qui
sont necessaires a sa tribu.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 193. 'In
Coinanche trade the main trouble consists in fixing the price of the first
animal. This being settled by the chiefs.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p.
45; Parker's Notes on Tex., pp. 190, 234; Burnet, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
i., p. 232; Domenech, Jour., p. 130; Deicees' Texas, p. 36.
ART AND CALENDAR. 507
ings and sculptures of men and animals, rudely exe
cuted on rocks or walls of caverns are occasionally met
with; whether intended as hieroglyphical representa
tions, or sketched during the idle moments of some bud
ding genius, it is difficult to determine, owing to the fact
that the statements of the various authors who have in
vestigated the subject are conflicting.101 The Comanches
display a certain taste in painting their buffalo-robes,
shields, and tents. The system of enumeration of the
Apaches exhibits a regularity and diffusiveness seldom
met with amongst wild tribes, and their language con
tains all the terms for counting up to ten thousand.102 In
this respect the Comanches are very deficient ; what little
knowledge of arithmetic they have is decimal, and when
counting, the aid of their fingers or presence of some
actual object is necessary, being, as they are, in total ig
norance of the simplest arithmetical calculation. The
rising sun proclaims to them a new day; beyond this
they have no computation or division of time. They
know nothing of the motions of the earth or heavenly
bodies, though they recognise the fixedness of the polar
star.103
Their social organization, like all their manners and
customs, is governed by their wild and migratory life.
Government they have none. Born and bred with the
101 Mr Bartlett, describing an excursion he made to the Sierra Waco near
the Copper Mines in New Mexico, says, he saw ' an overhanging rock ex
tending for some distance, the whole surface of which is covered with rude
paintings and sculptures, representing men, animals, birds, snakes, and fan
tastic figures .... some of them, evidently of great age, had been partly
defaced to make room for more recent devices.' Bartlett' s Pers. Nar., vol. i.,
pp. 170-4, with cuts. In Arizona, Emory found ' a mound of granite boul
ders. . . covered with unknown characters. . . .On the ground near by were
also traces of some of the figures, showing some of the hieroglyphics, at
least, to have been the work of modern Indians.' Emory's Reconnaissance,
pp. 89, 90, with cut. The Comanches ' aimaient beaucoup les images, qu'ils
ne se lassaient pas d'admirer.' Domenech, Jour., p. 136.
102 « The Apaches count ten thousand with as much regularity as we do.
They even make use of the decimal sequences.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 237.
103 «They have no computation of time beyond the seasons the cold
and hot season. . . .frequently count by the Caddo mode — from one to ten,
and by tens to one hundred, &c . . . . They are ignorant of the elements of
figures.' Neighbors, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., pp. 129-30. 'Ce qu'ils
savent d'astronomie se borne a la connaissance de 1'etoile polaire L'ar-
ithrnetique des sauvages est sur leurs doigts;. . . .11 leur faut absolument un
objet pour nombrer.' Ilartmann and Millard, Tex., pp. 112-13.
508 NEW MEXICANS.
idea of perfect personal freedom, all restraint is unen
durable.104 The nominal authority vested in the war
chief, is obtained by election, and is subordinate to the
council of warriors.105 Every father holds undisputed
sway over his children until the age of puberty. His
power, importance, and influence at the council-fire is
determined by the amount of his slaves and other prop
erty.106 Those specially distinguished by their cunning
and prowess in war, or success in the chase, are chosen
as chiefs.
A chief may at any time be deposed.107 Sometimes
it happens that one family retains the chieftaincy in a
•tribe during several generations, because of the bravery
or wealth of the sons.108 In time of peace but little au
thority is vested in the chief; but on the war path, to
ensure success, his commands are implicitly obeyed. It
10* The Navajos have no tribal government, and in reality no chiefs. Lether-
man, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 288. ' Their form of government is so
exceedingly primitive as to be hardly worthy the name of a political organi
zation.' Davis' El Gringo, pp. 412, 413; Ives' Colorado Riv., p. 71. 'Us n'ont
jamais connu de domination.' Soc. Ge'og., Bulletin, serie. v., No. 96, p. 187.
'Each is sovereign in his own right as a warrior.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 177.
105 ' It is my opinion that the Navajo chiefs have but very little influence
with their people.' Bennett, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 238, and 1870, p. 152;
Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357.
106 ' Los padres de familia ejercen esta autoridad en tanto que los hijos
no salen de la infancia, porque poco antes de salir de la pubertad son como
libres y no reconocen mas superioridad que sus propias fuerzas, 6 la del
indio que los manda en la campana.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 282-3.
' Every rich man has many dependants, and these dependants are obedient
to his will, in peace and in war.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p.
211; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 89. 'Every one who has
a few horses and sheep is a "head man." ' Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept.,
1855, p. 288; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 233. The rule
of the Querechos is 'essentially patriarchal.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 20.
107 'When one or more (of the Navajos) are successful in battle or fortu
nate in their raids to the settlements on the Rio Grande, he is endowed with
the title of captain or chief.' Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1867, p. 357. 'En
cualquiera de estas incorporaciones toma el mando del todo por comun con-
sentimiento el mas acreditado de valiente.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geo-
firafta, p. 373. The Comanches have 'a right to displace a chief, and elect
his' successor, at pleasure.' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 346. A chief of the
Comanches is never degraded ' for any private act unconnected with the wel
fare of the whole tribe.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 130.
108 The office of chief is not hereditary with the Navajos. Cremony's Apach-
?, p. 307. The wise old men of the Querechos ' curb the impetuosity of ani-
Colorado Riv., pp.
f, and assumes the
command of the tribe on the death of his father, ' among the Apaches. Henry,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 210.
COMANCHE GOVEKNMENT. 509
also frequently happens that chiefs are chosen to lead
some particular war or marauding expedition, their au
thority expiring immediately upon their return home.109
Among the Comanches public councils are held at
regular intervals during the year, when matters pertain
ing to the common weal are discussed, laws made, thefts,
seditions, murders, and other crimes punished, and the
quarrels of warrior-chiefs settled. Smaller councils are
also held, in which, as well as in the larger ones, all are
free to express their opinion.110 Questions laid before
them are taken under consideration, a long time fre
quently elapsing before a decision is made. Great care
is taken that the decrees of the meeting shall be in ac
cordance with the opinion and wishes of the majority.
Laws are promulgated by a public crier, who ranks next
to the chief in dignity.111
Ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions
of the councils; brute force, or right of the strongest,
with the law of talion in its widest acceptance, direct
the mutual relations of tribes and individuals.112 Murder,
109 The Mescaleros and Apaches ' choose a head-man to direct affairs for
the time being.' Carldon, in Smithsonian Kept., Ib54, p. 315. 'Es gibt auch
Stamme, an deren Spitze em Kriegs- sowie ein Friedens-Hauptling steht.'
Armin, Das Heutiye Mexiko, p. 279; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. (leog., Boktin,
torn, v., p. 315.
no When Col. Langberg visited the Comanches who inhabit the Bolson
de Mapimi, ' wurde dieser Stamm von einer alten Fran angefuhrt.' Froebd,
Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 222; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 352; Hardy's Trav., p. 348.
'I have never known them (Comanches) to make a treaty that a portion of
the tribe do not violate its stipulations before one year rolls around.' Neigh
bors, in Ind. Aff. Bept., 1857, p. 267.
111 The chiefs of the Comanches 'are in turn subject to the control of a
principal chief.' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 345. 'La autoridad central de
su gobierno reside en un gefe supremo.' Revista Cientt'fica, torn, i., p. 57; Es-
cudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 229. The southern 'Comanches 'do not of
late years acknowledge the sovereignty of a common ruler and leader in their
united councils nor in war.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 43. The Gila Apaches
acknowledge 'no common head or superior.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Kept.,
1854, pp. 170, 172.
112 The Comanches ' hold regular councils quarterly, and a grand council
of the whole tribe once a year.' Edwards' Hist. Tex., p. 108. 'At these
councils prisoners of war are tried, as well as all cases of adultery, theft, sedi
tion and murder, which are punished by death. The grand council also takes
cognizance of all disputes between the chiefs, and other matters of import
ance.' MaUlard's Hist. Tex., p. 244. 'Their decisions are of but little mo
ment, unless they meet the approbation of the mass of the people; and for
this reason these councils are exceedingly careful not to run counter to the
wishes of the poorer but more numerous class, being aware of the difficulty,
if not impossibility, of enforcing any act that would not command their
510 NEW MEXICANS.
adultery, theft, and sedition are punished with death or
public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the
interposition of elderly warriors. The doctor failing to
cure his patient must be punished by death. The court
of justice is the council of the tribe, presided over by
the chiefs, the latter with the assistance of sub-chiefs,
rigidly executing judgment upon the culprits.113 All
crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay
blood for blood if the avenger overtake his victim.11*
All the natives of this family hold captives as slaves ;115
some treat them kindly, employing the men as herders
approval.' Collins, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 274. ' Singulis pagis sui Eeguli
erant, qui per praecones suos edicta populo demmtiabaut.' De Lad, Novus
Orbis, p. 311. ' Tienen otra Persona, que llaman Pregonero, y es la segunda
Persona de la Kepiiblica; el oficio de este, es manifestar al Pueblo todas las
cosas que se han de hacer.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, ii., p. 337; Id.,
torn, i., p. 680. They recognize 'no law but that of individual caprice.'
Steck, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1863, p. 109. The Comanches 'acknowledge no
right but the right of the strongest.' Schooler aft's Arch., vol. v., p. 575. ' La
loi du talion est la base fondamentale du code politique, civil et criminel de
ces diverses peuplades, et cette loi re^oit line rigoureuse application de na
tion a nation, de famille a famille, d'individu a individu.' Hartmann and
Millard, Tex., p. 114.
113 The Comanches punish ' Adultery, theft, murder, and other crimes . . .
by established usage.' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 347. Among the Navajos,
' Lewdness is punished by a public exposure of the culprit. ' Scenes in the
Rocky Mis, p. 180. Marcy's Army Life, pp. 26, 59. Navajoes ' regard each
other's right of property, and punish with great severity any one who in
fringes upon it. In one case a Navajo was found stealing a horse; they held
a council and put him to death.' Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867,
p. 344. A Cuchano young boy who frightened a child by foretelling its
death, which accidentally took place the next day, ' was secretly accused and
tried before the council for "being under the influence of evil spirits," ' and
put to death. Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii.;
Feudge, in Ind. Af. Rept., 1868, p. 137. Among the Yumas, 'Each chief
punishes delinquents by beating them across the back with a stick. Crimi
nals brought before the general council for examination, if convicted, are
placed in the hands of a regularly appointed executioner of the tribe, who
inflicts such punishment as the council may direct.' Emory's Rept. U. S. and
Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii.
114 The Apache chief Ponce, speaking of the grief of a poor woman at
the loss of her son, says: 'The mother of the dead brave demands the life
of his murderer. Nothing else will satisfy her Would money satisfy me
for the death of my son? No! I would demand the blood of the murderer.
Then I would be satisfied.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 69. ' If one man (Apache)
kills another, the next of kin to the defunct individual may kill the murderer
— if he can. He has the right to challenge him to single combat. . . .There
is no trial, no set council, no regular examination into the crime or its causes;
but the ordeal of battle settles the whole matter.' Id., p. 293.
n-5 Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 7; Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855,
p. 294. 'Us (Comanches) tuent tous les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent
vivre que les enfans.' Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 98. The Navajos 'haVe in their
possession many prisoners, men, women, and children, .... whom they hold
and treat as slaves.' Bent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 244.
TKEATMENT OF WOMEN. 511
and marrying the women ; others half-starve and scourge
them, and inflict on them the most painful labors.116
Nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by a slow fire, or
some other most excruciating form of death, can atone the
crime of attempted escape from bondage. They not only
steal children from other tribes and sell them, but carry
on a most unnatural traffic in their own offspring.117
Womankind as usual is at a discount. The female
child receives little care from its mother, being only of
collateral advantage to the tribe. Later she becomes
the beast of burden and slave of her husband. Some
celebrate the entry into womanhood with feasting and
dancing.118 Courtship is simple and brief; the wooer
116 One boy from Mexico taken by the Comanches, said, 'dass sein Ge-
schaft in der Gefangenschaft darin bestehe die Pferde seines Herrn zu wei-
deu.' Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 10'2; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p.
313. The natives of New Mexico take the women prisoners 'for wives.'
Marcy's Rept., p. 187. Some prisoners liberated from the Comonches, were
completely covered with stripes and bruises. Devices' Texas, p. 232. Miss
Olive Oatman detained among the Mohaves says: ' They invented modes and
seemed to create necessities of labor that they might gratify themselves by
taxing us to the utmost, and even took unwarranted delight in whipping us
on beyond our strength. And all their requests and exactions were couched
in the most insulting and taunting language and manner, as it then seemed,
and as they had the frankness soon to confess, to fume their hate against
the race to whom we belonged. Often under the frown and lash were we
compelled to labor for whole days upon an allowance amply sufficient to
starve a common dandy civilized idler.' Stratton's Cant. Oatman Girls, pp.
114-18, 130.
117 'It appeared that the poor girl had been stolen, as the Indian (Axua)
said, from the Yurna tribe the day before, and he now offered her for sale.'
Hardy's Trav., p. 379. 'The practice of parents selling their children is
another proof of poverty ' of the Axuans. Id., p. 371.
118 'According to their (Tontos') physiology the female, especially the
young female, should be allowed meat only when necessary to prevent star
vation.' Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 115. The Comanches 'enter the
marriage state at a very early age frequently before the age of puberty.'
Neighbors, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 132. Whenever a Jicarilla female
arrives at a marriageable age, in honor of the ' event the parents will sac
rifice all the property they possess, the ceremony being protracted from five
to ten days with every demonstration of hilarity.' Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1863, p. 109; Marcy's Army Life, p. 28-9. Among the Yumas, the applicant
for womanhood is placed in aii oven or closely covered hut, in which she is
steamed for three days, alternating the treatment with plunges into the near
river, and maintaining a fast all the time.' Emory's Rept. U. 8. and Mex.
Boundary Survey, vol. i., pp. 110-11. The Apaches celebrate a feast with
singing, dancing, and mimic display when a girl arrives at the marriageable
state, during which, time the girl remains ' isolated in a huge lodge ' and
'listens patiently to the responsibilities of her marriageable condition,' re
counted to her by the old men and chiefs. ' After it is finished she is di
vested of her eyebrows. . . A month afterward the eye lashes are pulled out.'
Cremony's Apaches, pp. 143, 243-6.
512 NEW MEXICANS.
pays for his bride and takes her home.119 Every man
may have all the wives he can buy. There is generally
a favorite, or chief wife, who exercises authority over
the others. As polygamy causes a greater division
of labor, the women do not object to it.120 Some
times a feast of horse-flesh celebrates a marriage.121 All
the labor of preparing food, tanning skins, cultivating
fields, making clothes, and building houses, falls to the
women, the men considering it beneath their dignity to
do anything but hunt and fight. The women feed and
saddle the horses of their lords; oftentimes they are
cruelly beaten, mutilated, and even put to death.122 The
119 There is no marriage ceremony among the Navajoes ' a young man
wishing a woman for his wife ascertains who her father is; he goes and
states the cause of his visit and offers from one to fifteen horses for the
daughter. The consent of the father is absolute, and the one so purchased
assents or is taken away by force . All the marriageable women or squaws
in a family can be taken in a similar manner by the same individual; i. e.,
he can purchase wives as long as his property holds out.' Bristol, in Ind.
Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 357; Marcy's Army Life, p. 49; Backus, in
Schooler -aft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 214; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 233.
la'J Among the Apaches, the lover ' stakes his horse in front of her roost
.... Should the girl favor the suitor, his horse is taken by her, led to water,
fed, and secured in front of his lodge .... Four days comprise the term
allowed her for an answer. . . . A ready acceptance is apt to be criticised with
some severity, while a tardy one is regarded as the extreme of coquetry.'
Cremony's Apaches, pp. 245-9; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv.,
p. 89; Marcy's Army Life, pp. 30, 51. The Apache 'who can support or
keep, or attract by his power to keep, the greatest number of women, is the
man who is deemed entitled to the greatest amount of honor and respect.'
Cremony's Apaches, pp. 44, 85. Un Conianche, ' peut epouser autant de
femmes qu'il veut, a la seule condition de donner a chacune un cheval.'
Domenech, Jour., p. 135. Among the Navajoes, ' The wife last chosen is
always mistress of her predecessors.' Whipple, Eucbank, and Turner's Kept.,
p. 42, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii. They seldom, if ever, marry out of the
tribe. Ward, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 455. ' In general, when
an Indian wishes to have many wives he chooses above all others, if he can,
sisters, because he thinks he can thus secure more domestic peace.' Dome-
nech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 306. ' I think that few, if any, have more than
one wife,' of the Mojaves. Ives' Colorado Eiv., p. 71.
121 ' The Navajo marriage-ceremony consists simply of a feast upon horse
flesh.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 460. When the Navajos de
sire to marry, ' they sit down on opposite sides of a basket, made to hold
water, filled with atole or some other food, and partake of it. This simple
proceeding makes them husband and wife.' Davis' El Gringo, p. 415.
122 The Conianche women 'are drudges.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p.
575; Dufey, Resume de I'Hist., torn, i., p. 4; Neighbors, in Ind. Aff. Eept.,
1857, p. 265; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 230; Bartlett's Pers. Nar.t
vol. i., p. 308. Labor is considered degrading by the Comanches. Kennedy's
Texas, vol. i., p. 347. The Apache men 'no cuidan de otras cosas, sino de
cazar y divertirse.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn.
iv., p. 563; Marcy's Army Life, pp. 29, 49, 56. ' La femme (du Comanche)
son esclave absolue, doit tout faire pour lui. Souvent il n'apporte pas memo
MARKIAGE AND CHILD-BIRTH. 513
marriage yoke sits lightly; the husband may repudiate
his wife at will and take back the property given lor her ;
the wife may abandon her husband, but by the latter
act she covers him with such disgrace that it may only
be wiped out by killing somebody123 —anybody whom
he may chance to meet. In the event of a separation
the children follow the mother. They are not a prolific
race; indeed, it is but seldom that a woman has more
than three or four children. As usual parturition is
easy ; but owing to unavoidable exposure many of their
infants soon die. The naming of the child is attended
with superstitious rites, and on reaching the age of
puberty they never fail to change its name.124 Imme
diately after the birth of the child, it is fastened to a
small board, by bandages, and so carried for several
le gibier qu'il a tue, mais il envoie sa femme le chercher au loin.' Dubitis,
in Domenech, Jour., p. 459, The Navajos 'treat their women with great
attention, consider them equals, and relieve them from the drudgery of
menial work.' Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 203. The Navajo women 'are
the real owners of all the sheep. . . .They admit women into their councils,
who sometimes control their deliberations; and they also eat with them.'
Davis' El Gringo, p. 412; Whipple, Eubank, and Turner's Kept., p. 101. in
Pac. R. /?. Eept., vol. iii. 'De aqui proviene que sean arbitros de sus mu-
geres. dandoles un trato servilisirno, y alguuas veces les quitan hasta la vida
por celos.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 268. 'Les Comanches, obligent le
prisonnier blanc, dont ils out admire le valeur dans le combat, a s'unir aux
leurs pour perpetuer sa race.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 462.
123 Among the Apaches, ' muchas veces suele disolverse el contrato por
unanime consentimiento de los desposados, y volviendo la mujer a su padre,
entrega este lo que recibid por ella.' Cordero, in Orozco y Btrra, Geografia,
p. 373. When the Navajo women abandon the husband, the latter ' asks
to wipe out the disgrace by killing some one.' Ind. Aff. Kept. Spec. Com.,
1867, p. 334; Eaton, in Schoolcraft' s Arch., vol. iv., p. 217.
124 Navajo women, ' when in parturition, stand upon their feet, holding to
a rope suspended overhead, or upon the knees, the body being erect. ' Lether-
man, in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290. 'Previous to a birth, the (Yuma)
mother leaves her village for some short distance and lives by herself until a
month after the child is born; the band to which she belongs then assemble
and select a name for the little one, which is given with some trivial cere
mony.' Emory's Eept.y vol. i., p. 110; Mar cy's Army Life, p. 31. ' Si el parto
es en marcha, se hacen a un lado del camino debajo de un arbol, en donde
salen del lance con la mayor facilidad y sin apuro ninguno, continuando
la marcha con la criatura y algun otro de sus chiquillos, dentro de una
especie de red, que a la manera de una canasta cargan en los hombros, pen-
diente de la frente con una tira de cuero 6 de vaqueta que la contiene, en
donde llevan ademas alunos trastos 6 cosas que comer.' Velasco, Noticias de
Sonora, p. 281; Fossey, Mexique, p. 462. ' Luego que sale a luz esta, sale la
vieja de aquel lugar con la mano puesta en los ojos, y no se descubre hasta
que no haya dado una vuelta fuera de la casa, y el objeto que primero se le
presenta a la vista, es el nombre que se le pone a la criatura.' Alegre, Hist.
Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 335.
VOL. I. 33
514 NEW MEXICANS.
months on the back of the mother. Later the child
rides on the mother's hip, or is carried on her back in a
basket or blanket, which in travelling on horseback is
fastened to the pommel of the saddle. Boys are early
taught the use of weapons, and early learn their superi
ority over girls, being seldom or never punished.125
It- is a singular fact that of all these people the thiev
ish meat-eating Apache is almost the only one who
makes any pretentions to female chastity. All authori
ties agree that the Apache women both before and after
marriage are remarkably pure.126
Yuma husbands for gain surrender not only their
slaves, but their wives. Hospitality carries with it the
obligation of providing for the guest a temporary wife.
The usual punishment for infidelity is the mutilation of
the nose or ears, which disfigurement prevents the of
fender from marrying, and commonly sends her forth as
a public harlot in the tribe.127 The seducer can appease
125 Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 92; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsmgeb., torn.
i., p. 320; /yes' Colorado River, pp. 66, 71; Henry, in Schoolcrqft' s Arch., vol.
v., p. 211. ' Quand les Indiennes (Coinanches) voyagent avec leurs enfants
en bas age, elles les suspendent a la selle avec des courroies qu'elles leur
passent entre les jambes et sous les bras. Les soubresauts du cheval, les
branches, les broussailles beurtent ces pauvres petits, les dechirent, les
meurtrissent: peu importe, c'est uue fac^on de lesaguerrir.' Domenech, Journ
p. 135; Emory's Reconnaissance, p. 52. 'A la edad de siete anos de los
apaches, 6 antes, lo primero que hacen los padres, es poner a sus hijos el
carcax en la maiio enseilandoles a tirar bien, cuya tactica enipiezan a apren-
der en la caza.' Velasco, Noticias de iSonora, p. 283. The Apaches, 'juventu-
tem sedulo instituunt castigaut quod aliis barbaris insolitum.' De Laet,
Novus Orbis, p. 316. Male children of the Comanches ' are even privileged to
rebel against their parents, who are not entitled to chastise them but by con
sent of the tribe.' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 346-7. In fact, a Navajo Indi
an has said, ' that he was afraid to correct his own boy, lest the child should
wait for a convenient opportunity, and shoot him with an arrow.' Letherman,
in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 294.
!26 Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 354; Cremony's Apaches, p. 307;
Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 399; Pattie's Pers. Nar.. p. 119.
127 ' The Navajo women are very loose, and do not look upon fornication
as a crime.' Guyther, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 339; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 244. ' Prostitution is the rule among the (Yuma) women, not
the exception.' Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301; Froebel, Aus
Arnerika, torn, ii., p. 476; Browne's Apache Country, p. 96. 'Prostitution
prevails to a great extent among the Navajoes, the Maricopas, and
the Yuma Indians; and its attendant diseases, as before stated, have
more or less tainted the blood of the adults; and by inheritance of
the children.' Carleton, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 433.
Among the Navajoes, ' the most unfortunate thing which can befall a
captive woman is to be claimed by two persons. In this case, she is either
shot or delivered up for indiscriminate violence.' Emory's Reconnois-
AMUSEMENTS. 515
the anger of an injured husband by presents, although
before the law he forfeits his life. Even sodomy and
incestuous intercourse occur among them. Old age is
dishonorable.128
They are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking,
feasting, and amusements which fill up the many hours
of idleness. Dancing and masquerading is the most
favorite pastime. They have feasts with dances to cele
brate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls
attain the age of puberty; a ceremonial is observed at
the burial of noted warriors, and on other various occa
sions of private family life, in which both men and
women take part. The dance is performed by a single
actor or by a number of persons of both sexes to the
accompaniment of instruments or their own voices.129
sance, p. 50. The Colorado River Indians ' barter and sell their women
into prostitution, with hardly an exception.' Safford, in Ind. Aft'. Kept., 1870,
p. 139. ' The Comanche women are, as in many other wild tribes, the slaves
of their lords, and it is a common practice for their husbands to lend or
sell them to a visitor for one, two, or three days at a time.' Marcy's Kept., p.
187; Arricivita, Cronica Serdjica, p. 419. 'Las faltas conyugales no se casti-
gan por la prirnera vez; pero a la seguiida el marido covta la punta de la nariz
a su infiel esposa, y la despide de su lado.' Revista Cientifica, vol. i., p. 57; Soc.
Ge'og., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 192. ' The squaw who has been mutilated for
such a cause, is ipso facto divorced, and, it is said, for ever precluded from
marrying again. The consequence is, that she becomes a confirmed harlot
in the tribe/ Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 43, 308-10, 313. 'El culpa
ble, segun dicen, jamas es castigado por el marido con la muerte; solamente
se abroga el derecho de darle alguuos golpes y cogerse sus mulas o caballos.'
Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 253; Marcy's Army Life, p. 49. 'These yung
men may not haue carnall copulation with any woman: but all the yung men
of the countrey which are to marrie, may company with them .... I saw like
wise certaine women which liued dishonestly among men.' Alarchon, in Hak-
luyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 436.
128 'They tolde mey that. . . .such as remayned widowes, stayed halfe a
yeere, or a whole yeere before they married.' Alarchon, in Hakluyt's Voy.,
vol. iii., p. 431; Emory's Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p.
110; Marcy's Army Life, p. 54; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii.,
p. 234; Garcia Conde, in 6'oc. Mex. Geog., Boletw, torn, v., p. 315.
129 <En las referidas reuniones los bailes son sus diversiones favoritas.
Los hacen de noche al son de una olla cubierta la boca con una piel tirante,
que suenan con un palo, en cuya estremidad lian un boton de trapos. Se
iiiterpolan ambos secsos, saltan todos a un mismo tiempo, dando alaridos y
haciendo miles de ademanes, en que mueven todos los miembros del cuerpo
con una destreza estraordinaria, arremedando al coyote y al venado. Desta
manera forman diferentes grupos simetricamente.' Velasco, Noticias de So-
nora, p. 269; Marcy's Army Life, p. 177; Cremony's Apaches, p. 285. 'Este
lo forma una junta de truhanes vestidos de ridfculo y autorizados por los
viejos del pueblo para cometer los mayores desordenes, y gustan- tanto de
estos hechos, que ni los maridos reparan las infamias que cometen con sus
mugeres, ni las que resultan en perjuicio de las hijas.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de
516 NEW MEXICANS.
All festivities are incomplete without impromptu songs,
the music being anything but agreeable, and the accom
paniment corn-stalk or cane flutes, wooden drums, or
calabashes filled with stone and shaken to a constantly
varying time.130 They also spend much time in gamb
ling, often staking their whole property on a throw, in
cluding everything upon their backs. One of these
games is played with a bullet, which is passed rapidly
from one hand to the other, during which they sing, as
sisting the music with the motion of their arms. The
game consists in guessing in which hand the bullet is
held. Another Comanche game is played with twelve
sticks, each about six inches in length. These are
dropped on the ground and those falling across each
other are counted for game, one hundred being the lim
it.131 Horse-racing is likewise a passion with them;132
as are also all other athletic sports.133 When smoking,
Jesus, torn, i., p. 335. ' The females (of the Apaches) do the principal part
of the dancing.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 212. 'Among the
Abenakis, Chactas, Coinanches, and other Indian tribes, the women dance
the same dances, but after the men, and far out of their sight. . . .they are sel
dom admitted to share any amusement, their lot being to work.' Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., pp. 199, 214. ' De estos vinieron cinco danzas, cada una
compuesta de treinta iiidias; de estas, veintiseis como de 15 a 20 anos, y las
cuatro restantes de mas edad, que eran las que cuidaban y dirigian a las j<5-
venes.' Museo Mex., torn. i.. p. 288. ' The dance (of the Tontos) is similar
to that of the California Indians; a stamp around, with clapping of hands
and slapping of thighs in time to a drawl of monotones.' Smart, in Smith
sonian Kept., 1867, p. 419.
130 Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180. The Yumas 'sing some few mo
notonous songs, and the beaux captivate the hearts of their lady-loves by
playing on a flute made of cane.' Emory's Kept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary
Survey, vol. i., p. iii. 'No tienen mas orquesta que sus voces y una olla 6
casco de calabazo a que se amarra una piel tirante y se toca con un palo.'
Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 373-4; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica,
p. 419; lues' Colorado Biv., pp. 71-2; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i.,
pp. 166, 168.
isi Stanley's Portraits, p. 55; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 133. 'Yel
vicio que tienen estos Indies, es jugar en las Estufas las Mantas, y otras
Preseas con vnas Canuelas, que hechan en alto (el qual Juego vsaban estos
Indios Mexicanos) y al que no tiene mas que vna Manta, y la pierde, se la
buelven; con condicion, que ha de andar desnudo por todo el Pueblo, pinta
do, y embijado todo el cuerpo, y los Muchachos dandole grita.' Torquemada,
Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 680.
132 Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 347.
133 « The players generally take each about ten arrows, which they hold
with their bows in the left hand; he whose turn it is advances in front of
the judges, and lances his first arrow upwards as high as possible, for he
must send off all the others before it comes down. The victory belongs to
him who has most arrows in the air together; and he who can make them
SMOKING AND DKINKING. 517
the Comanches direct the first two puffs, with much cer
emony and muttering, to the sun, and the third puff
with a like demonstration is blown toward the earth.
When short of tobacco, they make use of the dried
leaves of the sumach, of willow-bark, or other plants.13*
The Comanches are remarkable for their temperance,
or rather abhorence for intoxicating drink ; all the other
nations of this family abandon themselves to this subtle
demoralization, and are rapidly sinking under it. They
make their own spirits out of corn and out of agave
americana, the pulque and mescal, both very strong and
intoxicating liquors.135
Of all North American Indians the Comanches and
Cheyennes are said to be the most skillful riders, and
it would be difficult to find their superiors in any part
all fly at once is a hero.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 198. ' The Indians
amuse themselves shooting at the fruit (pitaya), and when one misses his
aim and leaves his arrow sticking in the top of the cactus, it is a source of
much laughter to his comrades.' Browne's Apache Country, p. 78; Armin, Das
Heutiye Mexiko, p. 309. The hoop and pole game of the Mojaves is thus
played. 'The hoop is six inches in diameter, and made of elastic cord; the
poles are straight, and about fifteen feet in length. Rolling the hoop from one
end of the course toward the other, two of the players chase it half-way, and
at the same time throw their poles. He who succeeds in piercing the hoop
wins the game.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 463; Emory's Kept.
U. 8. and M>'x. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. iii.; Whipple, in Pac. E. E. Kept.,
vol. iii., p. 114; MoUhausen, Reisen in die Felsenyeb., torn, i., pp. 210, 223; Moll-
hausen, Tagebuch, p. 395; Backus, in Schoolcrafi's Arch., vol. iv., p. 2 14. ' Tie-
nen unas pelotas de materia negra como pez, embutidas en ella varias con-
chuelas pequenas del mar, con que juegan y apuestan arrojaudola con el pie.'
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. Ill; Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 851.
134 ' Los salvages recogen sus hojas generalmente en el Otono, las que en-
tcmces estan rojas y muy oxidadas: para hacer su provision, la secau al fuego
6 al sol, y para fumarlas, las mezclau con tabaco.' Berlandiery Thovel, Diario,
p. 257. The Comanches smoke tobacco, ' mixed with the dried leaves of the
sumach, inhaling the smoke into their lungs, and giving it out through their
nostrils.' Marcy's Army Life, pp. 29, 32; Alarchon, in Hakluyt's Voy.t vol.
iii., p. 432; Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 285.
135 Thiimmel, Mexiko, p. 352. The Comanches ' avoid the use of ardent
spirits, which they call "fool's water." ' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 347;
Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 307. Dubuis, in Domenech, Jour., p. 469.
' In order to make an intoxicating beverage of the mescal, the roasted root is
macerated in a proportionable quantity of water, which is allowed to stand
several days, when it ferments rapidly. The liquor is boiled down and pro
duces a strongly intoxicating fluid.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 217. ' When its
stem (of the maguey) is tapped there flows from it a juice which, on being
fermented, produces the pulque.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 290. The
Apaches out of corn make an intoxicating drink which they called " tee-
swin," made by boiling the corn and fermenting it: Murphy, in Ind. Aff.
Eept. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 347; Hardy's Trav., pp. 334, 337.
518 NEW MEXICANS.
of the world. Young children, almost infants, are tied
by their mothers to half- wild, bare-backed mustangs,
which place thenceforth becomes their home. They
supply themselves with fresh horses from wild droves
wandering over the prairies, or from Mexican rancherias.
A favorite horse is loved and cherished above all things
on earth, not excepting wives or children. The women
are scarcely behind the men in this accomplishment.
They sit astride, guide the horses with the knee like the
men, and catch and break wild colts. In fighting, the
Comanches throw the body on one side of the horse, hang
on by the heel and shoot with great precision and rapidity.
It is beneath the dignity of these horsemen to travel on
foot, and in their sometimes long and rapid marches,
they defy pursuit.136 Before horses were known they
used to transport their household effects on the backs of
dogs, which custom even now prevails among some na
tions.137
136 Jones, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 223; Emory's Eept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 108; Domenech, Jour, p. 137; Turner, in Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1852, torn. 135, p. 307; Backus, in Schoolcraft'sArch., vol. iv.,
p. 212; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., 1849, torn, i., p. 165; Hassel, Mex. Guat.,
p. 277; Shepard's Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Mollhausen, Tagcbuch, p. 114-6;
Emory's Reconnaissance, p. 61; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 399.
The Apache women, ' Son tan buenas ginetas, que brincan en un potro, y
sin mas riendas que un cabrestillo, saben arrendarlo.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog.,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 564; Pattie's Pcrs. Nar., p. 298;
Marcy's Army Life, p. 28; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 480; 'A short hair halter
was passed around under the neck of the horse, and both ends tightly braided
into the mane, on the withers, leaving a loop to hang under the neck, and
against the breast, which, being caught up in the hand, makes a sling into
which the elbow falls, taking the weight of the body on the middle of the
upper arm. Into this loop the rider drops suddenly and fearlessly, leaving
his heel to hang over the back of the horse, to steady him, and also to restore
him when he wishes to regain his upright position on the horse's back.'
Brownell's Ind. Races, p. 540; Davis' El Gringo, p. 412. Les Comanches
'regardent comme un deshonneur d'aller a pied.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie
v., no. 96, p. 192; Cremony's Apaches, p. 282. The Comanches, for hardening
the hoofs of horses and mules, have a custom of making a fire of the wild
rosemary — artemisia — and exposing their hoofs to the vapor and smoke by
leading them slowly through it. Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 203.
137 Marcy's Army Life, p. 18; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 290; Cor-
doue, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 443; Malte-Brun, Precis
de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 454; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 209. 'Les Teyas
et Querechos ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage;
ils 1'attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d'une sangle et d'un petit
bat. Quand la charge se derange les chiens se mettent a hurler, pour avertir
leur maitre de 1'arranger.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i.,
torn, ix., pp. 117, 125, 190. ' On the top of the bank we struck a Camanche
trail, very broad, and made by the lodge poles, which they transport from
COMANCHE CUSTOMS. 519
The Comanche observes laws of hospitality as strictly
as the Arab, and he exacts the observance of his rules
of etiquette from strangers. When a visitor enters his
dwelling, the master of the house points to him a seat,
and how to reach it, and the host is greatly offended if
his directions are not strictly followed. Meeting on the
prairie, friends as well as enemies, if we may believe
Colonel Marcy, put their horses at full speed. " When
a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near
enough to distinguish signals, all that is necessary to
ascertain their disposition is to raise the right hand
with the palm in front, and gradually push it forward
and back several times. They all understand this to be
a command to halt, and if they are not hostile, it will
at once be obeyed. After they have stopped, the right
hand is raised again as before, and slowly moved to the
right and left, which signifies, I do not know you. Who
are you ? They will then answer the inquiry by giving
their signal." Then they inflict on strangers the hug
ging and face-rubbing remarked among the Eskimos,
demonstrating thereby the magnitude of their joy at
meeting.138 The various tribes of the Yuma and Mo-
jave nations hold communication with one another by
means of couriers or runners, who quickly disseminate
important news, .and call together the -various bands for
consultation, hunting, and war. Besides this, there is
used everywhere on the prairies, a system of telegraphy,
which perhaps is only excelled by the wires themselves.
Smoke during the day, and fires at night, perched on
mountain-tops, flash intelligence quickly and surely across
the plains, giving the call for assistance or the order to
place to place by fastening them on each side of their pack horses, leav
ing the long ends trailing upon the ground.' Parker's Notes on Ttx., p. 154.
' Si carecen de cabalgaduras, cargan los muebles las mujeres igualniente que
sus criaturas.' Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 317; Ives'
Colorado Riv., p. 128.
138 Neighbors, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 132; Mollhausen, Peisen in
die Felsengeb., p. 234; Marcy 's Army Life, pp. 29, 33, 189; Marcy' s Eept., p.
187; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 38, 46; Arricivita, Crunica Serdfica,
pp. 473, 475; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 378. When the Yam-
pais ' wish to parley they raise a firebrand in the air as a sign of friend
ship.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 218.
520 NEW MEXICANS.
disperse when pursued. The advanced posts also inform
the main body of the approach of strangers, and all this
is done with astonishing regularity, by either increasing
or diminishing the signal column, or by displaying it
only at certain intervals or by increasing the number.139
In cold weather many of the nations in the neighbor
hood - of the Colorado, carry firebrands in their hands,
as they assert for the purpose of warming themselves,
which custom led the early visitors to name the Colo
rado the Rio del Tizon.140
The Cornanches stand in great dread of evil spirits,
which they attempt to conciliate by fasting and absti
nence. When their demons withhold rain or sunshine,
according as they desire, they whip a slave, and if their
gods prove obdurate, their victim is almost flayed alive.
The Navajos venerate the bear, and as before stated, nev
er kill him nor touch any of his flesh. m Although early
139 < These messengers ( of the Mohaves) were their news-carriers and senti
nels. Frequently two criers were employed (sometimes more) one from each
tribe. These would have their meeting stations. At these stations these
criers would meet with promptness, and by word of mouth, each would de
posit his store of news with his fellow expressman, and then each would
return to his own tribe with the news.' Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, pp.
220, 283. 'El modo de darse sus avisos para reunirse en casos de urgeucia
de ser perseguidos, es por medio de sus telegrafos de humos que forrnaii eu
los cerros mas elevados formando hogueras de los palos mas humientos que
ellos conocen muy bien.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 281. Domenech's Des
erts, vol. ii., p. 5. ' Para no detenerse en hacer los humos, llevan los mas de
los hombres y mujeres, los instrumentos necessaries para sacar lumbre; pre-
fieren la piedra, el eslabon, y la yesca; pero si no tienen estos utiles, suplen
su falta con palos preparados al efecto bien secos, que frotados se inflaman.'
Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn, v., p. 317.
140 Eaton, in Schoolcraft' 's Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Sitgreaves' Zuni Ex., p.
18. ' Su frazada en tiempo de frio es uu tizon eiicendido que aplicandolo a
la boca del estomago caminan por los mananas, y calentando ya el sol como
a las ocho tiran los tizones, que por muchos que hayaii tirado por los cami-
nos, pueden ser guias de los caminantes.' Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist.
Hex., serie iii., vol. iv., p. 851.
141 The Comanches ' have yearly gatherings to light the sacred fires; they
build numerous huts, and sit huddled about them, taking medicine for puri
fication, and fasting for seven days. Those who can endure to* keep the fast
unbroken become sacred in the eyes of the others.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag.,
vol. xvii., p. 451. If a Yuma kills one of his own tribe he keeps ' a fast for
one moon; on. such occasions he eats no meat -only vegetables — drinks only
water, knows no woman, and bathes frequently during the day to purify the
flesh.' Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 110. 'It
was their (Mojaves, ) custom never to eat salted meat for the next moon after
the coming of a captive among them.' Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 402; Dornenech, Jour, p. 13; Mollhausen, Tage-
fcuc/i, pp. 125-6.
DISEASES AND MEDICINE. 521
writers speak of cannibalism among these people, there
is no evidence that they do or ever did eat human
flesh.142 In their intercourse they are dignified and re
served, and never interrupt a person speaking. Unless
compelled by necessity, they never speak any language
but their own, it being barbarous in their eyes to make
use of foreign tongues.143
Although endowed generally with robust and healthy
constitutions, bilious and malarial fever, pneumonia,
rheumatism, dysentery, ophthalmia, measles, small-pox,
and various syphilitic diseases are sometimes met among
them; the latter occurring most frequently among the
Navajos, Mojaves, Yumas, and Comanches. Whole
bands are sometimes affected with the last-mentioned
disease, and its effects are often visible in their young.
A cutaneous ailment, called pintos, also makes its ap
pearance at times.144 For these ailments they have dif
ferent remedies, consisting of leaves, herbs, and roots, of
which decoctions or poultices are made • scarification and
the hunger cure are resorted to as well. Among the Mo
javes the universal remedy is the sweat-house, employed
by them and the other nations not only as a remedy for
diseases, but for pleasure. There is no essential differ
ence between their sweat-houses and those of northern
nations — an air-tight hut near a stream, heated stones,
upon which water is thrown to generate steam, and a
plunge into the water afterward. As a cure for the bite
of a rattlesnake they employ an herb called euphorbia.
Broken or wounded limbs are encased in wooden splints
142 « Entre cuyas tribus hay algunas que se comen a sus enemigos.' Alegre,
Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 332. ' Los chirumas, que me parecen ser los
yumas, no se que coman carne humana como dijo el indio cosnina.' Garces,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 363. 'Among the spoil which we
took from these Camanches, we found large portions of human flesh evi
dently prepared for cooking.' Dewees' Texas, p. 232-3. Certain Europeans
have represented the Comanches 'as a race of cannibals; but according to
the Spaniards .... they are merely a cruel, dastardly race of savages. ' Pages'
Travels, vol. i., p. 107.
143 Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 451; Berlandiery Thovel, Diario,
p. 253; Cremony's Apaches, p. 34; Davis' El Gringo, p. 407.
144 Smart, in Smithsonian E^pt., 1867, p. 418. 'Gonorrhoea and syphilis
are not at all rare ' ^rnong the Navajos. Letherman, in Smithsonian Kept.,
1855, p. 290; Marcy's Army Life, p. 31.
522 NEW MEXICANS,
until healed. But frequently they abandon their sick and
maimed, or treat them with great harshness.145 Priests
or medicine-men possess almost exclusively the secrets
of the art of healing. When herbs fail they resort to
incantations, songs, and wailings. They are firm be
lievers in witchcraft, and wear as amulets and charms,
feathers, stones, antelope-toes, crane's bills, bits of charred
wood and the like. Their prophets claim the power of
foretelling future events, and are frequently consulted
therefor.140 Most of the nations in the vicinity of the
Colorado, burn their dead as soon as possible after death,
on which occasion the worldly effects of the deceased
are likewise spiritualized; utensils, property, sometimes
wives, are sent with their master to the spirit land.147
!45 Hardy's Trav., p. 442-3. 'Los comanches la llaman Puip; y cuando
uno de entre ellos esta herido, mascan la raiz (que es muy larga) y esprimen
el yugo y la saliva en la llaga.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 257; Letherman,
in Smithsonian Kept., 1855, p. 290; Pattie's Pers. Ndr., p. 118; Stration's Capt.
Oatman Girls, p. 156; Letherman, in Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 289; Browne's
Apache Country, p. 63; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 142; Id., Eeisen in die Felsen-
geb., torn, i., p. 118; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 335; Neighbors, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 130; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 193. The Apaches:
' Cuando se enferma alguno a quien no hail podido hacer efecto favorable la
aplicacion de las yerbas, vinico antidoto con que se curan, lo abandonan, sin
rnas diligeiicia ulterior que ponerle un nionton de brasas a la cabecera y una
poca de agua, sin saberse hasta hoy que significa esto 6 con que fin la hacen.'
Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280.
146 Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 217; Domenech, Jour., pp. 13,
139; Wfdpple, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., p. 42, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii.;
Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 212; Parker's Notes on Tex., p. 240-1.
Among the Comanches during the steam bath, ' the shamans, or medicine
men, who profess to have the power of communicating with the unseen world,
and of propitiating the malevolence of evil spirits, are performing various in
cantations, accompanied by music 011 the outside.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 60;
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 576; Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Com., 1867,
p. 358. ' De aquf ha sucedido que algunos indios naturalmente astutos, se
han convertido en adivinos, que han llegado a sostener como a sus orac-
ulos. Estos mismos adivinos hacen de medicos, que por darse importancia
a la aplicacion de ciertas yerbas, agregan porcioii de ceremonias supersti-
ciosas y ridiculas, con canticos estranos, en que hablan a sus enfernios miles
de embustes y patranas.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280.
147 At the Colorado river they 'burned those which dyed.' Alarchon, in
Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 432; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 404; Browne's Apache
Country, p. 97; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 467; Stratton's Capt. Oat
man Girls, p. 240-1. ' It is the custom of the Mojaves to burn their property
when a relation dies to whose memory they wish to pay especial honor.'
Ives' Colorado Eiv., p. 69. 'Die Comanches todteten friiher das Lieblings-
weib des gestorbenen Hauptlings.' Mutter, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 88.
' No Navajo will ever occupy a lodge in which a person has died. The lodge
is burned.' Backus, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 213; Letherman, in
Smithsonian Eept., 1855, p. 289. 'When a death occurs they (Yumas) move
their villages, although sometimes only a short distance, but never occupy-
BURIAL OF THE DEAD. 523
Those that do not burn the dead, bury them in caves or
in shallow graves, with the robes, blankets, weapons,
utensils, and ornaments of the deceased. The Coman-
ches frequently build a heap of stones over the grave of
a warrior, near which they erect a pole from which a
pair of moccasins is suspended.148 After burying the
corpse, they have some mourning ceremonies, such as
dances and songs around a fire, and go into mourning
for a month. As a sign of grief they cut off the manes
and tails of their horses, and also crop their own hair
and lacerate their bodies in various ways; the wom
en giving vent to their affliction by long continued
bowlings. But this applies only to warriors ; children,
and old men, are not worth so ostentatious a funeral.149
ing exactly the same locality.' Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Sur
vey, vol. i., p. 110.
us « When a Comanche dies .... he is usually wrapped in his best blankets
or robes, and interred with most of his "jewelry," and other articles of
esteem.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., pp. 317, 243. ' Cuando muere algun
indio, . . . juntando sus deudos todas las alhajas de su peculio, se las ponen
y de esta mariera lo envuelven en una piel de ci'bolo y lo llevan a enterrar.'
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 336; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 347;
Wislizenus' Tour, p. 69. The Comanches cover their tombs ' with grass and
plants to keep them concealed.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 363; Id., Jour.,
p. 14. The Apaches: 'probably they bury their dead in caves; no graves
are ever found that I ever heard of.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p.
212. See also James' Exped., vol. ii., p. 305. 'On the highest point of the
hill, was a Comanche grave, marked by a pile of stones and some remnants
of scanty clothing.' Parker's Notes on Tex., pp. 137, 151. The custom of
the Mescalero Apaches 'heretofore has been to leave their dead unburied
in some secluded spot.' Curtis, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 402; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 50; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsenyeb., torn, ii., p. 233; Pattie's
Pers. Nar., p. 119.
149 Among the Navajos ' Immediately after a death occurs a vessel con
taining water is placed near the dwelling of the deceased, where it remains
over night; in the morning two naked Indians come to get the body for
burial, with their hair falling over and upon their face and shoulders. When
the ceremony is completed they retire to the water, wash, dress, do up their
hair, and go about their usual avocations.' Bristol, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec.
Com., 1867, p. 358. The Navajos 'all walked in solemn procession round it
(the grave) singing their funeral songs. As they left it, every one left a
present on the grave; some an arrow, others meat, moccasins, tobacco, war-
feathers, and the like, all articles of value to them.' Pattie's Pers. Nar., p.
119; Revista Cientifica, torn, i., p. 57. ' A los ninos y ninas de pecho les llevan
en una jicara la leche ordenada de sus pechos las mismas madres, y se las
echan en la sepultura; y esto lo hacen por algunos dias continues.' Sonora,
Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 543; Neighbors, in
SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. ii., p. 133; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 280; Froebel,
Aus Amerilca, torn, ii., p. 100; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb.-, torn, i., p.
304; Marcy's Army Life, p. 56. ' When a young warrior dies, they mourn a
long time, but when an old person dies, they mourn but little, saying that
524 NEW MEXICANS.
The name of a deceased person is rarely mentioned, and
the Apaches are shy of admitting strangers to a celebra
tion of funeral ceremonies, which mostly take place at
night. In general they are averse to speaking upon the
subject of death at all. The Navajos, says Mr Davis,
"have a superstitious dread of approaching a dead body,
and will never go near one when they can avoid it."150
In the character of the several nations of this divi
sion there is a marked contrast. The Apaches as I have
said, though naturally lazy like all savages, are in their
industries extremely active, — their industries being theft
and murder, to which they are trained by their mothers,
and in which they display consummate cunning, treach
ery, and cruelty.151 The Navajos and Mojaves display
a more docile nature ; their industries, although therein
they do not claim to eschew all trickery, being of a
they cannot live forever, and it was time they should go.' Parker's Notes on
Tex., pp. 192, 236.
"0 Davis' El Gringo, pp. 414-5; Cremony's Apaches, pp. 250, 297.
151 'The quality of mercy is unknown among the Apaches.' Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 33-4, 193, 215-16, 227-8. ' Perfectly lawless, savage, and brave.'
Marcy's Eept., p. 197. ' For the sake of the booty, also take life. ' Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. v., p. 202. ' Inclined to intemperance in strong drinks.' Henry,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 211. ' Ferocfsimos de condicion, de natur-
aleza sangrientos.' Almanza, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 824.
' Sumamente vengativo.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 283. 'Alevoso y
vengativo caracte. . .rastutos ladrones, y sanguinarios.' Bustamante, in Cavo,
Tres Siglos, torn, iii., p. 78. 'I have not seen a more intelligent, cheerful,
and grateful tribe of Indians than the roving Apaches.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff.
Eept., 1871, pp. 15, 47, 51; Garcia Conde, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, torn,
v., pp. 314-15, 317; Doc. Hist. N. Viscaya, MS., p. 4; Cordero, in Orozco
y Berra, Geografia, p. 371; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 322, 326-7;
Smart, in Smithsonian Eept., 1867, p. 419; Apostolicos A fanes, p. 430; Lacha-
pelle, Eaousset-Boulbon, p. 83; Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852,
torn, cxxxv., pp. 307, 314; Domenech's Deserts, vol.ii.,pp. 5, 6, 8; Mollhausen,
Eeisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., p. 294; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 330, 361;
Bent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 243; Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 580;
Mowry's Arizona, pp. 31-2; Pope, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. ii., p. 13; Whip-
pie, Ewbank, and Turner's Eept., p. 14, in Pac. K. E. Eept., vol. iii.; Gal-
latin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 273; Gregg's Com.
Prairies, vol. i., pp. 291, 295; Hist. Chretienne de la Cal, p. 99; Edward's
Hist. Tex., p. 95; Peters' Life of Carson, p. 323; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v.,
No. 96, p. 187; Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 341; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 276;
Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., pp. 462-3; Figuier's Hum. Eace, pp.
482, 484; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 419; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus,
toin. ii., p. 4U4; Ives' Colorado Eiv., p. 44; Emory's Eept. U. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. Ill; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 475-6,
and Cent. Amer., p. 527; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 117; Whipple, in Pac. E. E.
Eept., vol. iii., p. 99; Sedelmair, Eelacion, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn.
iv., p. 850; see further, 2nd. Aff. Eepts., from 1854 to 1872; Stratton's Capt.
Oatman Girls, pp. 116, 122.
KEW MEXICAN CHARACTEE. 525
more peaceful, substantial character, such as stock-rais
ing, agriculture, and manufactures. Professional thiev
ing is not countenanced. Though treacherous, they are
not naturally cruel ; and though deaf to the call of grati
tude, they are hospitable and socially inclined. They
are ever ready to redeem their pledged word, and never
shrink from the faithful performance of a contract.
They are brave and intelligent, and possess much nat
ural common sense.152 The Tamajabs have no inclina
tion to share in marauding excursions. Though not
wanting in courage, they possess a mild disposition, and
are kind to strangers.153 The Comanches are dignified
in their deportment, vain in respect to their personal
appearance, ambitious of martial fame, unrelenting in
their feuds, always exacting blood for blood, yet not
sanguinary. They are true to their allies, prizing highly
their freedom, hospitable to strangers, sober yet gay,
maintaining a grave stoicism in presence of strangers,
and a Spartan indifference under severe suffering or mis
fortune. Formal, discreet, and Arab-like, they are
always faithful to the guest who throws himself upon
their hospitality. To the valiant and brave is awarded
the highest place in their esteem. They are extremely
clannish in their social relations. Quarrels among rel
atives and friends are unheard of among them.154
152 The Navajos: ' Hospitcality exists among these Indians to a great ex
tent. . . .Nor are these people cruel. . . .They are treacherous.' Lelherman, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1855, pp. 292, 295. 'Brave, hardy, industrious.' Colyer,
in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 89; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 40. ' Tricky and
unreliable.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 56. The Mojaves: 'They are
lazy, cruel, selfish;. . . .there is one good quality in them, the exactitude with
which they fulfil an agreement.' Ives' Colorado Riv., pp. 20, 71-2; Backus,
in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 211; BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 329;
Mollhausen, Eeiscn in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 234; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's
Arch., vol. iv., pp. 217-18; Hughes' Donipharis Ex., p. 203; Mollhausen, Tage-
buch, p. 384.
153 Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p. 124. 'Estos indios se aventa-
jan en muchas circunstancias a los yumas y demas naciones del Eio Colora
do; son menos molestos y nada ladrones.' Garces, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
ii., torn, i., p. 273; also in Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 472; Domenech's
Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62.
154 ' Grave and dignified. . . .implacable and unrelenting. . . .hospitable,
and kind. .. .affectionate to each other. .. .jealous of their own freedom.'
Marcy's Army Life, pp. 25, 30-1, 34, 36-9, 41, 60. 'Alta estima hacen del
valor estas razas nomadas.' Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 34. ' Loin d'etre cruels,
526 . NEW MEXICANS.
THE non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural
peoples of New Mexico and Arizona, the second division
of this group, I call the PUEBLOS, or Towns-people, from
pueblo, town, population, people, a name given by the
Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were
found, when first discovered, permanently located in
comparatively well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the
term Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along
the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributa
ries, between latitudes 34° 45' and 36° 30', and although
the name is employed as a general appellation for
this division, it will be used, for the most part, only in
its narrower and popular sense. In this division, be
sides the before-mentioned Pueblos proper, are embraced
the MoquiSj or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the
non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower Gila
River, — the Pimas, Maricopas, Pdpagos, and cognate
tribes. The country of the Towns-people, if we may
credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of ll almost universal
barrenness," yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of
the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally
productive. The fame of this so-called civilization
reached Mexico at an early day; first through Alvar
Nunez Cabeza de Yaca and his companions, who be
longed to the expedition under the unfortunate Pamphilo
de Narvaez, traversing the continent from Florida to the
shore of the gulf of California ; they brought in exagger
ated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted
the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado
in 1540, and of Espejo in 1586/ These adventurers
visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of
Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great
riches were said to exist. The name of Quivira was
ils-sont tres-doux et tres-fideles dans leurs amities.' Castaneda, in Tcrnaux-
Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 191; Payno, in Eevista Cientifica, torn, i.,
p, 57; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, pp. 229-30; Domenech, Jour., pp. 13,
137, 469; Hoc. Geog., Bulletin, torn, v., No. 96, p. 193; Neighbors, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. ii,, pp. 132-3; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 293, 295;
vol. ii., pp. 307, 313; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi.,
p. 273; Shepard's Land of the Aztecs, p. 182; Pages' Travels, vol. i., p. 107;
Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. ii., p. 308.
THE PUEBLOS. 527
afterwards applied by them to one or more of the pueblo
cities. The name Cibola, from cibolo, Mexican bull, bos
bison, or wild ox of New Mexico, where the Spaniards
first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns
which were afterwards known as the seven cities of Ci-
bola. But most of the villages known at the present
day were mentioned in the reports of the early expedi
tions by their present names. The statements in regard
to the number of their villages differed from the first.
Castafieda speaks of seventy cities.155 The following list,
according to Lieutenant Whipple's statement, appears to
be the most complete. Commencing north, and follow
ing the southward course of the Rio Grande del Norte;
Shipap, Acoti, Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Pojuaque, Santa
Clara, San Ildefonso, Narnbe, Tesuque, Cochite, Pecos,
Santo Domingo, Cuyamanque, Silla, Jemez, San Felipe,
Galisteo, Santa Ana, Zandia, Laguna, Acoma, Zufii,
Isleta, and Chilili.150 The Moquis who speak a distinct
language, and who have many customs peculiar to them-
155 < Tiguex est situe vers le nord, a environ quarante lieues,' from Cibola.
Castafieda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 165. 'La pro
vince de Cibola contient sept villages; le plus grand se nomme Muzaque.'
Id., p. 1G3. Of two provinces north of Tiguex, ' 1'une se nommait Heraes, et
renfermait sept villages: 1'autre Yuque-Yunque.' Id., p. 138. 'Plus au nord
(of Tiguex) est la province de Quirix. . . et celle de Tutabaco.' Id., p. 168.
From Cicuye to Quivira, 'On compte sept autres villages.' Id., p. 179. 'II
existe aussi, d' apres le rapport un autre royaume tres-vaste, nomine
Acus; car il y a Abacus et Acus; Abacus avec 1'aspiration est une des sept
villes, et la capitale. Acus sans aspiration est un royaume.' Niza, in Ter
naux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 271. 'The kiugdome of Toton-
teac so much extolled by the Father prouiuciall, . . . .the Indians say is a botte
lake, about which are fiue or sixe houses; and that there were certaine other,
but that they are ruinated by warre. The kingdome of Marata is not to be
found, neither haue the Indians any knowledge thereof. The kingdome of
Acus is one onely small citie, where they gather cotton which is called Acucu,
and I say that this is a towne. For Acus with an aspiration nor without, is
no word of they couutrey. And because I gesse that they would deriue
Acucu of Acus, I say that it is this towne whereinto the kingdom of Acus is
conuerted.' Coronado, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 378; Espeio, in Id., pp.
386-394; Mendoza, Lettre, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p.
296; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 315; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iii., torn, iv., p. 100; Escalante, in Id., pp. 124-5; Pike's Explor. Trav.,
pp. 341-2; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp 528-9; Eaton, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 220; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 197.
'156 Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., pp. 10-12, in Pac. R. R. Rept.t
vol. iii.; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 128-130; Hezio, Noticia de las Misi-
ones, in Meline's Two Thousand Miles, pp. 208-9; Chacon, in Id., .pp. 210-11;
Akncaster, in Id., p. 212; Davis' El Gringo, p. 115; Calhoun, in Schoolcra/t's
Arch., vol. iii., p. 633.
528 NEW MEXICANS.
selves, inhabit seven villages, named Oraibe, Shumuth-
pa, Mushaiina, Ahlela, Gualpi, Siwinna, and Tegua.157
By the Spanish conquest of New Mexico the natives
were probably disturbed less than was usually the case
with the vanquished race; the Pueblos being well-domi
ciled and wrell-behaved, and having little to be stolen,
the invaders adopted the wise policy of permitting them
to work in peace, and to retain the customs and tradi
tions of their forefathers as they do, many of them, to
this day. Attempts have been made to prove a relation
ship with the civilized Aztecs of Mexico, but thus far
without success. No affinities in language appear to
exist; that of the Moquis, indeed, coiltains a few faint
traces of and assimilations to Aztec words, as I shall
show in the third volume of this work, but they are not
strong enough to support any theory of common origin
or relationship.158
The Pimas inhabit the banks of the Gila River about
two hundred miles above its confluence with the Colo
rado. • Their territory extends from about the bend of
the Gila up the river to a place called Maricopa Copper
mine; northward their boundary is the Salt River, and
south the Picacho. They are generally divided, and
157 Whipple, Eicbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
iii. 'Los nombres de los pueblos del Moqui son, segun lengua de los Ya-
vipais, Sesepaulaba, Masagneve, Janogualpa, Muqui, Concabe y Muca a
quien los zunis llaman Oraive, que es en el que estuve.' Garces, in Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 332; Ruxtoris Adven. Mex., p. 195; Ives' Col
orado Riv., p. 127.
158 Affirmations are abundant enough, but they have no foundation what
ever in fact, and many are absurd on their face. ' Nous affirmons que les
Indiens Pueblos et les anciens Mexicains sont issus d' une seule et meme
souche.' Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 44.
' These Indians claim, and are generally supposed, to have descended from
the ancient Aztec race.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p. 174. 'They
are the descendants of the ancient rulers of the country.' Davis' El Gringo,
p. 114. 'Thev are the remains of a once powerful people.' Walker, in Ind.
Aff. Rept., 187"2, p. 55; Colyer, in Id., 1869, p. 90. 'They (Moquis) are sup
posed by some to be descended from the band of Welsh, which Prince Madoc
took with him on a voyage of discovery, in the twelfth century; and it is said
that they weave peculiarly and in the same manner as the people of Wales.'
Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 81. ' II est assez singulier que
les Moquis soient designes par les trappers et les chasseurs americains, qui
penetrent dans leur pays.... sous le nom d'Indiens Welches.' Ruxton, in
Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 55. ' Moques, supposed to be
vestiges of Aztecs.' Amer. Quart. Register, vol. i., p. 173; Prichard's Researches,
vol. v., p. 431.
PIMAS AND PAPAGOS. 529
known as the upper and lower Pimas, which branches
show but slight dialectic differences. When first seen
their territory extended further southward into Sonora.
The Papagos, their neighbors, are closely allied to them
by language. In nowise related to them, but very simi
lar in their manners and customs, are the Maricopas, who
reside in their immediate vicinity, and who claim to have
migrated to that place some centuries ago, from a more
westerly territory.
All these people, although not dwelling in houses built,
like those of the Pueblos, of solid materials, have settled
villages in which they reside at all times, and are en
tirely distinct from the roving and nomadic tribes de
scribed in the Apache family. When first found by the
Spaniards, they cultivated the soil, and knew how to
weave cotton and other fabrics ; in fact it was easily ob
servable that they had made a step toward civilization.
I therefore describe them together with the Pueblos. The
region occupied by them, although containing some good
soil, is scantily provided with water, and to enable them
to raise crops, they are obliged to irrigate, conducting the
water of the Gila to their fields in small canals. The
water obtained by digging wells is frequently brackish,
and in many places they are forced to carry all the water
needed for household purposes quite a long distance. The
climate is claimed to be one of the hottest on the Amer
ican continent.
The Pueblos, and Moqui villagers, are a race of small
people, the men averaging about five feet in height, with
small hands and feet, well-cut features, bright eyes, and
a generally pleasing expression of countenance.159 Their
hair is dark, soft, and of fine texture, and their skin a.
159 'Les homines sont petits.' Mendoza, Lettre, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.,
serie i., torn, ix., p. 294. The Moquis are 'of medium size and indifferently
proportioned, their features strongly marked and homely, with an expression
generally bright and good-natured.' Ives' Colorado Riv., pp. 120-2, 126-7.
The Keres ' sind hohen Wuchses.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p.
528; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p.
197; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, ii., p. 240; De Laet, Novus
Orbis, p. 301; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 93; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com
pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 67-8; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy.,
1850, torn, cxxvi., pp. 52-3; Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 342.
VOL. I. 34
530 NEW MEXICANS.
clear shade of brown.160 The women seldom exceed four
feet in height, with figure rotund, but a graceful carriage,
and face full, with pretty, intelligent features and good
teeth.161 Albinos are at times seen amongst them, who
are described as having very fair complexions, light hair,
and blue or pink eyes.162
The Pimas and their neighbors are men of fine phy
sique, tall and' bony, many of them exceeding six feet
in height, broad-chested, erect, and muscular, but fre
quently light-limbed with small hands, though the feet
of both sexes are large. They have large features, ex
pressive of frankness and good nature, with prominent
cheek-bones and aquiline nose, those of the women being
somewhat retrpuss4&163 ) ^TJle females are symmetrically
formed, with beautifully tapered limbs, full busts, pleas
ing features, embellished with white and evenly set
teeth.164 Their coarse hair grows to a great length and
^thickness, and their dark complexion becomes yet darker
itoward the south.165 The ordinary dress of the Pueb-
ico 'The people are somewhat white.' Niza, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p.
372. ' Much fairer in complexion than other tribes.' Raxton's Adven. Mex.,
.p. 195; Kendall's Nar., vol. i., p. 379; Mo'llhausen, Tagebuch, p. 230; Prich-
ard's Researches, vol. v., pp. 423, 431; Walker, in S. F. Herald, Oct. 15, 1853;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 41.
lei « Prettiest squaws I have yet seen.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 111. Good-
looking and symmetrical. Davis' El Gringo, pp. 421-2.
16-2 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 81. 'Many of the in-
'habitants have white skin, fair hair, and blue eyes.' Domenech's Deserts, vol.
i., p. 210, vol. ii., p. 66; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 220-1;
Mo'llhausen, Tagebuch, p. 285; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 456.
163 < A robust and well-formed race.' Cremony's Apaches, pp. 90, 103. ' Well
built, generally tall and bony.' Walker's Pimas, MS. The Maricopas ' sont
de stature plus haute et plus athletique que les Pijinos.' Gallatin, in Nouvellcs
Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 290; see also Emory, in Fremont and
; Id.,
Emory's Notes of Trav., pp. 49, 50; Id., in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 12;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 19; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p
103; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 196; Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 132; Bighr's Early
Days in Utah and Nevada, MS.; Johnson's Hist. Arizona, p. 11; Brackett, in
Western Monthly, p. 169; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 448; San Francisco
Bulletin, July, 1860.
16i ' Las mujeres hermosas.' Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i.,
pp. 298, 364. 'Rather too much inclined to embonpoint.' Ires' Colorado
Rio., pp. 31, 33, 39; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 229.
165 ' Ambos secsos. . . .no mal parecidos y muy melermdos.' Velasco, No-
ticias de Sonora, pp. 116, 161. 'Triguenos de color.' Sedelmair, Relacion, in
Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851. 'Die Masse, Dicke und La'nge
ihres Haupthaares grenzt an das Unglaubliche.' Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn.
ii., p. 455; 'Id., Cent. Amer., p. 513; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p.
657; Pattie's Ptrs. Nar., pp. 143-5, 149; Stratton's Capt. Oatman Girls, p. 180.
DKESS OF THE PUEBLOS. 531
los is the breech-cloth and blanket; some add a blouse
of cotton or deer-skin, a waist-belt, and buckskin leg-
gins and moccasins. The women wear a long, cot
ton, sleeveless tunic, confined round the waist by a col
ored girdle, a species of cape bordered in different
colors, fastened round the neck at the two corners, and
reaching down to the waist, while over the head a shawl
is thrown. The feet are protected by neat moccasins of
deer-skin or woolen stuff, surmounted by leggins of the
same material. They have a habit of padding the leg-
gins, which makes them appear short-legged with small
feet.166 The men bind a handkerchief or colored band
round the head. Young women dress the hair in a pe
culiarly neat and becoming style. Parting it at the
back, they roll it round hoops, when it is fastened in
two high bunches, one on each side of the head, placing
sometimes a single feather in the center ; married women
gather it into two tight knots at the side or one at the
back of the head ; the men cut it in front of the ears,
and in a line with the eye-brows, while at the back it is
plaited or gathered into a single bunch, and tied with a
band.166 On gala occasions they paint and adorn them
selves in many grotesque styles ; arms, legs, and exposed
portions of the body are covered with stripes or rings,
166 'Heads are uncovered.' Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 196. 'Los hombres
visten, y calgan de cuero, y las mugeres, que se precian de largos cabellos,
cubren sns cabe^-as y verguen^as con lo mesrao.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 275.
'De kleeding bestond uit kotoene mantels, huiden tot broeken, genaeyt,
schoenen en laerzen van goed leder.' Montanus, Nieuwe, Weereld, pp. 209,
217-18. The women ' having the calves of their legs wrapped or stuffed in
such a manner as to give them a swelled appearance." Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon., pp. 14, 115; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 297-8, 301, 303, 312-13; Coro-
nado, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., pp. 377, 380; Espejo, in Id., pp. 384-96; Niza,
in Id., pp. 368, 370; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 457; Whipple,
Euobank, and Turner's Kept., pp. 30, 122, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; Bottle
neck's Deserts, vol. i., pp. 197, 203, vol. ii., pp. 213, 281; Ten Broeck, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 73-88; Wislizenus' Tour, p. 26; Larenaudiere, Mex.
et Guat., p. 147; Warden, Recherches, p. 79; Marcy's Army Life, pp. 99-100,
105-6; Foster's Pre-Hist. Races, p. 394; Castaneda, in Temaux-Compans, Voy.,
serie i., torn, ix., pp. 61-68, 76, 163, 173, 177; Jaramillo, in Id., pp. 369-371;
Ives' Colorado Riv., pp. 119-127; Ruxton, in Nouvettes Annales des Voy., 1850,
torn, cxxvi., p. 53; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 220; Alert, in
Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 471; Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 359; Moll-
hausen, Tagebuch, pp. 217, 283; Kendall's Nar., vol. i., p. 379; Revilla-Gigedo,
Carta, MS.; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 388; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica,
p. 479; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 248, 279-80; Mollhausen, Reisen in
die Felsengeb., torn, ii., pp. 195, 239.
532 NEW MEXICANS.
and comical-shaped head-dresses; feathers, sheep-skin
wigs, and masks, are likewise employed.167 The habili
ments of the Pimas are a cotton serape of their own
manufacture, a breech-cloth, with sandals of raw-hide
or deer- skin. Women wear the same kind of serape,
wound round the loins and pinned, or more frequently
tucked in at the waist, or fastened with a belt in which
different-colored wools are woven; some wear a short
petticoat of deer-skin or bark.168 They wear no head
dress. Like the Pueblos, the men cut the hair short
across the forehead, and either plait it in different coils
behind, which are ornamented with bits of bone, shells,
or red cloth, or mix it with clay, or gather it into a tur
ban shape on top of the head, leaving a few ornamented
and braided locks to hang down over the ears.169 Each
paints in a manner to suit the fancy; black, red, and
yellow are the colors most in vogue, black being alone
used for wTar paint. Some tattoo their newly born chil
dren round the eyelids, and girls, on arriving at the
age of maturity, tattoo from the corners of the mouth to
the chin. Some tribes oblige their women to cut the
hair, others permit it to grow.170 For ornament, shell
!67 Both sexes go bareheaded. ' The hair is worn long, and is done up in
a great queue that falls down behind.' Davis' El Gringo, pp. 147, 154-5, 421.
The women 'trencan los cabellos, y rodeanse los a la cabe<ja, por sobre las
orejas.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 273. 'Llevan las viejas el pelo hecho dos
trenzas y las mozas un mono sobre cada oreja.' Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp. 328-9; Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p.
220.
168 ' Van vestidos estos indios con frazadas de algodon, que ellos fabrican,
y otras de lana.' Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 235.
Their dress is cotton of domestic manufacture. Emory's Eeconnoissance, p.
132. 'Kunstreich dagegen sind die bunten Giirtel gewebt, mit denen die
Madchen ein Stuck Zeug als Kock um die Hiiften binden.' Froebel, AusAmeri-
ka, torn, ii., pp. 440, 447; Browne's Apache Country, p. 68; Emory's Kept.
U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i.,
p. 452, vol. ii., pp. 216-7, 219; Cremony's Apaches, p. 104; Alegre, Hist. Comp.
de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 103; Ives' Colorado Riv., pp. 31, 33; Mowry's Arizona, p.
30; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp. 364-5; Velasco, Noticias
de Sonor'a, p. 116; Brief e aus den Verein. Staat., torn, ii, p 322.
169 < Men never cut their hair.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 90. They plait and
wind it round their heads in many ways; one of the most general forms a
turban which they smear with wet earth. Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp.
454-6; Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav., p. 47; Emory, in Pac. K. R. Kept.,
vol. ii., p. 9; Pattie's Pers. Nar., pp. 143, 145, 149; Browne's Apache Country,
p. 107; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 296.
170 Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 542.
PIMA AND MAKICOPA DWELLINGS. 533
and bead necklaces are used; also ear-rings of a blue
stone found in the mountains.171 The dwellings of the
agricultural Pimas, Maricopas, and Papagos consist of
dome-shaped huts, either round or oval at the base.
There are usually thirty or more to a village, and they
are grouped with some regard to regularity. .Strong
forked stakes are firmly fixed in the ground at regular
distances from each other, the number varying accord
ing to the size of the hut, cross-poles are laid from one
to the other, around these are placed cotton-wood poles,
which are bent over and fastened to the transverse sticks,
the structure is then wattled with willows, reeds, or
coarse straw, and the whole covered with a coat of mud.
The only openings are an entrance door about three feet
high, and a small aperture in the center of the roof that
serves for ventilation. Their height is from five to seven
feet, and the diameter from twenty to fifty. Outside
stands a shed, open at all sides with a roof of branches
or corn-stalks, under which they prepare their food.
Their houses are occupied mainly during the rainy sea
son ; in summer they build light sheds of twigs in their
corn-fields, which not only are more airy, but are also
more convenient in watching their growing crops. Be
sides the dwelling-place, each family has a granary,
similar in shape and of like materials but of stronger
construction; by frequent plastering with mud they are
made impervious to rain.172 The towns of the Pueblos
' All of them paint, using no particular design ; the men mostly with dark
colors, the women, red and yellow.' Walker's Pimas, MS.; Johnson's Hist.
Arizona, p. 11. 'The women when they arrive at maturity,. . . .draw two
lines with some blue-colored dye from each corner of the mouth to the
chin.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 228.
171 * Adornanse con gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados de
ptras cuentas de concha colorada redonda.' Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
iv., torn, i., p. 299. 'They had many ornaments of sea shells.' Emory's
Reconnaissance, p. 132. 'Some have long strings of sea-shells.' Bartlett's
Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 230-1. ' Karely use ornaments.' Walker's Pimas, MS.;
Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 252-6; Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
iii., torn, iv., pp. 850-1.
172 Cremony's Apaches, p. 91; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851,
torn. 131, p. 292; Browne's Apache Country, p. 108. The Maricopas 'occu
py thatched cottages, thirty or forty feet in diameter, made of the twigs of
cotton-wood trees, interwoven with the straw of wheat, corn-stalks, and
cane.' Emory's Reconnaissance, p. 132; Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Bound-
534 NEW MEXICANS.
are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of
these aboriginals. Some of them are situated in valleys,
others on mesas; sometimes they are planted on eleva
tions almost inaccessible, reached only by artificial grades
or by steps cut in the solid rock. Some of the towns are
of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a town
being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a
Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by
three or four buildings of from three to four hundred
feet in length, and about one hundred and fifty feet in
width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from
eight to nine feet each in height. The buildings form
ing the square do not meet, but in some cases are con
nected by bridges or covered gangways, and in some
instances the houses project over the streets below,
which being narrow, are thus given an underground
appearance. The stories are built in a series of grada
tions or retreating surfaces, decreasing in size as they
rise, thus forming a succession of terraces.
In some of the towns these terraces are on both
sides of the building; in others they face only toward
the outside; while again in others they are on the in
side. In front of the terraces is a parapet, which serves
as a shelter for the inhabitants when forced to defend
themselves against an attack from the outside. These
terraces are about six feet wide, and extend round the
three or four sides of the square, forming a walk for
ary Survey, vol. i., p. 117; Mange, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp.
277, 365-6. 'Leurs (Papagos) maisons sont de formes coniques et con-
struites en jonc et enbois.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Walk
er's Pimas, MS.; Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatre, torn, ii., p. 395; Sedel-
mair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Velasco, Noticias
de Sonora, pp. 115, 161. 'Andere, besonders die dunimen Papagos, machten
Locker und scliliefen des Nachts hierinnen; ja im Winter machten sie in
ihren Dachslochern zuvor Feuer, und hitzten dieselben.' Murr, Nachrichten,
p. 245. ' Their summer shelters are of a much more temporary nature, being
constructed after the manner of a common arbor, covered with willow rods,
to obstruct the rays of the vertical sun.' Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 222.
In front of the Pimo house is usually ' a large arbor, on top of which is
piled the cotton in the pod, for drying.' Emory, in Fremont and Emory's Notes
of Trav., p. 48. The Papagos' huts were ' fermees par des peaux de buffles.'
Ferry, Scenes de la Vie Sauvage, p. 107. Granary built like the Mexican jakals.
They are better structures tfian their dwellings, more open, in order to give
a free circulation of air through the grain deposited in them. BartkWs Pers.
Nar., vol. i., p. 382, vol. ii., pp. 233-5.
PUEBLO HOUSES. 535
the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for
the story beneath ; so with the stories above. As there
is no inner communication with one another, the only
means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand
at convenient distances along the several rows of ter
races, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cut
ting off all unwelcome intrusion. The outside walls of
one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, hav
ing no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in
some towns, a few loopholes. All the doors and win
dows are on the inside opening on the court. The sev
eral stories of these huu;e structures are divided into
O
multitudinous compartments of greater or lesser size,
which are apportioned to the several families of the
tribe. Access is had to the different stories by means
of the ladders, which at night and in times of danger
are drawn up after the person entering. To enter the
rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one must
mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then
descend through a trap door in the floor by another ladder
on the inside. The roofs or ceilings, which are nearly
flat, are formed of transverse beams which slope slightly
outward, the ends resting on the side walls; on these, to
make the floor and terrace of the story above, is laid
brush wood, then a layer of bark or thin slabs, and over
all a thick covering of mud sufficient to render them
water-tight. The windows in the upper stories are made
of flakes of selenite instead of glass. The rooms are
large, the substantial partitions are made of wood, and
neatly whitewashed. The apartments on the ground
floor are gloomy, and generally used as store-rooms;
those above are sometimes furnished with a small fire
place, the chimney leading out some feet above the ter
race. Houses are common property, and both men and
women assist in building them ; the men erect the wooden
frames, and the women make the mortar and build the
walls. In place of lime for mortar, they mix ashes with
earth and charcoal. They make adobes or sun-dried
bricks by mixing ashes and earth with water, which is
536 NEW MEXICANS.
then moulded into large blocks and dried in the sun.
Some of the towns are built with stones laid in mud.
Captain Simpson describes several ruined cities, which
he visited, which show that the inhabitants formerly had
a knowledge of architecture and design superior to any
that the Pueblos of the present day possess. Yet their
buildings are even now well constructed, for although
several stories in height, the walls are seldom more than
three or four feet in thickness. The apartments are
well arranged and neatly kept; one room is used for
cooking, another for grinding corn and preserving winter
supplies of food, others for sleeping-rooms. On the bal
conies, round the doors opening upon them, the vil
lagers congregate to gossip and smoke, while the streets
below, when the ladders are drawn up, present a gloomy
and forsaken appearance. Sometimes villages are built in
the form of an open square with buildings on three sides,
and again two or more large terraced structures capable
of accommodating one or two thousand people are built
contiguous to each other, or on opposite banks of a stream.
In some instances the outer wall presents one unbroken
line, without entrance or anything to indicate the busy
life within; another form is to join the straight walls,
which encompass three sides of a square, by a fourth
circular wall ; in all of which the chief object is defense.
The Pueblos take great pride in their picturesque and,
to them, magnificent structures, affirming that as fort
resses they have ever proved impregnable. To wall out
black barbarism was what the Pueblos wanted, and to
be let alone; under these conditions time was giving
them civilization.173
173 Villa- S enor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 412; WTiipple. Eicbank, and
Turner's Rept., pp. 21, 23, 122, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii. ; Scenes in the Rocky
Mis., p. 177; Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp.
25, 30-1. 'Ellas son las que hacen, y edifican las Casas, assi de Piedra,
como de Adove, y Tierra amasada; y con no tener la Pared mas de vn pie de
ancho, suben las Casas dos, y tres, y quatro, y cinco Sobrados, 6 Altos; y
a cada Alto, corresponde vn Corredor por de fuera; si sobre esta altura hechan
mas altos, d Sobrados (porque ay Casas que llegan a siete) son los demas,
no de Barro, sino de Madera.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 681.
For further particulars, see Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i.,
torn, ix., pp. 2, 42, 58, 69, 71, 76, 80, 138, 163, 167, 169; Niza, in Id., pp.
261, 269, 270, 279; Diaz, in Id., pp. 293, 296; Jaramillo, in Id., pp. 369,
PUEBLO ESTUFAS. 537
The sweat-house, or as the Spaniards call it, the estufa,
assumes with the Pueblos the grandest proportions. Ev
ery village has from one to six of these singular struc
tures. A large, semi-subterranean room, it is at once
bath-house, town-house, council-chamber, club-room, and
church. It consists of a large excavation, the roof being
about on a level with the ground, sometimes a little
above it, and is supported by heavy timbers or pillars of
masonry. Around the sides are benches, and in the
centre of the floor a square stone box for fire, wherein
aromatic plants are kept constantly burning. Entrance
is made by means of a ladder, through a hole in the top
placed directly over the fire-place so that it also serves
as a ventilator and affords a free passage to the smoke.
Usually they are circular in form, and of both large and
small dimensions ; they are placed either within the great
building or underground in the court without. In some
of the ruins they are found built in the center of what
was once a pyramidal pile, and four stories in height.
At Jemez the estufa is of one story, twenty-five feet
wide by thirty feet high. The ruins of Chettro Kettle
contain six estufas, each two or three stories in height.
At Bonito are estufas one hundred and seventy-five feet
in circumference, built in alternate layers of thick and
370; Cordoue, in Id., torn, x., pp. 438-9; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon.,
pp. 13, 90, 114; Bent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Ten Broeck,
in Id., vol. iv., pp. 76, 80, and plates, pp. 24, 72; Warden, Recherches, p. 79;
Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 191; Palmer, in Harper's Mag.,\o\. xvii., p. 455;
Malte-Brun, Precis de la Qeog., torn, vi., p. 453; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278;
Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 359; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp.
268, 276; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 195; Garces, Diario,iu Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie ii., torn, i., p. 322; Joes' Colorado Riv., pp. 119, 121, 126; Marcy's Army
Life, pp. 97, 99, 104, 105; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn,
cxxvi., pp. 42, 45, 52, 57; GaUatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 248, 257, 267,
270, 277, 278, 288; Espejo, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol.iii., pp. 385, 392, 394-6; Cor-
onado, in Id., vol. iii., pp. 377, 379; Niza, in Id., vol. iii., pp. 367, 372; Miih-
lenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 538; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb.,
torn, ii., p. 238; Id., Tayebuch, pp. 217-18, 285; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld,
pp. 209, 215, 217. The town of Ci'bola ' domos e lapidibus et caemento affa-
bre constructas et conjunctim dispositas esse, superliminaria portarum cya-
neis geminis, (Turcoides vocant) ornata.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 297, 311-14;
ArricivUa, Cronica Serdfica, p. 480. ' The houses are well distributed and very
neat. One room is designed for the kitchen, and another to grind the grain.
This last is apart, and contains a furnace and three stones made fast in ma
sonry.' Davis' El Gringo, pp. 118-20, 141, 311, 313, 318, 420, 422 ;N Castano de
Sosa, in Pacheco, Col. 'Doc. Ine'd., torn, iv., pp. 329-30; Bartlett's Pers. Nar.,
vol. ii., p. 178; Foster's Pre-Hist. Races, p. 394.
538 NEW MEXICANS.
thin stone slabs. In these subterranean temples the old
men met in secret council, or assembled in worship of
their gods. Here are held dances and festivities, social
intercourse, and mourning ceremonies. Certain of the
Pueblos have a custom similar to that practiced by some
of the northern tribes, the men sleeping in the sweat-
house with their feet to the fire, and permitting women
to enter only to bring them food. The estufas of Tiguex
were situated in the heart of the village, built under
ground, both round and square, and paved with large
polished stones.174
From the earliest information we have of these na
tions they are known to have been tillers of the soil;
and though the implements used and their methods of
cultivation were both simple and primitive, cotton, corn,
wheat, beans, with many varieties of fruits, which con
stituted their principal food, were raised in abundance.
The Pueblos breed poultry to a considerable extent ; fish
are eaten whenever obtainable, as also a few wild ani
mals, such as deer, hares, and rabbits, though they are
indifferent hunters.175 The Papagos, whose country does
174 In the province of Tucayan, ' domiciliis inter se junctis et affabre con-
structis, in quibus et tepidaria quae vulgo Stuvas appellamus. sub terra con-
structa adversus hyemis vehementiam.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 301. 'In
the centre was a small square box of stone, in which was a fire of guava
bushes, and around this a few old men were smoking.' Marcy's Army Life,
p. 110. ' Estufas, que mas propiamente deberian llamar sinagogas. En estas
hacen sus juntas, forman sus conciliabulos, y ensayan sus bailes a puerta
cerrada.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 333; Beaumont, Cr<'n. de Me-
choacan, MS., p. 418; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 273; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon.,
pp. 13, 21; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 139,
165, 169-70, 176; Espejo, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 392-3; Niel, in Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 90-1.
175 'Magna ipsis Mayzii copia et leguminum.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp.
298, 302, 310-13, 315. ' Hallaron en los pueblos y casas muchos manteni-
mientos, y gran infinidad de gallinas de la tierra.' Espejo, in Hakluyt's Voy.,
vol. iii., pp. 386, 393. ' Criaban las Indias muchas Gallinas de la Tierra.'
Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 678. 'Zy leven by mair, witte er-
weten, haesen, konynen en vorder wild-braed.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld,
p. 215, and Dapper, New Welt, p. 242. Compare Scenes in the Rocky Mts.,
p. 177; Marcy's Army Life, pp. 97-8, 104, 108; Cortez, in Pac._E. E. Eept.,
Zuni
, pp. at
'Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 268, 281; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
vol. iii., p. 122; Site/reaves' Zuni Ex., pp. 5-6; Jaramillo, in Ternaux-Com
pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 369-71; Diaz, in Id., pp. 294-5; Gregg's
iv., p. 86; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon., pp. 16, 82, 91, 113; Wislizenus' Tour,
p. 26; Bent, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 244; Euxton, in Nouvelles Annales
des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 52; Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 270-1 ,
279, 288-9, 292, 297; Froebel, Aus Ammka, torn, ii., pp. 439, 445, 453; Moll-
HOW FOOD IS OBTAINED. 539
not present such favorable conditions for agriculture are
forced to rely for a subsistence more upon wild fruits
and animals than the nations north of them. They
collect large quantities of the fruit of the pitahaya (ce-
reus giyanteusji and in seasons of scarcity resort to
whatever is life-sustaining, not disdaining even snakes,
lizards, and toads.176 Most of these people irrigate their
lands by means of conduits or ditches, leading either
from the river or from tanks in which rain-water is col
lected and stored for the purpose. These ditches are
kept in repair by the community, but farming operations
are carried on by each family for its own separate ben
efit, which is a noticeable advance from the usual savage
communism.177 Fishing nets are made of twisted thread
or of small sticks joined together at the ends. When
the rivers are low, fish are caught in baskets or shot with
arrows to which a string is attached.178 The corn which
is stored for winter use, is first par-boiled in the shuck,
and then suspended from strings to dry; peaches are
dried in large quantities, and melons are preserved by
peeling and removing the seeds, when they are placed
hausen, Reisen in the Felsengeb., torn, ii., pp. 239, 284; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol.
#., pp. 178, 214-18, 233-7; Browne's Apache Country, pp. 78, 94, 107-10,
141-2, 276-7; Sedelmair, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 848, 850;
Id., serie iv., torn, i., p. 19; Emory's Eeconnoissance, p. 131; Mowry's Ari
zona, p. 30; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278; Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., pp. 196, 221;
Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 221; Gomara, Hist. 2nd., fol. 273;
Ind. Aff. Eepts., from 1857 to 1872.
176 ' Para su sustento no reusa animal, por inmundo que sea.' Villa-Senor
y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 395. 'Los papagos se mantienen de los fru-
tos silvestres.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp. 160-1. 'Hatten grossen
Appetit zu Pferd- mid Mauleselfleisch.' Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 247-9, 207,
282-92; Sonora, Descrip., Geog.t in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp.
837-8; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol.
v., p. 166.
177 The Pimas ' Hacen grandes siembras . . . para cuyo riego tienen f orma-
das buenas acequias.' Garces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., pp.
235, 237. ' We were at once impressed with the beauty, order, and disposi
tion of the arrangements for irrigating.' Emory, in Fremont and Emory's Notes
of Trav., pp. 47-8. With the Pueblos: ' Regen-bakken vergaederden 't wa
ter: of zy leiden 't uit eenrievier door graften.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p.
218; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 312; Espejo, in Hafcluyt's Voy., torn, iii., pp.
385-7, 392-4; Cults' Conq. of Cal., p. 196.
178 Walker's Pimas, MS.; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv.,
torn, i., p. 299. 'Usan de hilo torcido unas redes y otras de varios palitos,
que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas.' Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 851-2.
540 NEW MEXICANS.
in the sun, and afterward hung up in trees. Meal is
ground on the metate and used for making porridge, tor
tillas, and a very thin cake called guayave, which latter
forms a staple article of food amongst the Pueblos. The
process of making the guayave, as seen by Lieutenant
Simpson at Santo Domingo on the Rio Grande, is thus
described in his journal. " At the house of the govern
or I noticed a woman, probably his wife, going through
the process of baking a very thin species of corn cake,
called, according to Gregg, guayave. She was hovering
over a fire, upon which lay a flat stone. Near her was
a bowl of thin corn paste, into which she thrust her
fingers; allowing then the paste to drip sparingly upon
the stone, with two or three wipes from the palm of her
hand she would spread it entirely and uniformly over
the stone ; this was no sooner done than she peeled it
off as fit for use ; and the process was again and again
repeated, until a sufficient quantity was obtained.
When folded and rolled together, it does not look unlike
(particularly that made from the blue corn) a hornet's
nest — a name by which it is sometimes called." The
Pimas do all their cooking out of doors, under a shed
erected for the purpose. They collect the pulp from the
fruit of the pitahaya, and boiling it in water, make a
thick syrup, which they store away for future use. They
also dry the fruit in the sun like figs.179
The Pueblos and Moquis are remarkable for their
personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwell
ings.180
179 ' Hacen de la Masa de Mafz por la manana Atole .... Tambien hacen
Tamales, y Tortillas.' Torquemada, Monarq. 2nd., torn, i., p. 679. 'The fruit
of the petajaya. . . .is dried iu the sun.' Cremony's Apaches, pp. 89, .91, 106,
111-12. 'From the suwarrow (Cereus Giganteus) and pitaya they make an
Schoolcraft'
pp. 8, 76; Coronado, in HakluyVs Voy., torn, iii., p. 378; Simpson's Jour. Mil.
Recon., pp. 113, 115; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix.,
pp. 61, 71, 164, 170-2; Davis' El Gringo, pp. 114, 119, 121-2, 147-8; Mollhau-
sen, Tagebuch, pp. 218-9, 285.
iso fues' Colorado Riv., pp. 119-20, 124. 'Us vont faire leurs odeurs au
loin, et rassemblent les urines dans de grands vases de terre que 1'on va
vider hors du village.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans , Voy., serie i., torn,
ix., p. 171.
PUEBLO WEAPONS. 541
Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and clubs.
The Pueblos use a crooked stick, which they throw some
what in the manner of the boomerang ; they are exceed
ingly skillful in the use of the sling, with a stone from
which they are said to be able to hit with certainty a
small mark or kill a deer at the distance of a hundred
yards. For defense, they use a buckler or shield made
of raw hide. Their arrows are carried in skin quivers
or stuck in the belt round the waist.181 Bows are made
of willow, and are about six feet in length, strung with
twisted deer-sinews; arrows are made of reeds, into
which a piece of hard wood is fitted.182 The Pimas
wing their war arrows with three feathers and point
them with flint, while for hunting purposes they have
only two feathers and wooden points.183 It has been
stated that they poison them, but there does not appear
to be good foundation for this assertion.184 Clubs, which
are used in hand-to-hand combats, are made of a hard,
heavy wood, measuring from twenty to twenty-four
inches in length. In former days they were sharpened
by inserting flint or obsidian along the edge.185
181 ' The only defensive armor they use is a rude shield made of raw bull-
hide.' Da>:is' El Gringo, pp. 145-6. ' Bows and arrows, and the wooden boome
rang.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1869, p. 91. The Papagos' ' armes sont la
massue, la lance et 1'arc; ils portent aussi une cuirasse et un bouclier en
peau de buffle.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188. For further
comparisons see Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., p. 30, in Pac. Ii. It.
Kept., vol. iii.; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 280; De Laet, Norus Orliy,
p. 300; Larenaudiere', Mex. et Guat., p. 147; Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 342; Niza,
in Hakluyt's Voy., torn, iii., p. 372; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p.
528; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., tomi., p. 299; Sedclmair,
in Id., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Salmeron, Relaciones> in Id., p. 106; Bart-
kit's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 217, 237.
182 Bows 'of strong willow-boughs.' Walker's Pimas, MS. 'Bows are
six feet in length, and made of a very tough and elastic kind of wood, which
the Spaniards call Tarnio.' Patlie's Pers. Nar., pp. 91, 149.
183 « The Pima ' arrows differ from those of all the Apache tribes in having
only two feathers.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 103. 'War arrows have stone
points and three feathers; hunting arrows, two feathers and a wooden point.'
Walker's Pimas, MS.', Coronado, in Hakluyt's Voy., torn. iii. p. 380.
18^ The Pimas: 'Flechas, ennervadas con el eiicaz mortffero veneno que
componen de varias ponzonas, y el zumo de la yerba llamada enpima Usap.'
Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 307. 'Die Spitzen
ihrer Pfeile. . . .welcher mit einer dunklen Substanz uberzogen waren. Sie
behaupteten das diese aus Schlaugengift bestehe, was mir indess unwahr-
scheinlich ist.' Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 438; Castaneda, in Ternaux-
Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 59, 107, 126.
185 'Una macana, como clava 6 porra Estas son de un palo muy duro
512 NEW MEXICANS.
The Pimas wage unceasing war against the Apaches,
and the Pueblos are ever at enmity with their neigh
bors, the Navajos. The Pueblos are securely protected
by the position and construction of their dwellings, from
the top of which they are able to watch the appearance
and movements of enemies, and should any be daring
enough to approach their walls, they are greeted by a
shower of stones and darts. As an additional protec
tion to their towns, they dig pitfalls on the trails lead
ing to them, at the bottom of which sharp-pointed stakes
are driven, the top of the hole being carefully covered.186
Expeditions are sometimes organized against the Navajos
for the recovery of stolen property. On such occcasions
the Towns-people equip themselves with the heads, horns,
and tails of wild animals, paint the body and plume the
head.187 Lieutenant Simpson mentions a curious custom
observed by them, just previous to going into action.
"They halted on the way to receive from their chiefs
some medicine from the medicine bags which each of
them carried about his person. This they rubbed upon
their heart, as they said, to make it big and brave."
The Pueblos fight on horseback in skirmishing order,
and keep up a running fight, throwing the body into va
rious attitudes, the better to avoid the enemies' missiles,
at the same time discharging their arrows with rapidity.188
The Pimas, who fight usually on foot, when they decide
on going to war, select their best warriors, who are sent
y pesado.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p.
556. ' Macanas, que son vnas palos de media vara de largo, y llanos todos
de pedernales agudos, que bastan a partir por medio vn hombre.' Espejo, in
Uakluyt's Voy., torn, iii., pp. 386, 393.
186 « De grosses pierres avaient ete rassemble'es au sommet, pour les rouler
sur quiconque attaquerait la place.' Qattatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy.,
1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 270. 'They have placed around all the trails leading
to the town, pits, ten feet deep.' Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv.,
p. 81. See further, Coronado, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 376; Browne's
Apache Country, p. 279; Sonora, Descrip. Geog.,'in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii.,
torn iv., p. 840; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p.
187 ' Painted to the eyes, their own heads and their horses covered with
all the strange equipments that the brute creation could afford.' Emory's
Reconnoissance , p. 37.
Js* ' Sometimes a fellow would stoop almost to the earth, to shoot under
his horse's belly, at full speed.' Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 37.
WAR CEREMONIES. 543
to notify the surrounding villages, and a place of meet
ing is named where a grand council is held. A fire be
ing lighted and a circle of warriors formed, the proceed
ings are opened by war songs and speeches, their prophet
is consulted, and in accordance with his professional ad
vice, their plan of operations is arranged.189 The attack
is usually made about day-break, and conducted with
much pluck and vigor. They content themselves with
proximate success, and seldom pursue a flying foe.190
During the heat of battle they spare neither sex nor
age, but if prisoners are taken, the males are crucified
or otherwise cruelly put to death, and the women and
children sold as soon as possible.191 The successful war
party on its return is met by the inhabitants of the vil
lages, scalps are fixed on a pole, trophies displayed, and
feasting and dancing indulged in for several days and
nights; if unsuccessful, mourning takes the place of feast
ing, and the death-cries of the women resound through
the villages.192
For farming implements they use plows, shovels, har
rows, hatchets, and sticks, all of wood.193 Baskets of
willow-twigs, so closely woven as to be water-tight, and
ornamented with figures; and round, baked, and glazed
earthen vessels, narrow at the top, and decorated with
paintings or enamel, are their household utensils.194 For
189 Walker's Pimas, MS.
190 Cremony's Apaches, p. 10G.
191 Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 274-5; Browne's Apache Country, p.
104; Pattie's Pers. Nar., pp. 93, 148; Cults' Cong, of Cal., p. 223; Soc. Geoy..
Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188.
192 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcrafi's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 78-9; Murr, Nach-
richten, p. 206; Creniony's Apaches, pp. 108-9.
13:{ Walker's Pimas, MS.; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn.
cxxxi., pp. 292-4.
194 Baskets and pottery 'are ornamented with geometrical figures.' Bart-
letl's Pers. Nar., vol. i., 'p. 382, vol. ii., pp. 227-8, 236. ' Schusselformige
runde Korbe (Coritas), diese flechteu sie aus einern hornformigen, gleich
einer Able spitzigen. Uiikraute.' Murr, Nachrichten, p. 193. The Pueblos had
1 de la vaiselle de terre tres-belle, bien vernie et avec beaucoup d'ornenients.
On y vit aussi de grands jarres remplies d'un metal brillant qui servait a faire
le vernis de cette faience.' Caslatleda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i.,
torn, ix., pp. 138, 173, 185: see also Niza, in Id., p. 259. 'They (Pueblos)
vse vessels of gold and siluer.' Niza, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 372;
Mollhausen, Tagebuch, pp. 216, 271, 273, 279; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv.,
p. 435; Marcy's Army Life, pp, 97, 111; Carleton, in Smithsonian Kept., 1854,
p. 308; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., pp. 457, 459; Gregg's Com. Prai-
544 NEW MEXICANS.
mashing hulled corn they used the metate, a Mexican
implement, made of two stones, one concave and the
other convex, hereafter more fully described. Among
their household utensils there must also be mentioned
hair sieves, hide ropes, water-gourds, painted fans, stone
pipes, and frame panniers connected with a netting to
carry loads on their backs.195 In their manufacture of
blankets, of cotton and woolen cloths, and stock
ings, the Pueblos excel their neighbors, the Navajos,
although employing essentially the same method, and
using similar looms and spinning instruments, as have
been described in the preceding pages. Although the
women perform most of this work, as well as tanning
leather, it is said that the men also are expert in knit
ting woolen stockings. According to Miihlenpfordt
the Pirn as and Maricopas make a basket-boat which they
call com, woven so tight as to be water-proof without
the aid of pitch or other application.196 All these nations,
particularly the Pueblos, have great droves of horses,
mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats grazing on the
extensive plains, and about their houses poultry, turkeys,
and dogs. The flocks they either leave entirely unpro
tected, or else the owner herds them himself, or from
ries, vol. i., p. 278; Foster's Pre-Hist. Races, p. 393; Simpson's Jour. Ml.
Recon., p. 97; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 425; Coronado, in
Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 380; Browne's Apache Country, pp.68, 109, 112,
276.
195 'All the inhabitants of the Citie (Cibola) lie vpon beddes raysed a
good height from the ground, with quilts and canopies ouer them, which
couer the sayde Beds.' Niza, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 370; Id., in
Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 271. The Quires had 'umbracula
(vulgo Tirazoles) quibus Sinenses utuntur Solis, Lunae, et Stellarum imagi-
nibus eleganter picta.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 312; Espejo, in Hakluyt's
Voy., vol iii., p. 393. The Moquis' chief men have pipes made of smooth
polished stone. Ten Broeck, in Schooler aft' s Arch., vol. iv., p. 87; Ives' Col
orado Riv., p. 121. '
196 Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 72, 76, 87. ' Sie flech-
ten von zartgeschlitzten Palmen auf Damastart die schonsten ganz leichten
Hiithe, aus einem Stiicke.' Murr, Nachrichten, p. 192. The Maricopa blan
kets will turn rain. Cremony's Apaches, pp. 106, 90. The Moquis wove
blankets from the wool of their sheep, and made cotton cloth from the indige
nous staple. Poston, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 388. The Maricopas make
a heavy cloth of wool and cotton, ' used by the women to put around their
loins; and an article from 3 to 4 inches wide, used as a band for the head, or
a girdle for the waist.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 224. 'Eupicapra-
rum tergora eminebant (among the Yumanes) tarn Industrie prseparata ut
cum Belgicis certarent.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 310.
PUEBLO TKADE. 545
each village one is appointed by the war captain to do
so. The Papagos carry on an extensive trade in salt,
taken from the great inland salt lakes. Besides corn,
they manufacture and sell a syrup extracted from the
pitahaya.197 The laws regulating inheritance of property
are not well defined. Among some there is nothing to
inherit, as all is destroyed when the person dies ; among
others, the females claim the right of inheritance; at
other times the remaining property is divided among
all the members of the tribe. In general they care but
little for gold, and all their trade, which at times is con
siderable, is carried on by barter; a kind of blue stone,
often called turquoise, beads, skins, and blankets, serv
ing the purpose of currency.198
The Pueblos display much taste in painting the walls
of their estufas, where are represented different plants,
birds, and animals symmetrically done, but without any
scenic effect. Hieroglyphic groupings, both sculptured
i97 De Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 301; Emory's Eept. U. 8. and Mex. Boundary
Survey, vol. i., pp. 117, 123; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annalcs des Voy., 1851,
torn, cxxxi., p. 290; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon., pp. 91, 113, 115.; Ten Broeck,
in Schoolcraft's Arch,, vol. iv., pp. 81, 86; Eaton, in Id., vol. iv., p. 221;
Emory, in Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav., p. 48; See further Ind. Aff.
Reports, from 1854 to 1872; Browne's Apache Country, p. 290. 'These
Papagos regularly visit a salt lake, which lies near the coast and just across
the line of Sonora, from which they pack large quantities of salt, and find a
ready market at Tubac and Tucson.' Walker, in Lid. Aff. Eept., 1859, .p.
352, and 1860, p. 168.' Many Pimas had jars of the molasses expressed from
the fruit of the Cereus Giganteus.' Emory, in Fremont and Emory's Notes
of Trav., p. 48.
193 ' Die Vernichtung des Eigenthums ernes Verstorbenen, — einen ungliick-
lichen Gebrauch der jeden materiellen Fortschritt unmoglich macht.' Froe-
bel, Aus America, torn, i., p. 437. 'The right of inheritance is held by the
females generally, but it is often claimed by the men also.' Gorman, in Ind.
Aff. Eept., 1858, p. 200. 'All the effects of the deceased (Pima) become
common property: his grain is distributed; his fields shared out to those who
need land; his chickens and dogs divided up among the tribe.' Browne's
Apache, Country, pp. 69, 112; lues' Colorado Riv., p. 121; Gallatin, in Nouvelles
AnnalesdesVoy., 1851, torn, cxxxi, p. 262; Nizaju Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie
i., torn, he., pp. 264, 265, 267, 268; LL, in Hakluyt'sVoy., vol. iii., p. 372.
The Zunis ' will sell nothing for money, but dispose of their commodities
entirely in barter.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 91. The Pimos 'wanted
white beads for what they had to sell, and knew the value of money.' Cutts'
Gong, of CaL, p. 188; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn,
xi., pp. 164, 72. ' Us apporterent des coquillages, des turquoises et des
plumes.' Cabeza deVaca, Eelation, in Id., torn, vii., p. 274; Diaz, in Id.,
torn, xi., p. 294; Coronado, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 377; Many of
the Pueblo Indians are rich, ' one family being worth over one hundred
thousand dollars. They have large flocks.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1869,
p. 89; mUhausen, Tagebuch, p. 144.
VOL. I. 35
546 NEW MEXICANS.
and painted, are frequently seen in the ancient Pueblo
towns, depicting, perhaps, their historical events and
deeds. With colored earths their pottery is painted in
bright colors.199 Many Spanish authors mention a great
many gold and silver vessels in use amongst them, and
speak of the knowledge they had in reducing and work
ing these metals; but no traces of such art are found at
present.200
Among the Pueblos an organized system of govern
ment existed at the time of Coronado's expedition
through their country ; Castaneda, speaking of the prov
ince of Tiguex, sa€ys that the villages were governed by
a council of old men ; and a somewhat similar system
obtains with these people at the present time. Each
village selects its own governor, frames its own laws,
and in all respects they act independently of each other.
The Governor and his council are elected annually by
the people ; all affairs of importance and matters relat
ing to the welfare of the community are discussed at the
estufa; questions in dispute are usually decided by a
vote of the majority. All messages and laws emanating
from the council-chamber are announced to the inhabi
tants by town criers. The morals of young people are
carefully watched and guarded by a kind of secret
police, whose duty it is to report to the governor all
irregularities which may occur; and especial attention
is given that no improper intercourse shall be allowed
between the young men and women, in the event of
which the offending parties are brought before the gov
ernor and council and, if guilty, ordered to marry,
or if they refuse they are restricted from holding in
tercourse with each other, and if they persist they are
199 Greeks Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 278; Davis' El Gringo, p. 147; Scenes
in the Rocky Mts., p. 177; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 458; Con,-
uado, in IlakluyVs Voy., torn, iii., p. 380; Mollhausen, Tagebuch. p. 284.
200 ' Estos ahijados tieneu mucho oro y lo benefician.' Salmeron, Rela-
ciones, in Doc. Hist Mex., serie iii., torn, i., p. 28. 'They vse vessels of gold
and siluer, for they have no other mettal.' Niza, in HakluyVsVoy., vol. iii.,
p. 372; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 2, 133;
Espejo, in Ilakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., pp. 386-8, 393-5; Montamis, Nleuwe
Weereld, p. 217; Diaz, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 294.
LAWS OF THE PUEBLOS. 547
whipped. Among their laws deserves to be particularly
mentioned one, according to which no one can sell or
marry out of the town until he obtains permission from
the authorities.201 In the seven confederate pueblos of
the Moquis, the office of chief governor is hereditary ; it
is not, however, necessarily given to the nearest heir, as
the people have the power to elect any member of the
dominant family. The governor is assisted by a council
of elders, and in other respects the Moqui government
is similar to that of the other towns.202 The Pimas and
Maricopas have no organized system of government, and
are not controlled by any code of laws; each tribe or
village has a chief to whom a certain degree of respect
is conceded, but his power to restrain the people is very
limited; his influence over them is maintained chiefly
by his oratorical powers or military skill. In war the
tribe is guided by the chief's advice, and his authority
is fully recognized, but in time of peace his rule is
nominal ; nor does he attempt to control their freedom
or punish them for offences. The chief's office is hered
itary, yet an unpopular ruler may be deposed and
another chosen to fill his place.203
Among the Pueblos the usual order of courtship is
reversed ; when a girl is disposed to marry she does not
wait for a young man to propose to her, but selects one to
her own liking and consults her father, who visits the pa
rents of the youth and acquaints them with his daughter's
201 Pueblo government purely democratic: election held once a year. ' Be
sides the officers elected by universal suffrage, the principal chiefs compose
a "council of wise men." ' Davis' El Gringo, pp. 142-4. ' One of their reg
ulations is to appoint a secret watch for the purpose of keeping down dis
orders and vices of every description.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p.
271. See further: Casta/leda, in Ternaux-Conipans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix ,
So. 61, 168; Niza, in Id., p. 269; Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii., p. 455;
3 Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 298; Wislizenus' Tour, p. 26; Mayer's Mex., Aztec,
etc.. vol. ii., p. 359; Gallatin in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1851, torn cxxxi.,
p. 277; Stanley's Portraits, p. '55.
202 Ten Broeck, in Schoo! craft's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 85, 76; Marcy's Army
Life, p. 108.
so3 Gobierno no tienen alguno, ni leyes, tradiciones 6 costumbres con
que gobernarse.' Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p.
366. ' Cada cual gobernado por un anciano, y todas por el general de la
nacion.' Escude.ro, Noticias de Sonora y Sinaloa, p. 142; Murr, Ndchrichten,
p. 267. Compare: Grossman, in Ind. 'Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 124; Howry, in
Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 356; Walker's Pimas, MS.
548 NEW MEXICANS.
wishes. It seldom happens that any objections to the
match are made, but it is imperative on the father of the
bridegroom to reimburse the parents of the maiden for
the loss of their daughter. This is done by an offer of
presents in accordance with his rank and wealth. The
inhabitants of one village seldom marry with those of
another, and, as a consequence, intermarriage is frequent
among these families — a fertile cause of their deteriora
tion. The marriage is always celebrated by a feast, the
provisions for which are furnished by the bride, and the
assembled friends unite in dancing and music. Polyg
amy is never allowed, but married couples can separate
if they are dissatisfied with each other; in such a con
tingency, if there are children, they are taken care of
by the grandparents, and both parties are free to marry
again; fortunately, divorces are not of frequent occur
rence, as the wives are always treated with respect by
their husbands.204 To the female falls all indoor work,
and also a large share of that to be done out of doors.
In the treatment of their children these people are care
ful to guide them in the ways of honesty and industry,
and to impress their minds with chaste and virtuous
ideas. Mothers bathe their infants with cold water, and
boys are not permitted to enter the estufas for the pur
pose of warming themselves; if they are cold they are
ordered to chop wood, or warm themselves by running
and exercise.205 A girl's arrival at the age of puberty
among the Gila nations is a period of much rejoicing;
when the first symptoms appear, all her friends are duly
informed of the important fact, and preparations are
made to celebrate the joyful event. The girl is taken
by her parents to the prophet, who performs certain
ceremonies, which are supposed to drive the evil out of
her, and then a singing and dancing festival is held.
204 'Un homme n' epouse jamais plus d' une seule femme.' Castaneda,
in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 164; Ten Broeck, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. ivv pp. 86-7; Ward, in Ind. Aff. Sept., 1864, p. 190.
205 ' Us traitent bien leurs femmes.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.,
serie i., torn, ix., p. 126. ' Desde que maman los Ninos, los labaii sus Ma-
dres con Nieve todo el cuerpo.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., toni i., p. 679;
lyes' Colorado Riv., p. 123; Scenes in the Rocky Mis., p. 178.
WOMEN AMONG THE PUEBLOS. 549
When a young man sees a girl whom he desires for a
wife, he first endeavors to gain the good will of the
parents; this accomplished, he proceeds to serenade his
lady-love, and will often sit for hours, day after day,
near her house, playing on his flute. Should the girl
not appear it is a sign she rejects him ; but if, on the
other hand, she comes out to meet him, he knows that
his suit is accepted, and he takes her to his house. No
marriage ceremony is performed. Among the Papagos
the parents select a husband for their daughter to whom
she is, so to say, sold. It not unfrequently happens that
they offer their daughter at auction, and she is knocked
down to the highest bidder. However, among all the
nations of this family, whether the bridegroom makes a
love-match or not, he has to recompense the parents with
as much as his means will permit.206 Although polygamy
is not permitted, they often separate and marry again
at pleasure. Women, at the time of their confinement
as well as during their monthly periods, must live apart;
as they believe that if any male were to touch them, he
would become sick. The children are trained to war,
and but little attention given to teaching them useful
pursuits. All the household labor is performed by the
women; they also assist largely in the labors of the
field; severe laws oblige them to observe the strictest
chastity, and yet, at their festivals, much debauchery
and prostitution take place.207
With but few exceptions, they are temperate in drink
ing and smoking. Intoxicating liquors they prepare out
of the fruits of the pitahaya, agave, aloe, corn, mezcal^
206 « Early marriages occur but the relation is not binding until pro
geny results. ' Poston, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, p. 152. ' No girl is forced to mar
ry against her will, however eligible her parents may consider the match.'
BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 222-4; Davis' El Gringo, p. 146; Cremony's
Apaches, p. 105; Browne's Apache Country, p. 112.
207 ' Si el marido y mujer se desavienen y los hijos son pequenos, se arri-
man a cualquiera de los dos y cada uno gana por su lado.' Mange, Itinerario,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 369. ' Tanto lospapagos occidentals,
como los citados gilas desconocen la poligamia.' Velasco, Noticiasde Sonora,
p. 161. 'Among the Pimas loose women are tolerated.' Cremony's Apaches,
pp. 102-4; Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p. 59;
Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, vol. i.. p. 117.
550 NEW MEXICANS.
prickly pear, wild and cultivated grapes. Colonel Cre-
mony says that the Pimas and Maricopas ' macerate the
fruit of the pitahaya (species of cactus) in water after
being dried in the sun, when the saccharine qualities
cause the liquid to ferment, and after such fermentation
it becomes highly intoxicating. It is upon this liquor
that the Maricopas and Pimas get drunk once a year,
the revelry continuing for a week or two at a time ; but
it is also an universal custom with them to take regular
turns, so that only one third of the party is supposed to
indulge at one time, the remainder being required to
take care of their stimulated comrades, and protect
them from injuring each other or being injured by other
tribes.' 208 All are fond of dancing and singing ; in their
religious rites, as well as in other public and family cele
brations, these form the chief diversion. Different
dances are used on different occasions; for example,
they have the arrow, scalp, turtle, fortune, buffalo, green-
corn, and Montezuma dances. Their costumes also vary
on each of these occasions, and not only are grotesque
masks, but also elk, bear, fox, and other skins used as
disguises. The dance is sometimes performed by only
one person, but more frequently whole tribes join in,
forming figures, shuffling, or hopping about to the time
given by the music. Lieutenant Simpson, who wit
nessed a green-corn dance at the Jemez pueblo, describes
it as follows:
'When the performers first appeared, all of whom
were men, they came in a line, slowly walking and bend
ing and stooping as they approached. They were dressed
in a kirt of blanket, the upper portion of their bodies
being naked and painted red. Their legs and arms,
which were also bare, were variously striped with red,
white and blue colors; and around their arms, above
208 «The Pimas also cultivate a kind of tobacco, this, which is very li£.ht,
they make up into cigaritos, never using a pipe.' Walker's Pimas, M&.
The Pueblos ' sometimes get intoxicated.' Walker, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1860, p.
109. The Pueblos 'are generally free from drunkenness.' Dams' El Gringo,
p. 146. Cremony's Apaches, p. 112; Froebel, Aus America, torn, ii., p. 446;
Murr, Nachrichten, p. 249.
PUEBLO DANCES. 55t
the elbow, they wore a green band, decked with sprigs
of piiion. A necklace of the same description was worn
around the neck. Their heads were decorated with
feathers. In one hand they carried a dry gourd, con
taining some grains of corn ; in the other, a string from
which were hung several tortillas. At the knee were
fastened small shells of the ground turtle and antelope's
feet ; and dangling from the back, at the waist, depended
a fox-skin. The party was accompanied by three eld
ers of the town, whose business it was to make a short
speech in front of the different houses, and, at particu
lar times, join in the singing of the rest of the party.
Thus they went from house to house, singing and
dancing, the occupants of each awaiting their arrival in
front of their respective dwellings.'
A somewhat similar Moqui dance is described by Mr
Ten Broeck. Some of the Pueblo dances end with
bacchanalia, in which not only general intoxication,
but promiscuous intercourse between the sexes is per
mitted.209 'Once a year,' says Kendall, 'the Keres
269 Simpson's Jour. Mil. Eecon., p. 17. 'Their hair hung loose upon
their shoulders, and both men and women had their hands painted with
white clay, in such a way as to resemble open-work gloves. The wo
men .... were bare-footed, with the exception of a little piece tied about
the heel .... They all wore their hair combed over their faces, in a manner
that rendered it utterly impossible to recognize any of them .... They keep
their elbows close to their sides, and their heels pressed firmly together, and
do not raise the feet, but shuffle along with a kind of rolling motion, moving
their arms, from the elbows down, with time to the step. At times, each
man dances around his squaw; while she turns herself about, as if her heels
formed a pivot on which she moved.' Ten Broeck, in Schooler aft's Arch.,
vol. iv., p. 74. The dresses of the men were similar to those worn on other
festivities, ' except that they wear on their heads large pasteboard towers
painted typically, and curiously decorated with feathers; and each man has
his face entirely covered by a vizor made of small willows with the bark
peeled off, and dyed a deep brown.' Id., p. 83. 'Such horrible masks I
never saw before— noses six inches long, mouths from ear to ear, and great
goggle eyes, as big as half a hen's egg, hanging by a string partly out of the
socket.' Id., p. 85. 'Each Pueblo generally had its particular uniform
dress and its particular dance. The men of one village would sometimes
disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, moving on all-fours,
and mimicking the animal they were attempting to personate. Others
would appear in the garb of a turkey, with large heavy wings.' Gregg's
Com. Prairies, vol. i., pp. 271, 275. 'Festejo todo (Pimas) el dia nuestra
llegada con un esquisito baile en forma circular, en cuyo centre figaraba una
prolongada asta donde pendian trece cabelleras, arcos, flechas y demas des-
pojos de otros tantos enemigos apaches que habian muerto.' Mange, Itinera-
rio, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 277. ' Este lo forma una junta de
truhanes vestidos de ridiculo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo para come •
552 NEW MEXICANS.
have a great feast, prepared for three successive days,
which time is spent in eating, drinking and dancing.
Near this scene of amusement is a dismal gloomy cave,
into which not a glimpse of light can penetrate, and
where places of repose are provided for the revellers.
To this cave, after dark, repair grown persons of every
age and sex, who pass the night in indulgences of the
most gross and sensual description.'
Reed flutes and drums are their chief instruments of
music; the former they immerse in a shallow basin of
wrater, and thereby imitate the warbling of birds. The
drum is made of a hollow log, about two and a half feet
long and fifteen inches in diameter. A dried hide,
from which previously the hair has been scraped, is
stretched over either end, and on this the player beats
with a couple of drumsticks, similar to those used on our
kettle-drums. Gourds filled with pebbles and other rat
tles, are also used as a musical accompaniment to their
dances.210
The Cocomaricopas and Pimas are rather fond of
athletic sports, such as football, horse and foot racing,
swimming, target-shooting, and of gambling.211 Many
ter los mayores desordenes, y gustan tanto de estos hechos, que ni los maridos
reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las que resultan en
perjuicio de las hijas.' Aleyre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 333-5. For
further particulars see Kendall's Nar., vol. i., p. 378; Marcy's Army Life, pp.
104-8; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 244; Davis' El Gringo, pp. 354-5; Espejo,
" ni Ex., plates 1, 2, 3;
Trav., p. 343.
i-4; Johnson's Hist.
7 p. 11. 'Their instruments consisted, each" of half a gourd, placed
before them, with the convex side up; upon this they placed, with the left
hand, a smooth stick, and with their right drew forward and backwards
upon it, in a sawing manner, a notched one.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon.,
p. 17. ' I noticed, among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell-
shaped end like a clarionet, and a pair of painted drumsticks tipped with
gaudy feathers.' lues' Colorado Riv., p. 121. 'Les Indiens (Pueblos) ac-
compagnent leurs danses et leurs chants avec des flutes, oil sont marques les
endroits oil il faut placer les doigts Us disent que ces gens se reunissent
cinq ou six pour jouer de la flute; que ces instruments sont d'inegales gran
deurs.' Diaz, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 295; Castaneda,
in Id., pp. 72, 172; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 455; Garces, Diario, in
Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 331. 'While they are at work, a man,
seated at the door, plays on a bagpipe, so that they work keeping time: they
ging in three voices.' Davis' El Gringo, p. 119.
211 The Cocomaricopas, ' componen unas bolas redondas del tamano de
una pelota de materia negra como pez, y embutidas en ellas varias conchitas
pequefias del mar con que hacen labores y con que juegan y apuestan, tiran-
CUSTOMS OF PIMAS AND PAPAGOS. 553
curious customs obtain among these people. Mr Walker
relates that a Pima never touches his skin with his
nails, but always uses a small stick for that purpose,
which he renews every fourth day, and wrears in his
hair. Among the same nation, when a man has killed
an Apache, he must needs undergo purification. Sixteen
days he must fast, and only after the fourth day is he
allowed to drink a little pinole. During the sixteen
days he may not look on a blazing fire, nor hold con
verse with mortal man ; he must live in the woods corn-
pan ionless, save only one person appointed to take care
of him. On the seventeenth day a large space is cleared
off near the village, in the center of which a fire is
lighted. The men form a circle round this fire, outside
of which those who have been purified sit, each in a
small excavation. Certain of the old men then take
the weapons of the purified and dance with them in the
circle; for which service they receive presents, and
thenceforth both slayer and weapon are considered clean,
but not until four days later is the man allowed to return
to his family. They ascribe the origin of this custom
to a mythical personage, called Szeukha, who, after kill
ing a monster, is said to have fasted for sixteen days.
The Papagos stand in gread dread of the coyote, and
the Pimas never touch an ant, snake, scorpion, or spider,
and are much afraid of thunderstorms. Like the Mo-
javes and Yumas, the Maricopas in cold weather carry a
firebrand to warm themselves withal. In like manner
the Pueblos have their singularities and semi-religious
ceremonies, many of which are connected with a certain
dola con la punta del pie corren tres 6 cuatro leguas y la particularidad es que
el que da vuelta y llega al puesto donde comenzaron y salieron a la par ese
gana.' Sedehnair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie'iii., torn, iv., p. 851.
'It is a favorite amusement with both men [Maricopas] and boys to try
their skill at hitting the pitahaya, which presents a fine object on the plain.
Numbers often collect for this purpose; and in crossing the great plateau,
where these plants abound, it is common to see them pierced with arrows.'
BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 237; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1857, p. 301.
' Amusements of all kinds are universally resorted to [among the Pueblos];
such as foot-racing, horse-racing, cock-fighting, gambling, dancing, eating,
and drinking.' Ward, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 192; Mange, Itinerario, in
Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv,, torn, i., pp. 299, 365.
554 NEW MEXICANS.
mythical personage called Montezuma. Among these
may be mentioned the perpetual watching of the eternal
estufa-fire, and also the daily waiting for the rising sun,
with which, as some writers affirm, they expectantly
look for the promised return of the much-loved Mon
tezuma. The Moqui, before commencing to smoke, rev
erently bows toward the four cardinal points.212
Their diseases are few, and among these the most
frequent are chills and fevers, and later, syphilis. The
Pueblos and Moquis resort to the sweat-house remedy,
but the Pimas only bathe daily in cold running water.
Here, as elsewhere, the doctor is rnedicine-man, conjuror,
and prophet, and at times old women are consulted. If
incantations fail, emetics, purgatives, or blood-letting are
prescribed.213
The Pimas bury their dead immediately after death.
At the bottom of a shaft, about six feet deep, they ex
cavate a vault, in which the corpse is placed, after
212 Walker's Pimas, MS. ' The Papago of to-day will on no account
Mil a coyote.' Davidson, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 132. ' Eben so aber-
glaubischen Gebrauch batten sie bey drohenden Kieselwetter, da sie den
Hagel abzuwenden ein Stiick von einem Palmteppiche an einem Stecken an-
hefteten und gegen die Wolken richteten.' Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 203, 207;
Amy, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1871, pp. 385, 389. 'A sentinel ascends every
morning at sunrise to the roof of the highest house, and, with eyes directed
towards the east, looks out for the arrival of the divine chieftain, who is
to give the sign of deliverance.' Domenech's Deserts, vol i., p. 165, 197, 390,
210, and vol. ii., p. 54. 'On a dit que la coutume singuliere de conserver
perpetuellement un feu sacre pres duquel les anciens Mexicains atten-
daient le retour du dieu Quetzacoatl, existe aussi chez les Pueblos.' Ruxlon,
in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1850, torn, cxxvi, p. 58; Sedelmair, Relation, in
Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 851; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 278; Cremony's Apaches, p. 92; Simpson's Jour.
Mil. Recon., p. 93. ' I, however, one night, at San Felipe, clandestinely wit
nessed a portion of their secret worship. One of their secret night dances
is called Tocina, which is too horrible to write about.' Amy, in 2nd. Aff.
Kept., 1871, p. 385; Ward, in Id., 1864, p. 192; lues' Colorado Riv., p. 121; Ten
Broeck, in Schoolcra/t's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 73, 77; Mollhausen, Tagebuok, p.
278. 'Us ont des pretres. . . .ils montent sur la terrasse la plus elevee du
village et font un sermon au moment ou le soleil se leve.' Castaneda, in
Ternaux-Oompans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 133, 164, 239.
2" Walker's Pimas, MS.; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301;
Ruggles, in Id., 1869, p. 209; Andrews, in Id., 1870, p. 117; Ward, in Id., 1864,
p. 188; Davis' El Gringo, pp. 119, 311. The cause of the decrease of the Pe-
cos Indians is ' owing to the fact that they seldom if ever marry outside of
their respective pueblos.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 251; Murr,
Nachrichten, p. 273. ' Au milieu [of the estufa] est un foyer allume, sur
lequel on jette de temps en temps une poignee de thym, ce qui suffit pour
entretenir la chaleur, de sorte qu'on y est comme dans un bain.' Castaiieda,
in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 170.
CHARACTER OF THE PUEBLOS. 555
having first been tied up in a blanket. House, horses,
and most personal effects are destroyed ; but if children
are left, a little property is reserved for them. A widow
or a daughter mourn for three months, cutting the hair
and abstaining from the bath during that time. The
Maricopas burn their dead. Pueblo and Moqui burials
take place with many ceremonies, the women being the
chief mourners.214
Industrious, honest, and peace-loving, the people of
this division are at the same time brave and determined,
when necessity compels them to repel the thieving
Apache. Sobriety may be ranked among their virtues,
as drunkenness only forms a part of certain religious
festivals, and in their gambling they are the most mod
erate of barbarians.215
214 Walker's Pirnas, MS. The Pimas, 'nsan enterrar sus varones con
su arco y flechas, y algun bastimento y calabazo de agna, serial que alcan-
zan vislumbre de la immortalidad, aunque no con la distincion de premio
d castigo.' Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., toni. i., p. 369.
' The Maricopas invariably bury their dead, and mock the ceremony of crema
tion.' ' sacrifice at the grave of a warrior all the property of which he died
possessed, together with all in possession of his various relatives.' Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 103, 11)5. ' The Pimos bury their dead, while the Coco-Mari-
copas burn theirs.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar.,\ol.ii., p. 262. 'The females of
the family [Pueblo] approached in a mournful procession (while the males
stood around in solemn silence), each one bearing on her head a tinaja, or
water-jar, filled with water, which she emptied into the grave, and whilst do
ing so commenced the death-cry. They came singly and emptied their
jars, and each one joined successively in the death-cry;. . . .They believe that
on a certain day (in August, I think) the dead rise from their graves and flit
about the neighboring hills, and on that day, all who have lost friends, carry
out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and such other good things of this life as
they can obtain, and place them in the haunts frequented by the dead, in
grave they hold a grand festival. The women weep and the men howl,
and they go into a profound mourning of tar. Soon the cattle are driven up
and slaughtered, and every body heavily-laden with sorrow, loads his squaw
with beef, and feasts for many days.' Browne's Apache Country, pp. 112-13;
Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 204, 210, 281; Ferry, Scenes de la vie Sauvage, p. 115;
Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 500; Id., Aus Amerika, torn, ii., p. 437; Castaneda,
in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 165.
215 ' Though naturally disposed to peaceful pursuits, the Papagoes are
not deficient in courage.' Browne's Apache Country, pp. 142, 107, 110-11,
140, 277; Johnson's Hist. Arizona, p. 10; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166;
Soc. Ge'og., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 188; Escudero, Noticias de Sonora y
Sinaloa, p. 142; Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp, 116, 160; Froebel's Cent.
Amer., pp. 500, 506, 512; Id., Aus Amerika, torn, ii., pp. 437, 447, 454; Gar-
ces, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie ii., torn, i., p. 238; Sedelmair, Relation,
in Id., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 850; Gallardo, in Id., p. 892. « The peaceful
556 NEW MEXICANS.
THE LOWER CALIFORNIANS present a sad picture. Occu
pying the peninsula from the head of the gulf to Cape
San Lucas, it is thought by some that they were driven
thither from Upper California by their enemies. When
first visited by the Missionary Fathers, they presented
humanity in one of its lowest phases, though evidences
of a more enlightened people having at some previous
time occupied the peninsula were not lacking. Clavi-
gero describes large caves or vaults, which had been dug
out of the solid rock, the sides decorated with paintings
of animals and figures of men, showing dress and
features different from any of the inhabitants. Whom
they represented or by whom they were depicted there is
no knowledge, as the present race have been unable to
afford any information on the subject.
The peninsula extends from near 32° to 23° north
latitude; in length it is about seven hundred, vary
ing in width from thirty-five to eighty miles. Its
disposition of the Maricopas is not the result of incapacity for war, for they
are at all times enabled to meet and vanquish the Apaches in battle.'
Emory, in Fremont and Emory's Notes of Trav., p. 49; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de
Jesus, torn, hi., pp. 62, 103; Murr, Nachrichlen, p. 282; Hardy's Trav., pp.
440, 443; Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., pp. 365-6;
Mo wry' s Arizona, p. 30; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, pp. 397, 412; Sonora,
Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 553-5, 838. 'The
Pueblos were industrious and unwarlike in their habits.' Marcy's Army
Life, pp. 98, 110. The Moquis ' are a mild and peaceful race of people,
almost unacquainted with the use of arms, and not given to war. They are
strictly honest .. .They are kind and hospitable to strangers.' Davis' El
Gringo, pp. 421, 145. 'C'est une race (Pueblos) remarquablement sobre
et industrieuse, qui se distingue par sa moralite.' Gallatin, in Nouvelles An-
nales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 277, 288, 290; Ruxton, in Id., 1850, torn.
cxxvi., pp. 45, 47, 60; Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 191; Ives' Colorado Riv., pp.
31, 36, 45, 122, 124-7; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 120, 268, 274;
Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 342; Eibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 241; Maltc-
Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn., iv., p. 453; Champagnac, Voyageur, p. 84;
Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., pp. 196, 221; Espejo, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p.
392; Wislizenus' Tour., p. 26; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 91; Ten Broeck, in
Sehoolcra/t's Arch., vol. iv., pp. 72, 87; Eaton, in Id., p. 220; Bent, in Id.,
vol. i., p. 244; Kendall's Nar., vol. i., p. 378; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com-
pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 126, 163; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt
ii., p. 528; Mollhausen, Tagebuch, p. 144; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb.,
torn, ii., p. 240. The Pueblos 'are passionately fond of dancing, and give
themselves up to this diversion with a kind of frenzy.' Domenech's Deserts,
vol. i., pp. 198, 185, 203, 206, and vol. ii., pp. 19, 51-2; Cutts' Conq. of Gal,
pp. 188-9, 222; Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 81, 91, 113, 115; Scenes
in the Rocky Mts., p. 177; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., pp. 679-80;
Mayer's Mex. as it was, p. 239; Id., Mex. Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 358. See
further: Ind. Aff. Kept., from 1854 to 1872.
LOWEK CALIFOKNIA. 557
general features are rugged; irregular mountains of
granite formation and volcanic upheavals traversing the
whole length of the country, with barren rocks and
sandy plains, intersected by ravines and hills. Some
fertile spots and valleys with clear mountain streams
are there, and in such places the soil produces abun
dantly; then there are plains of greater or less extent,
with rich soil, but without water; so that, under
the circumstances, they are little more than deserts.
These plains rise in places into mesas, which are cut
here and there by canons, where streams of water are
found, which are again lost on reaching the sandy plains.
Altogether, Lower California is considered as one of the
most barren and unattractive regions in the temperate
zone, although its climate is delightful, and the mount
ain districts especially are among the healthiest in the
world, owing to their southern situation between two
seas. A curious meteorological phenomenon is some
times observed both in the gulf and on the land ; it is
that of rain falling during a perfectly clear sky. Savants,
who have investigated the subject, do not appear to have
discovered the cause of this unusual occurrence.
The greater part of the peninsula, at the time of its
discovery, was occupied by the Cochimis, whose territory
extended from the head of the gulf to the neighborhood
of Loreto, or a little south of the twenty-sixth parallel ;
adjoining them were the Guaicuris, living between lati
tude 26° and 23° 30'; while the Pericuis were settled in
the southern part, from about 23° 30' or 24° to Cape
San Lucas, and on the adjacent islands.216
216 Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept, 1863, p. 359; Forbes' Cal, pp. 20-2; Mo-
fras, Explor., torn, i., p. 239; Matte-Krun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 451;
Gleeson's Hist. Cath. Church, vol. i., pp. 95-6; Prichard's Researches, vol. v.,
p. 446. 'Esse sono tre nella California Cristiana, cioe quelle de'Pericui,
de'Guaicuri, e de'Cochimi.' Claviyero, Storia delta Cal., torn, i., p. 109.
Venegas, in giving the opinion of Father Taraval, says: ' Tres son (dice este
habil Missionero) las Lenguas: la Cochimi, la Pericu, y la de Loreto. De
esta ultima salen dos ramos, y son: la Guaycura, y la Uchiti; verdad es, que
es la variacion tanta, que el que no tuviere connocimiento de las tres Lenguas,
juzgara, no solo que hay quatro Lenguas, sino que hay cinco Esta pobla-
da la primera azia el Medioda, desde el Cabo de San Lucas, hasta mas aca, del
Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericu, 6 siguiendo la terminacion Castellnna
de los Pericues: la segunda desde la Paz, hasta mas arriba del Presidio Heal
558 NEW MEXICANS.
The Lower Californians are well formed, robust and
of good stature, with limbs supple and muscular; they
are not inclined to corpulence ; their features are some
what heavy, the forehead low and narrow, the nose well
set on, but thick and fleshy ; the inner corners of the eyes
round instead of pointed ; teeth very white and regular ;
hair very black, coarse, straight, and glossy, with but
little on the face, and none upon the body or limbs.
The color of the skin varies from light to dark brown,
the former .color being characteristic of the dwellers in
the interior, and the latter of those on the sea-coast.217
Adam without the fig-leaves was not more naked than
were the Cochimis before the missionaries first taught
them the rudiments of shame. They ignored even the
usual breech-cloth, the only semblance of clothing being
a head-dress of rushes or strips of skin interwoven with
mother-of-pearl shells, berries, and pieces of reed. The
Gluaicuris and Pericuis indulge in a still more fantastic
head-dress, white feathers entering largely into its com
position. The women display more modesty, for,
although scantily clad, they at least essay to cover their
nakedness. The Pericui women are the best dressed of
all, having a petticoat reaching from the waist to the
ankles, made from the fibre of certain palm -leaves, and
rendered soft and flexible by beating between two stones.
de Loreto, es de los Monquis: la tercera desde el territorio de Loreto, por
todo lo descubierto al Norte de la nacion Cochimi, d de los Cochimies.'
Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 63-6. ' Auf derHalbinsel Alt-Califor-
nien wohnen: an der Siidspitze die Pericues, dann die Monquis oder Menguis,
zu welchen die Familien der Guayciiras und Coras gehoren, die Cochfmas
oder Colimies, die Laimones, die Utschitas oder Vehitis, und die leas. Muh-
lenpfordt, Mtjico, torn, i., p. 212. 'All the Indian tribes of the Peninsula
seein to be affiliated with the Yumas of the Colorado and with the Coras bje-
low La Paz in no case do they differ in intellect, habits, customs, dress,
implements of war, or hunting, traditions, or appearances from the well-
known Digger Indians of Alta-California, and undoubtedly belong to the
same race or family.' Browne's Lower CaL, pp. 53-4.
217 'Di buona statura, ben fatti, sani, e robusti.' Clavigero, Storia della
CaL, torn, i., pp. 112-13. 'El color en todos es muy moreno. . . .no tienen
barba ni nada de vello en el cuerpo.' Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 47,
61, carta ii., p. 12. Compare: Kino, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serieiv., tom.i., p. 407;
Crespi, in Id., serie iv., torn, vii., p. 135; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigations, torn,
iii., fol. 345, 351; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., p. 68; Baegert, in Smith
sonian Kept. 1863, p. 357; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp. 443-4;
Uleeson's Hist. Cath. Church., p. 99.
COCHIMI AND PERICUI DRESS. 559
Over the shoulders they throw a mantle of similar ma
terial, or of plaited rushes, or of skins. The Cochimi
women make aprons of short reeds, strung upon cords
of aloe-plant fibres fastened to a girdle. The apron is
open at the sides, one part hanging in front, the other
behind. As they are not more than six or eight. inches
wide, but little of the body is in truth covered. When
traveling they wear sandals of hide, which they fasten
with strings passed between the toes.21* Both sexes are
fond of ornaments; to gratify this passion [they string
together pearls, shells, fruit- stones and seeds in the
forms of necklaces and bracelets. In addition to the
head-dress the Pericuis are distinguished by a girdle
highly ornamented with pearls and mother-of-pearl
shells. They perforate ears, lips, and nose, inserting in
the openings, shells, bones, or hard sticks. Paint in
many colors and devices is freely used on war and gala
occasions; tattooing obtains, but does not appear to be
universal among them. Mothers, to protect them against
the weather, cover the entire bodies of their children
with a varnish of coal and urine. Cochimi women cut
the hair short, but the men allow a long tuft to grow on
the crown of the head. Both sexes among the Guai-
curis and Pericuis wear the hair long and flowing loosely
over the shoulders.219
Equally Adamitic are their habitations. They appear
to hold a superstitious dread of suffocation if they live
218 ' Siendo de gran deshonra en los varones el vestido.' Salvatierra,
in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv., torn, v., p. 42. 'Aprons are about a span wide,
and of different length.' Baegert, in Smithsonian Rept., 18G3, pp. 361-2.
Consult further: Venegas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 81-8, 113; Gleeson's
Hist. Cath. Church, pp. 96-9, 107-10; Forbes' Cal., pp. 9, 18; Clavigero, Maria
delta Cal., torn, i., pp. 120-3, 133, 144; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voy
ages, vol. iv., p. 469, and in Berenger, Col. de Voy.t torn, ii., p. 371.
219 ' Unos se cortan un pedazo de oreja, otros las dos; otros agugerean el
they also pierce the nose. I can only
say that I saw no one disfigured in that particular manner.' Baegert, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 362. 'Nudi agunt, genas quadrutis quibusdam
notis signati.' De Laet, Novus Or&is, p. 306. Further reference: Villa-Se-
nor, y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 279, 282; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi,
torn, iii., fol. 347-8, and in HakluyVsVoy., vol. iii., p. 412; Delaporte, Reisen,
torn, x., p. 428.
560 NEW MEXICANS.
or sleep in covered huts ; hence in their rare and meagre
attempts to protect themselves from the inclemencies of
the weather, they never put any roof over their heads.
Roving beast-like in the vicinity of springs during the
heat of the day, seeking shade in the ravines and over
hanging rocks ; at night, should they desire shelter, they
resort to caverns and holes in the ground. During win
ter they raise a semi-circular pile of stones or brush
wood, about two feet in height, behind which, with the
sky for a roof and the bare ground for a bed, they camp
at night. Over the sick they sometimes throw a wretched
hut, by sticking a few poles in the ground, tying them
at the top and covering the whole with grass and reeds,
and into this nest visitors crawl on hands and knees.220
Reed-roots, wild fruit, pine-nuts, cabbage-palms, small
seeds roasted, and also roasted aloe and mescal roots
constitute their food. During eight weeks of the year
they live wholly on the redundant fat-producing pitaliaya,
after which they wander about in search of other native
vegetable products, and when these fail they resort to
hunting and fishing. Of animal food they will eat any
thing — beasts, birds, and fishes, or reptiles, worms, and
insects; and all parts: flesh, hide, and entrails. Men
and monkeys, however, as articles of food are an abomi
nation; the latter because they so much resemble the
former. The gluttony and improvidence of these peo
ple exceed, if possible, those of any other nation; alter
nate feasting and fasting is their custom. When so for
tunate as to have plenty they consume large quantities,
preserving none. An abominable habit is related of
them, that they pick up the undigested seeds of the pita-
haya discharged from their bowels, and after parching
and grinding them, eat the meal with much relish.
220 Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., p. 88; Campbell's Hist. Span. Amer.,
p. 86; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 347, 350; Californias, No
ticia, carta i., p. 45; Lockman's Trav. Jesuits, vol. i., p. 403. ' Le abitazioncelle
piii conmni sono certe chiuse circolari di sassi sciolti, ed ammucchiati, l.e
quali hanno cinque piedi di diametro, e meno di due d'altezza.' Clavigero,
Storia della CaL, torn, i., p. 119. 'I am certainly not much mistaken in say
ing that many of them change their night-quarters more than a hundred
times in a year.' Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 361.
LOWER CALIFOKNIAN FOOD. 561
Clavigero, Baegert, and other authors, mention another
rather uncommon feature in the domestic economy of
the Cochimis ; it is that of swallowing their meat several
times, thereby multiplying their gluttonous pleasures.
Tying to a string a piece of well-dried meat, one of their
number masticates it a little, and swallows it, leaving
the end of the string hanging out of the mouth ; after
retaining it for about two or three minutes in his stom
ach, it is pulled out, and the operation repeated several
times, either by the same individual or by others, until
the meat becomes consumed. Here is Father Baegert's
summary of their edibles: "They live now-a-days on
dogs and cats; horses, asses and mules; item: on owls,
mice and rats; lizards and snakes; bats, grasshoppers
and crickets ; a kind of green caterpillar without hair,
about a finger long, and an abominable white worm of
the length and thickness of the thumb."221
C
Their weapon is the bow and arrow, but they use
stratagem to procure the game. The deer-hunter de
ceives his prey by placing a deer's head upon his own;
hares are trapped ; the Cochimis throw a kind of boom
erang or flat curved stick, which skims the ground and
breaks the animal's legs. Fish are taken from pools left
by the tide and from the sea. sometimes several miles
out, in nets and with the aid of long lances. It is said
that at San Roche Island they catch fish with birds.
They also gather oysters, which they eat roasted, but use
no salt. They have no cooking utensils, but roast their
meat by throwing it into the fire and after a time raking
it out. Insects and caterpillars are parched over the
hot coals in shells. Fish is commonly eaten raw; they
221 « Twenty -four pounds of meat in twenty-four hours is not deemed an
extraordinary ration for a single person.' Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863,
pp. 364-7. 'No tienen horas senaladas para saciar su apetito: comen cuanto
hallan por delante; hasta las cosas mas sucias sirven a su gula.' Calif ornias,
Noticias, carta i., pp. 46-7, 21; see also: Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 13; Scdvatierra, in Id., serie iv., torn v., p. 116;
Crespi, in Id., serie iv., torn, vii., pp. 106, 135, 143; Delaporte, Reisen, torn.
x., pp. 423-4; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn. jx., p. 153;
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 106; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Navigationi,
toni. iii., fol. 350; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 451; Alcedo,
Diccionario, torn, i., p. 318.
VOL. I. 36
562 NEW MEXICANS.
drink only water.222 It is said that they never wash,
and it is useless to add that in their filthiness they sur
pass the brutes.223
Besides bows and arrows they use javelins, clubs, and
slings of cords, from which they throw stones. Their
bows are six feet long, very broad and thick in the mid
dle and tapering toward the ends, with strings made
from the intestines of animals. The arrows are reeds
about thirty inches in length, into the lower end of which
a piece of hard wood is cemented with resin obtained
from trees, and pointed with flint sharpened to a trian
gular shape and serrated at the edges. Javelins are
sharpened by first hardening in the fire and then grind
ing to a point; they are sometimes indented like a saw.
Clubs are of different forms, either mallet-head or axe
shape; they also crook and sharpen at the edge a piece
of wood in the form of a scimeter.22*
Their wars, which spring from disputed boundaries,
are frequent and deadly, and generally occur about fruit
and seed time. The battle is commenced amidst yells
and brandishing of weapons, though without any pre
concerted plan, and a tumultuous onslaught is made with
out regularity or discipline, excepting that a certain num
ber are held in reserve to relieve those who have expend
ed their arrows or become exhausted. While yet at a
distance they discharge their arrows, but soon rush for
ward and fight at close quarters with their clubs and spears ;
nor do they cease till many on both sides have fallen.225
222 ' La pesca si fa da loro in due maniere, o con reti nella spiaggia, o
ne' gorghi rimasi della marea, o con forconi in alto mare.' C'lavigero, Storia
della Cal., torn, i., pp. Ill, 125-6; ' Use neither nets nor hooks, but a kind
of lance.' Baegert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1863, p. 364. ' Forman los Indios
p.
224 Gemelli Careri, in ChurchiWs Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 469; Ramusio,
Navigation^ torn, iii., fol. 346, 351; Baegert, in Smithsonian liept., 1863, p.
362; Kino, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn i., p. 407; Crespi, in Id., serie
iv., torn, vii., p. 143. ' Si trovarono altre spezie d'armi per ferir da vicino,
ma tutte di legno. La prima e un mazzapicchio, simile nella forma a una
girella col suo manico tutta d'un pezzo. La seconda e a foggia d'un ascia
di leguajuolo tutta anch'essa d'un sol pezzo. La terza ha la forma d'una
piccola scimitara.' Claviyero, Storia della Cal., torn, i., pp. 124, 127.
225 ' El modo de publicar la guerra era, hacer con mucho estruendo gran
provision de canas, y pedernales para sus flechas, y procurar, que por varios
IMPLEMENTS IN LOWER CALIFORNIA. 563
Their implements and household utensils are both
rude and few. Sharp flints serve them instead of knives ;
a bone ground to a point answers the purpose of a needle
or an awl ; and with a sharp-pointed stick roots are dug.
Fire is obtained in the usual way from two pieces of
wood. When traveling, water is carried in a large blad
der. The shell of the turtle is applied to various uses,
such as a receptacle for food and a cradle for infants.
The Lower Californians have little ingenuity, and
their display of mechanical skill is confined to the man
ufacture of the aforesaid implements, weapons of war,
and of the chase ; they make some flat baskets of wicker
work, which are used in the collection of seeds and
fruits ; also nets from the fibre of the aloe, one in which
to carry provisions, and another fastened to a forked
stick and hung upon the back, in which to carry chil
dren.226
For boats the inhabitants of the peninsula construct
rafts of reeds made into bundles and bound tightly
together; they are propelled with short ^paddles, and sel
dom are capable of carrying more than one person. In
those parts where trees grow a more serviceable canoe
is made from bark, and sometimes of three or more
logs, not hollowed out, but laid together side by side
and made fast with withes or pita-fibre cords. These
floats are buoyant, the water washing over them as over
a catamaran. On them two or more men will proceed
fearlessly to sea, to a distance of several miles from
the coast. To transport their chattels across rivers,
carainos llegassen las assonadas a ofdos de sus contraries.' Venegas, Noticia
de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 97-8. Referring to Venegas' work, Baegert, Smithso
nian RepL, 1864, p. 385, says: 'All that is said in reference to the warfare of
the Californians is wrong. In their former wars they merely attacked the
enemy unexpectedly during the night, or from an ambush, and killed as
many as they could, without order, previous declaration of war, or any cere
monies whatever.' See also: Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 424-5, and Clavigero,
Storia ddla CaL, torn, i., p. 127.
226 ' In lieu of knives and scissors they use sharp flints for cutting almost
everything — cane, wood, aloe, and even their hair.' Baegert, in Smithsonian
RepL, 1863, p. 363. ' Le loro reti, tanto quelle da pescarej quanto quelle, che
servono a portare checchessia, le fanno col filo, che tirano dalle foglie del
Mezcal.' Clavigero, Storia delta Cat., torn, i., p. 124. Further notice in Ulloa,
in Ramusio, Navigations, torn, iii., fol. 350; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL,
torn, i., p. 90; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 447.
564 NEW MEXICANS.
they use wicker-work baskets, which are so closely
woven as to be quite impermeable to water ; these, when
loaded, are pushed across by the owner, who swims
behind.227
Besides their household utensils and boats, and the
feathers or ornaments on their persons, I find no other
property. They who dwell on the sea-coast occasionally
travel inland, carrying with them sea-shells and feathers
to barter with their neighbors for the productions of
the interior.228
They are unable to count more than five, and this
number is expressed by one hand; some few among
them are able to understand that two hands signify ten,
but beyond this they know nothing of enumeration, and
can only say much or many, or show that the number
is beyond computation, by throwing sand into the air
and such like antics. The yefir is divided into six sea
sons; the first is called Mejibo, which is midsummer,
and the time of ripe pitahayas; the second season
Amaddappi, a time of further ripening of fruits and
seeds; the third Amadaappigalla, the end of autumn
and beginning of winter; the fourth, which is the cold
est season, is called Majibel ; the fifth, when spring com
mences, is Majiben ; the sixth, before any fruits or seeds
have ripened, consequently the time of greatest scarcity,
is called Majiibenmaaji.229
Neither government nor law is found in this region ;
every man is his own master, and administers justice
in the form of vengeance as best he is able. As Father
227 Vancouver, Voy., vol. ii., p. 482, speaking of Lower California says:
' We were visited by one of the natives in a straw canoe. ' ' Vedemmo che vsci
vna canoua in mare con tre Indiani dalle lor capanne.' Ulloa, in Ramusio,
Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 350-1, 343, 347, and in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii.,
p. 418. See further: Clavigero, Storia della CaL, torn, i., p. 126; Gemelli
Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 469, and in JJerenger, Col. de
Voy., torn, ii., p. 371.
228 « Tienen trato de pescado con los indios de.tierra adentro.' Salmeron,
Relaciones, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 17; also, Ulloa, in Ramu
sio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 347-8.
229 « Su niodo de contar es muy diminuto y corto, pues apenas llegan a
cinco, y otros a diez, y van multiplicando segun puedeu.' Calif ornias, No-
ticias, carta i., p. 103. 'Non dividevano 1'Anno in Mesi, ma solainente in
sei stagioni.' Clavigero, Storia della CaL, torn, i., pp. 110-11.
MARRIAGE. 565
Baegert remarks: 'The different tribes represented by
no means communities of rational beings, who submit
to laws and regulations and obey their superiors, but
resembled far more herds of wild swine, which run
about according to their own liking, being together to
day and scattered to-morrow, till they meet again by
accident at some future time. In one word, the Califor-
nians lived, salva venia, as though they had been free
thinkers and materialists.' In hunting and war they
have one or more chiefs to lead them, who are selected
only for the occasion, and by reason of superior strength
230
Furthermore, they have no marriage ceremony, nor
any word in their language to express marriage. Like
birds or beasts they pair off according to fancy. The
Pericui takes as many women as he pleases, makes
them wrork for him as slaves, and when tired of any
one of them turns her away, in which case she may not
be taken by another. Some form of courtship appears
to have obtained among ths Guaicuris; for example,
when a young man saw a girl who pleased him, he
presented her with a small bowl or basket made of the
pita-fibre ; if she accepted the gift, it was an evidence
that his suit was agreeable to her, and in return she gave
him an ornamented head-dress, the work of her own
hand ; then they lived together without further cere
mony. Although among the Guaicuris and Cochimis
some hold a plurality of wives, it is not so common as
with the Pericuis, for in the two first-mentioned tribes
there are more men than women. A breach of female
chastity is sometimes followed by an attempt of the
holder of the woman to kill the offender ; yet morality
never attained any great height, as it is a practice
with them for different tribes to meet occasionally for
230 Clavigero, Storia della Cal, torn, i., pp. 129-30. Venegas, Noticia de
la Cal., torn, i., p. 79. ' Entre ellos siempre hay alguno mas desahogado y
atrevido, que se reviste con el caraeter de Capitan: pero ni este tiene juris-
diccion alguna, ni le obedecen, y en estando algo viejo lo suelen quitar del
mando: solo en los lances que les tiene cuenta siguen sus dictamenes.'
Californias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 40, 45.
566 NEW MEXICANS.
the purpose of holding indiscriminate sexual intercourse.
Childbirth is easy • the Pericuis and Guaicuris wash the
body of the newly born, then cover it with ashes; as
the child grows it is placed on a frame-work of sticks,
and if a male, on its chest they fix a bag of sand to
prevent its breasts growing like a woman's, which they
consider a deformity. For a cradle the Cochimfs take
a forked stick or bend one end of a long pole in the
form of a hoop, and fix thereto a net, in which the in
fant is placed and covered with a second net. It can
thus be carried over the shoulder, or when the mother
wishes to be relieved, the end of the pole is stuck in the
ground, and nourishment given the child through the
meshes of the net. When old enough the child is car
ried astride on its mother's shoulders. As soon as chil
dren are able to get food for themselves, they are left to
their own devices, and it sometimes happens that when
food is scarce the child is abandoned, or killed by its
parents.231.
Nevertheless, these miserables delight in feasts, and in
the gross debauchery there openly perpetrated. Unac
quainted with intoxicating, liquors, they yet find drunk
enness in the fumes of a certain herb smoked through a
stone tube, and used chiefly during their festivals. Their
dances consist of a series of gesticulations and jumpings,
accompanied by inarticulate murmurings and yells. One
of their great holidays is the pitahaya season, when,
with plenty to eat, they spend days and nights in amuse-
231 Claviyero, Stor'ia della CaL, torn, i., pp. 130-4; Ulloa, in Ramusio,
Navigation^ torn, iii., fol. 348; Villa Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p.
284; Bae^ert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1863, pp. 367-9. ' Sus casamientos son
muy rid.'culos: unos para casarse ensenan sus cuerpos a las mugeres, y estas
a ellos; y adoptaiidose a su gusto, se casan: otros en fin, que es lo mas
comun, se casau sin ceremonia.' Californias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 50,40-1.
' El adulterio era mirado coino delito, que por lo meiios daba justo motivo
a la venganza, a excepcion de dos ocasiones: una la de sus fiestas, y bayles:
y otra la de las luchas.' Veneyas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., p. 93. ' Les
homines s'approchaient des femmes comme des animaux, et les femmes se
mettaient publiquement a quatre pattes pour les recevoir.' Castaneda, in
Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 153. This method of copula
tion is by no means peculiar to the Lower Californians, but is practiced
almost universally by the wild tribes of the Pacific States. Writers naturally
do not mention this custom, but travellers are unanimous in their verbal
accounts respecting it.
LOWER CALIFOKNIAN FEAST. 567
ments; at such times feats of strength and trials of
speed take place. The most noted festival among the
Cochimis occurs upon the occasion of their annual dis
tribution of skins. To the women especially it was an
important and enjoyable event. Upon an appointed
day all the people collected at a designated place. In
an arbor constructed with branches, the road to which
was carpeted with the skins of wild animals that had
been killed during the year, their most skillful hunters
assembled; they alone were privileged to enter the
arbor, and in their honor was already prepared a ban
quet and pipes of wild tobacco. The viands went round
as also the pipe, and, in good time, the partakers became
partially intoxicated by the smoke; then one of the
priests or sorcerers, arrayed in his robe of ceremony, ap
peared at the entrance to the arbor, and made a speech
to the people, in which he recounted the deeds of the
hunters. Then the occupants of the arbor came out
and made a repartition of the skins among the women ;
this finished, dancing and singing commenced and con
tinued throughout the night. It sometimes happened
that their festivals ended in fighting and bloodshed, as
they were seldom conducted without debauchery, espe
cially among the Guaicuris and Pericuis.232
When they have eaten their fill they pass their time
in silly or obscene conversation, or in wrestling, in
which sports the women often take a part. They are
very adroit in tracking wild beasts to their lairs and
taming them. At certain festivals their sorcerers, who
were called by some quamas, by others cusiyaes, wore
long robes of skins, ornamented with human hair; these
sages filled the offices of priests and medicine-men, and
threatened their credulous brothers with innumerable
ills ana death, unless they supplied them with provis-
232 « Fiesta entre los Indies Gentiles no es mas que tma concurrencia de
hombres y mugeres de todas partes para desahogar los apetitos de luxuria y
gula.' Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 66-75. 'Unadelas fiestas mas
celebres de los Cochimies era la del dia, en que repartian las pieles a las mu
geres una vez al ano.' Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. "85-6, 96; Bae-
gert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 389; Salvatierra, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
iv., torn, v., pp. 103, 116.
568 NEW MEXICANS.
ions. These favored of heaven professed to hold com
munication with oracles, and would enter caverns and
wooded ravines, sending thence doleful sounds, to
frighten the people, who were by such tricks easily im
posed upon and led to believe in their deceits and jug
gleries.233
As to ailments, Lower Californians are subject to
consumption, burning fevers, indigestion, and cutaneous
diseases. Small pox, measles, and syphilis, the last
imported by troops, have destroyed numberless lives.
Wounds inflicted by the bites of venomous reptiles may
be added to the list of troubles. Loss of appetite is
with them, generally, a symptom of approaching death.
They submit resignedly to the treatment prescribed by
their medicine-men, however severe or cruel it may be.
They neglect their aged invalids, refusing them attend
ance if their last sickness proves too long, and recovery
appears improbable. In several instances they have put
an end to the patient by suffocation or otherwise.234
Diseases are treated externally by the application of
ointments, plasters, and fomentations of medicinal herbs,
particularly the wild tobacco. Smoke is also a great
panacea, and is administered through a stone tube placed
on the suffering part. The usual juggleries attend the
practice of medicine. In extreme cases they attempt to
draw with their fingers the disease from the patient's
mouth. If the sick person has a child or sister, they
cut its or her little finger of the right hand, and let the
blood drop on the diseased part. Bleeding with a sharp
stone and whipping the affected part with nettles, or
applying ants to it, are among the remedies used. For
the cure of tumors, the medicine-men burst and suck
them with their lips until blood is drawn. Internal
233 Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 59-65; Clavigero, Storia detta Cal.
torn. i. pp. 126, 146. 'There existed always among the Californians indivi
duals of both sexes who played the part of sorcerers or conjurers, pretending
to possess the power of exorcising the devil.' Baegert, in Smithsonian Rept.,
1864, p. 389.
234 Baec/ert, in Smithsonian Kept., 1864, pp. 385-7. ' Las carreras, luchas,
peleas y otras trabajos voluntaries les ocasionan muchos dolores de pecho y
otros accidentes.' Calif ornias, Noticias, carta i., pp. 85-99.
DEATH AND BUKIAL IN LOWER CALIFORNIA. 569
diseases are treated with cold-water baths. The means
employed by the medicine-man are repeated by the
members of the patient's family and by his friends. In
danger even the imitation of death startles them. If
an invalid is pronounced beyond recovery, and he hap
pens to slumber, they immediately arouse him with blows
on the head and body, for the purpose of preserving
life.235
Death is followed by a plaintive, mournful chant,
attended with howling by friends and relatives, who
beat their heads with sharp stones until blood flows
freely. Without further ceremony they either inter or
burn the body immediately, according to the custom of
the locality: in the latter case they leave the head
intact. Oftentimes they bury or burn the body before
life has actually left it, never taking pains to ascertain
the fact.236
Weapons and other personal effects are buried or
burned with the owner; and in some localities, where
burying is customary, shoes are put to the feet, so that
the spiritualized body may be prepared for its journey.
In Colecha and Guajamina mourning ceremonies are
practiced certain days after death — juggleries — in which
the priest pretends to hold converse with the departed
spirit through the scalp of the deceased, commending
the qualities of the departed, and concluding by asking
on the spirit's behalf that all shall cut off their hair as
a sign of sorrow. After a short dance, more howling,
hair-pulling, and other ridiculous acts, the priest de
mands provisions for the spirit's journey, which his
™ Clavigero, Storia ddla Cat., torn, i., pp. 112-13, 142-5; Apostolicos
Afanes, pp. 426-7; Salvatitrra, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, v., p. 23;
Delaporte, Rdsen, torn, x., pp. 433-4. ' Rogaba el enfernio, que le chupassen,
y soplassen de el modo mismo, que lohacian los Curanderos. Executaban
todos por su orden este oficio de piedad, chupando, y soplando priniero la
parte lesa, y despues todos los otros organos de los seiitidos.' Venegas, Noticia
de la Cat., torn, i., pp. 117-18.
230 Baegert says: ' It seems tedious to them to spend much time near an
old, dying person that was long ago a burden to them and looked upon with
indifference. A person of my acquaintance restored a girl to life that was
already bound up in a deer-skin, according to their custom, and ready for
burial.' Uaeyert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 387.
570 NEW MEXICANS.
hearers readily contribute, and which the priest appro
priates to his own use, telling them it has already started.
Occasionally they honor the memory of their dead by
placing a rough image of the departed on a high pole,
and a guama or priest sings his praises.237
The early missionaries found the people of the penin
sula kind-hearted and tractable, although dull of
comprehension and brutal in their instincts, rude, nar
row-minded, and inconstant. A marked difference of
character is observable between the Cochimis and the
Pericuis. The former are more courteous in their man
ners and better behaved; although cunning and thievish,
they exhibit attachment and gratitude to their superiors ;
naturally indolent and addicted to childish pursuits and
amusements, they lived among themselves in amity,
directing their savage and revengeful nature against
neighboring tribes with whom they were at variance.
The Pericuis, before they became extinct, were a fierce
and barbarous nation, unruly and brutal in their pas
sions, cowardly, treacherous, false, petulant, and boast
ful, with an intensely cruel and heartless disposition,
often shown in relentless persecutions and murders.
In their character and disposition the Guaicuris did not
differ essentially from the Pericuis. In the midst of
so much darkness there was still one bright spot visible,
inasmuch as they were of a cheerful and happy nature,
lovers of kind and lovers of country. Isolated, occupy
ing an ill-favored country, it was circumstances, rather
than any inherent incapacity for improvement, that held
these poor people in their low state ; for, as we shall see
at some future time, in their intercourse with civilized
foreigners, they were not lacking in cunning, diplomacy,
selfishness, and other aids to intellectual progress/
238
237 ' Solevano essi onorar la memoria d'alcuni defmiti ponendo sopra un'
alta pertica la loro figura gossamente formata di rami, presstf alia quale si
metteva un Guama a predicar le loro lodi.' Clavigero, Storia della Col., torn,
i., p. 144; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v.,No.-9G, p. 184.
238 'La estupidez e insensibilidad: la falta de conocimiento, y reflexion:
la inconstancia, y vohabilidad de una voluntad, y apetitos sin freno, sin luz,
y ami sin objeto: lapereza, y horror a todo trabajo, y fatiga a la adhesion per-
petua a todo linage de placer, y entretenimiento pueril, y brutal : la pusilani-
NOKTHEKN MEXICANS. 571
The NORTHERN MEXICANS, the fourth and last divi
sion of this group, spread over the territory lying between
parallels 31° and 23° of north latitude. Their lands have
an average breadth of about five hundred miles, with an
area of some 250,000 square miles, comprising the states
of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo Leon,
and the northern portions of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi
and Tamaulipas.
Nearly parallel with the Pacific seaboard, and divid
ing the states of Sonora and Sinaloa from Chihuahua
and Durango, runs the great central Cordillera; further
to the eastward, passing through Coahuila, Nuevo Leon,
and San Luis Potosi, and following the shore line of the
Mexican Gulf, the Sierra Madre continues in a souther
ly direction, until it unites with the first-named range
at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. All of these mountains
abound in mineral wealth. The table-land between
them is intersected by three ridges ; one, the Sierra Mim-
bres, issuing from the inner flank of the Western Cordil
lera north of Arispe, extending in a northerly direc
tion and following the line of the Rio Grande. The
middle mountainous divide crosses from Durango to Coa
huila, while the third rises in the state of Jalisco and
taking an easterly and afterward northerly direction,
traverses the table-land and merges into the Sierra
Madre in the state of San Luis Potosi. On these broad
table-lands are numerous lakes fed by the streams which
have their rise in the mountains adjacent; in but few
midad, y flaqueza de animo; y finalmente, la falta miserable de todo lo que
forma a los hombres esto es, racionales, politicos, y utiles para s\, y
paralasociedad.' Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, i., pp. 74-9, 87-8. 'Las
naciones del Norte eran mas despiertas, dociles y fieles, menos viciosas y
libres, y por tanto mejor dispuestas para recibir el cristianismo que las que
liabitaban al Sur.' Sutil y Mexicana, Victge, p. Ixxxix. ' Eran los coras y peri-
cues, y generalmente las rancherias del Sur de California, mas ladinos y
capaces; pero tambien mas viciosos e inquietos que las demas naciones de
la peninsula.' Akgre, Hint. Cowp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 252. ' Ces peuples
sont d'une tres-grande,.docilite, ils se laissent instruire.' Calif ornie, Nonvelle
Descente, in Voy. de VEntpereur de la Chine, p. 104. Other allusior.s to their
character may be found in Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex.. vol. i., p. 330;
Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 292;* Baegert, in Smithsonian
Kept., 1864, pp. 378-85; Cre.s/n, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, vii., pp.
135, 143-G; Ribas, Hist, de los Triuwphos, p. 442; Clavir;ero, Storia della
Cal., torn, i., pp. 113-14; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge'og., torn vi., p. 451.
572 NEW MEXICANS.
spots is the land available for tillage, but it is admirably
adapted to pastoral purposes. The climate can. hardly
be surpassed in its tonic and exhilarating properties;
the atmosphere is ever clear, with sunshine by day, and
a galaxy of brilliant stars by night ; the absence of rain,
fogs, and dews, with a delicious and even temperature,
renders habitations almost unnecessary. All this vast
region is occupied by numerous tribes speaking different
languages and claiming distinct origins. Upon the
northern seaboard of Sonora and Tiburon Island are
the CeriSj Tiburones, and Tepocas; south of them the
CahitaS) or Sinafaas, which are general names for the
Yaquis and Mayos, tribes so called from the rivers on
whose banks they live. In the state of Sinaloa there
are also the Cockitas, Tuvares, Sabaibos, Zuaques, and
AJwmeSj besides many other small tribes. Scattered
through the states of the interior are the Opatas, JZude-
veSj JbvaSj Tarahumares, Tubares, and T&pehuanes, who
inhabit the mountainous districts of Chihuahua and
Durango. East of the Tarahumares, in the northern
part of the first-named state, dwell the Conchos.
In Durango, living in the hills round Topia, are the
Acaxees; south of whom dwell the Xiximes. On the
table-lands of Mapimi and on the shores of its numer
ous lakes, the Irritilas and many other tribes are settled ;
while south of these again, in Zacatecas and San Luis
Potosi, are the G-uachichiles, Huamares, and Cazcanes, and
further to the east, and bordering on the gulf shores we
find the country occupied by scattered tribes, distin
guished by a great variety of names, prominent among
which are the Carrizas or G-arzas, Xanambres, and Pintos.™
Most of these nations are composed of men of large
239 Father Kibas, the first priest who visited the Yaquis, was surprised at
the loud rough tone in which they spoke. When he remonstrated with them
for doing so, their reply was, ' No ves que soy Hiaqui : y dezianlo, porque
essa palabra, y no.nbre, significa, el que habla a gritos.' Rlbas, Hist, de los
Triumphox, p. 285. Mayos: 'Their name comes from their position, and
means in their own language boundary, they having been bounded on both
sides by hostile tribes.' Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 165. ' Segun parece,
la palabra talahumali 6 tarahumari significa, " corrector de a pie; " de tola 6 tara,
piy, yhuma, correr. Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p, 364. , 'La palabra tepehuan
creen algunos que es Mexicana, y corrupcion de tepehuani, conquistador; d
PHYSICAL PECULIARITIES IN NOETH MEXICO. 573
stature; robust, and well formed, with an erect carriage ;
the finest specimens are to be found on the sea-coast,
exceptions being the Opatas and Chicoratas, the former
inclining to corpulency, the latter being short, although
active and swift runners. The women are well limbed
and have good figures, but soon become corpulent. The
features of these people are quite regular, the head round
and well shaped, with black and straight hair; they have
high cheek-bones and handsome mouths, with a gen
erally mild and pleasing expression of countenance.
They have piercing black eyes, and can distinguish ob
jects at great distances. The Ceris see best toward the
close of the day, owing to the strong reflection from the
white sands of the coast during the earlier part of the
day. The Carrizas are remarkable for their long upper
lip. The men of this region have little beard ; their com
plexion varies from a light brown to a copper shade.
Many of them attain to a great age.240
For raiment the Cahitas and Ceris wear only a small
rag in front of their persons, secured to a cord tied
bien un compuesto de tepetl, monte, y hua, desinencia que en Mexicano
indica posesion, como si dijeramos senor 6 dueiio del nioute. Otros, acaso
con mas exactitud, diceii que tepehuan es voz tarahumar, derivada de pehua 6
pegua, que significa duro, lo cual convieue con el caracter delanacion.' Id.,
torn, ii., p. 45. 'La palabra acaxee parece ser la misma que la de acaxete,
nombre de un pueblo perteneciente al estado de Puebla, ambos corrupcion de
la palabra Mexicaiia acaxitl, compuesta de ail (agua,) y de caxitl (cazuela 6
escudilla), hoy tambien corrompida, cajete: el todo significa alberca, nombre
perfectamente adecuado a la cosa, pues que Alcedo, \_Dicnon. geogrdf. de
America'] dice que en Acaxete, "hay una caja 6 area de agua de piedra de' can
ter fa, en que se recogeu las que bajan de la Sierra y se conducen a Tepeaca:
el nombre, pues, nos dice que si no la obra arquitectonica, a lo rnenos la
idea y la ejecucion, vieuen desde losantiguos Mexicanos." ' Diccionario Uni
versal de Hist. Geog., torn, i., p. 31.
240 ' Las mugeres son notables por los pechos y pies pequenos.' Velasco,
Noticias de Sonora, p. 169. ' Tienen la vista muy aguda. . . .El oido es tam
bien vivissimo.' Arlegui, Cron. de Zrtcatecas, pp. 174-5. See also, Ribas, Hist,
de los Triumphos, pp. 7, 145, 285, 677; Zumga, in Escudero, Noticias de So
nora y Sinaloa, p. 142; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 416; Soc.
Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, pp. 184, 189; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com-
pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp.44, 49; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS.,
p. 242; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, pp. 79-80; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS.,
"0; Berlandier y TI
j. Nar., vol. i., pj
p. 80; Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 69; Hardy's Trav., pp. 289, 299; J?artfe«'s
Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 444, 446; Miihlenpford't, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 214-15,
torn, ii., pt ii., p. 419; Ulloa, in Ramusio, ' Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 345; Guz-
man, Eel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., fol. 296; Sevin, in
Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 284-5;
Ward's Mexico, vol. i., pp. 571, 583; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol.ii., p.
562; Coronado, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 362.
574 NEW MEXICANS.
round the waist; the Tarahumares. Acaxees, and other
nations of the interior use for the same purpose a square
piece of tanned deer-skin painted, except in cold weather,
when they wrap a large blue cotton mantle round the
shoulders. The women have petticoats reaching to their
ankles, made of soft chamois or of cotton or agave-fibre,
and a tilma or mantle during the winter. Some wear a
long sleeveless chemise, which reaches from the shoulders
to the feet. The Ceri women have petticoats made from
the skins of the albatross or pelican, the feathers inside.
The Opata men, soon after the conquest, were found
well clad in blouse and drawers of cotton, with wooden
shoes, while their neighbors wore sandals of raw hide,
cut to the shape of the foot.241
The Cahitas, Acaxees and most other tribes, pierce
the ears and nose, from which they hang small green
stones, attached to a piece of blue cord ; on the head,
neck, and wrists, a great variety of ornaments are worn,
made from mother-of-pearl and white snails' shells, also
fruit-stones, pearls, and copper and silver hoops; round
the ankles some wear circlets of deer's hoofs, others
decorate their heads and necks with necklaces of red
beans and strings of paroquets and small birds; pearls
and feathers are much used to ornament the hair. The
practice of painting the face and body is common to all,
the colors most in use being red and black. A favorite
style with the Ceris is to paint the face in alternate per
pendicular stripes of blue, red, and white. The Pintos
paint the face, breast, and arms ; the Tarahumares tattoo
the forehead, lips, and cheeks in various patterns; the
Yaquis the chin and arms; while other tribes tattoo the
face or body in styles peculiar to themselves. Both
sexes are proud of their hair, which they wear long and
241 * No alcanzan ropa de algocloii, si no es algunas pampanillas y alguna
manta muy gruesa; porque el vestido de ellos es de cuerb de venados adoba-
dos, y el vestido que dellos hacen es coser un cuero con otro y ponerselos por
debajo del brazo atados al hombro, y las mujeres traen sus naguas hechas
con sus jiroiies que les llegan hasta los tobillos como faja.' Guzman, Rel.
Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., pp. 296, 290, 481. The Ceri
women wear ' pieles de alcatras por lo general, 6 una tosca frazada de lana
envuelta en la cintura.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, pp, 131, 74, 153.
NORTHERN MEXICAN DWELLINGS. 575
take much care of; the women permit it to flow in loose
tresses, while the men gather it into one or more tufts on
the crown of the head, and when hunting protect it by
a chamois cap, to prevent its being disarranged by trees
or bushes.242
Their houses are of light construction, usually built
of sticks and reeds, and are covered with coarse reed
matting. ' The Chinipas, Yaquis, Opatas and Conchos
build somewhat more substantial dwellings of timber and
adobes, or of plaited twigs well plastered with mud ; all
are only one story high and have flat roofs. Although
none of these people are without their houses or huts,
they spend most of their time, especially during sum
mer, under the trees. The Tarahumares find shelter in
the deep caverns of rocky mountains, the Tepehuanes
and Acaxees place their habitations on the top of almost
inaccessible crags, while the Humes and Batucas build
their villages in squares, with few and very small en
trances, the better to defend themselves against their
enemies — detached buildings for kitchen and store-room
purposes being placed contiguous.243
212 The Temoris had ' las orejas cercadas de Jos zarcillos que ellos vsaii,
adornados de conchas de linear labradas, y eiisartadas en hilos azules, y cer-
can toda la oreja.' Ri'xis, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 226, %286, 472. Near
Culiacaii, Nuiio de Guzman met about 50,000 warriors who 'traian al cuello
sartas de codornices, pericos pequeiios y otros diferentes pajaritos.' Tello, in
Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., p. 354. The Humes, 'corouadas suscabezas
de diademas de varias plumas de papagayos, guacamayas con algunos pena-
chos de hoja de plata batida.' Akumada, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn,
iii., p. 96. 'Los Indies de este nuevo Reyno son de diversas naciones que
se distinguen por la diversidad de rayas en el rostro.' Padilla, Conq. N. Gali-
cia, MS., pp.472, 531. ' No hemos visto a ningun carrizo pintado con vermel-
lon, tal couio lo hacen otio;.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p, 69. For further
description see Hardy's Trav., pp. 289-90, 298; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i.,
p. 445; Combier, Voy., pp. 199-2 JO; Coronado, inllafcluyt's Voy., vol. iii., pp.
362-4; Espejo, injd., pp. 384, 390-1; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, in Ternaux-
Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, vii., p. 250; Castaneda, in Id., torn, ix., p. 157;
Jaramitto. in Id., p. 3G6; Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 571; Soc. Geog., Bulletin,
serie y., No. 96, pp. 184-5, 190; Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc,' Hist. Mex.,
serie iii., torn, iv., p. 552," Arnaya, in Id., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 63; Descrip,
Top., in Id., serie iv. torn, iv., pp. 113-14; Lachapelle, liaousset-Boulbon,
pp. 79-80: Ociedo, Hist. Gen., torn, ii., pp. 574-6, 609; Sevin, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., pp. 12, 25-6; Alvjre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp.
401, 406, and ii., pp. 124, 184; Montanus, Nieuwe Wvereld, pp. 208, 226, 228;
and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 235, 254-5; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, pp. 167-8;
Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 93; Beaumont, Cron'. de Mechoacan,
MS., pp. 241-2; Hazart, Kirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 539.
243 ' Todos los pueblos de los indios cobiertas las casas de esteras, a, laa
576 NEW MEXICANS.
The Northern Mexicans live on wild fruits such as
pitahaya, or native fig, honey, grain, roots, fish, and
larvce; they capture game both large and small, and
some of them eat rats, mice, frogs, snakes, worms, and
vermin. The Ahomamas along the shores of Lake
Parras, the Yaquis, Batucas, Ceris, Tarahumares, and
the Qpatas since the conquest have become agricul
turists and cattle-breeders, besides availing themselves
of fishing and hunting as means of subsistence. On the
coast of Sonora, there being no maize, the natives live
on pulverized rush and straw, with fish caught at sea or
in artificial enclosures. The dwellers on the coast of
Sinaloa consume a large quantity of salt, which they
gather on the land during the dry season, and in the
rainy reason from the bottom of marshes and pools. It
is said that the Salineros sometimes eat their own excre
ment. According to the reports of the older historians,
the Tobosos, Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and
Acaxees, as well as other tribes of Durango and Sina
loa, formerly fed on human flesh, — hunted human beings
for food as they hunted deer or other game. The flesh
of their brave foes they ate, thinking thereby to aug
ment their own bravery.24*
The Ceris of Tiburon Island depend for food entirely
on fish and game. They catch turtle by approaching
the animal and suddenly driving the point of their spear
into its back, a cord being attached to the weapon by
which they drag the prize on to the raft as soon as its
cuales Hainan en lengua de Mexico petates, y por esta causa le llamamos
Petatlan.' Guzman, Eel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, ii., p. 296.
Compare Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 49, 156;
Combier, Voy., pp. 157, 160, 164, 200; Coronado, in HakluyVs Voy., vol.
iii., p. 3G3;' Niza, in Id., p. 366; Espejo, in Id., p. 384; Montanus, Nieuwe
Wtereld, pp. 206, 216, 227-8; and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 232, 255; Eibas,
Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 3, 6, 7, 155, 222, 594; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation,
pp. 167, 175; Id., in Eamusio, Navigationi, torn, iii., fol. 327; Oviedo, Hist.
Gen., torn, iii., pp. 574, 576, 609; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 396;
Azpilcueta, in Id., torn, ii., p. 186; Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 68.
244 ' Comian inmundas carnes sin reservar la humana.' Padilla, Cong.
N. Galicia, MS., pp. 530, 80, 84, 533. ' Us mangent tons de la chair
humaine, et vont a la chasse des homines.' Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans,
Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 152, 158-9. See also, Arlegui, Chron. deZacatecas,
pp. 150, 180-2; Eibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 3, 6, 7, 11, 14, 175, 217,
385, 671.
METHODS OF HUNTING. 577
strength has become exhausted. According to Gomara,
the natives of Sonora in 1537 were caught poisoning
the deer-pools, probably for the skins, or it may have
been only a stupefying drink that the pools were made
to supply. The Sinaloans are great hunters; at times
they pursue the game singly, then again the whole town
turns out and, surrounding the thickest part of the for
est, the people set fire to the underbrush and bring
down the game as it attempts to escape the flames. A
feast of reptiles is likewise thus secured. Iguanas are
caught with the hands, their legs broken, and thus they
are kept until required for food. For procuring wild
honey, a bee is followed until it reaches its tree, +he sweet-
containing part of which is cut off and carried away.
The Tarahumares hunt deer by driving them through
narrow passes, where men are stationed to shoot them.
Others make use of a deer's head as a decoy. For fish
ing they have various contrivances; some fish between
the rocks with a pointed stick; others, when fishing in
a pool, throw into the water a species of cabbage or
leaves of certain trees, that stupefy the fish, when they
are easily taken with the hands; they also use wicker
baskets, and near the Pacific Ocean they inclose the
rivers, and catch enormous quantities of smelt and other
fish, which have come up from the sea to spawn. The
Laguneros of Coahuila catch ducks by placing a calabash
on their heads, with holes through which to breathe and
see; thus equipped, they swim softly among the ducks,
and draw them under water without flutter or noise.
Tatema is the name of a dish cooked in the ground by
the Tarahumares. The Laguneros make tortillas of
flour obtained from an aquatic plant. The Zacatecs
make the same kind of bread from the pulp of the ma
guey, which is first boiled with lime, then washed and
boiled again in pure water, after which it is squeezed dry
and made into cakes. Most of the people use pozole, or
pinohtl, both being a kind of gruel made of .pinole, of
parched corn or seeds ground, the one of greater thick
ness than the other; also tamaks, boiled beans, and
VOL. I. 37
578 NEW MEXICANS.
pumpkins. The Ceris of Tiburon eat fish and meat un
cooked, or but slightly boiled. The Salineros frequently
devour uncooked hares and rabbits, having only removed
their furs.245
The weapons universally used by these nations were
bows and arrows and short clubs, in addition to which
the chiefs and most important warriors carried a short
lance and a buckler. The arrows were carried in a
quiver made of lion or other skins. The Tarahumares
and some others wore a leathern guard round the left
wrist, to protect it from the blow of the bow-string.
Flint knives were employed for cutting up their slain
enemies. The Ceris, Jovas, and other tribes smeared the
points of their arrows with a very deadly poison, but
how it was applied to the point, or whence obtained, it is
difficult to determine; some travelers say that this
poison was taken from rattlesnakes and other venomous
reptiles, which, by teasing, were incited to strike their
fangs into the liver of a cow or deer which was presented
to them, after which it was left to putrefy, and the arrows
being dipped into the poisonous mass, were placed in
'the sun to dry; but other writers, again, assert that the
poison was produced from a vegetable preparation. The
wound inflicted by the point, however slight, is said to
245 Po<^olatl, 'beuida de mayz cozido.' Pinolatl, ' beuida de mayz y chia
tostado.' Molina, Vocabulario. The Batucas ' cuanto siembran es de regadio
. . . .sus milpas parecen todas huertas.' Azpilcueta, in Alefjre. Hist. Cornp. de
Jesus, torn, ii., p. 186, see also p. 184; Acaxees, mode of fishing, etc., in Id.,
torn, i., pp. 401-5, also 283-4, 399, 402-3; Tarahumares, mode of fishing,
hunting, and cooking. Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 310, 317, 322-3, 337, 342.
Tho Yaquis' 'fields and gardens in the highest state of cultivation.' Ward's
Mexico, vol. ii., p. 606. For further account of their food and manner of
cojking, etc., see Revista Mexicana, torn, i., pp. 375-6; Gomara, Hist. Ind.,
fol. 54; Zepeda, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 158; Velasco, No-
ticits de Sonora, pp. 72, 169-70; Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 465, 469;
Sonora, Descrip. G'eo;/., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 549-50;
* Jaramillo, in Ternaiix- Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 366; Cabeza de
•Vaea, in Id., torn, vii., pp. 242-3, 249-50, 265; Espejo, in IlaJduyt's Voy.,
torn, iii., p. 384; Coronado, in Id., pp, 363, 374; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii.,
p. 609; Combier, Voy., pp. 160-2, 169, 198, 200, 312; Guzman, Eel. Anon.,
in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., tom..ii., p. 289; Tello, in Id., p. 353; De Lad,
Novus Orbis, pp. 286, 310; Arricivita, Cronica Serafica, p. 442; Soc. Geog.,
Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 185; Ulloa,in Ramuslo, Navigationi, torn, iii.,
fol. 3il-2; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851,. torn, cxxxi., pp.
256, 260; Zunli'i, in Id., 1842, torn, xciii., p. 239; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol.
..'*., p. 106; Malt^Bran, Sonora, pp. 14-5.
HOW ARROWS WERE MADE AND POISONED. 579
have caused certain death. The arrows were pointed
with flint, or some other stone, or with bone, fastened to
a piece of hard wood, which is tied by sinews to a reed
or cane, notched, and winged with three feathers ; when
not required for immediate use, the tying was loosed,
and the point reversed in the cane, to protect, it from
being broken. The Ceris and Chicoratos cut a notch a
few inches above the point, so that in striking it should
break off and remain in the wound. Their clubs were
made of a hard wood called guayacan, with a knob at
the end, and when not in use were carried slung to the
arm by a leather thong. Their lances were of Brazil
wood, bucklers of alligator-skin, and shields of bull's
hide, sufficiently large to protect the whole body, with a
hole in the top to look through. Another kind of shield
was made of small lathes closely interwoven with cords,
in such a manner that, when not required for use, it
could be shut up like a fan, and was carried under the
arm.240
Living in a state of constant war, arising out of family
quarrels or aggressions made into each other's territories,
they were not unskilled in military tactics. Previous
»
246 Of the Ceris it is said that ' la ponzona con que apestan las puntas de
sus flechas, es la mas activa que se ha conocido por aca. . . .110 se ha podido
averiguar cuales sean a punto fijo los mortiferos materiales de esta pestilen-
cial maniobra? Y aunque se dicen muchas cosas, como que lo hacen de
cabezas de viboras irritadas cortadas al tiempo que clavan sus dientes en un
pedazo de bof es y de came humana ya medio podrida pues no es mas
que adivinar lo que no sabemos. Sin duda su principal ingrediente sera
algmm ra'z.' Sonora, Dessrip. Geoy., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv.,
pp. 560-1, 552. ' El magot es un arbol pequeno muy losano y nrny hermoso
a la vista; pero a corta incision de la corteza brota una leche mortal que les
servia en su gentilidad para emponzonar sus flechas.' Alegre, Hist. Comp,
de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 215. See also Hardy's Trav., pp. 298-9, 391; Stone,
in Hist. M(tg., vol. v., p. 166; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 57; Cabeza de
Vaca, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, vii., pp. 250-1; Castaneda, in
Id., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 209, 222-3; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96,
pp. 185-6, 190; Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 153; Tello, in Icazbalcda, Col.
di Doc., torn, ii., p. '354; Guzman, Eel. Anon., in Id., p. 289, 296; Descrip.
Topog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iv., p. 114; Ribas, Hist, de los Tri-
umpkos, pp. 10, 110, 473, 677; De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 285, 287, 305, 310;
Sevin, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., pp. 12, 25; Berlandier y Thovel,
Diario, p. 68; Ramirez, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 284; Com-
bier, Voy., pp. 198, 346; Espejo, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iiit, pp. 384, 390;
Niza, in Id., p. 567; Ulloa, in Ramusio, JVauwya/iowi, torn, iii , fol. 342—3;
Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 208, 228; md Dapper, Ncue Welt, pp. 234,
255; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 520; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 55.
580 NEW MEXICANS.
to admission as a warrior, a young man had to pass
through certain ordeals; having first qualified himself
by some dangerous exploit, or having faithfully per
formed the duty of a scout in an enemy's country. The
preliminaries being settled, a day was appointed for
his initiation, when one of the braves, acting as his god
father, introduced him to the chief, who, for the occasion,
had first placed himself in the midst of a large circle of
warriors. The chief then addressed him, instructing
him in the several duties required of him, and drawing
from a pouch an eagle's talon, with it proceeded to score
his body on the shoulders, arms, breast, and thighs, till
the blood ran freely; the candidate was expected to suf
fer without showing the slightest signs of pain. The
chief then handed to him a bow and a quiver of arrows ;
each of the braves also presented him with two arrows.
In the campaigns that followed, the novitiate must take
the hardest duty, be ever at the post of danger, and
endure without a murmur or complaint the severest pri
vations, until a new candidate appeared to take his
place.247
When one tribe desires the assistance of another in
war, they send reeds filled with tobacco, which, if
accepted, is a token that the alliance is formed ; a call
for help is made by means of the smoke signal. When
war is decided upon, a leader is chosen, at whose house
all the elders, medicine-men, and principal warriors
assemble; a fire is then lighted, and tobacco handed
round and smoked in silence. The chief, or the most
aged and distinguished warrior then arises, and in a
loud tone and not unpoetic language, harangues his
hearers, recounting to them heroic deeds hitherto per
formed, victories formerly gained, and present wrongs to
be avenged ; after which tobacco is again passed round,
247 ' El jdven que desea valer por las armas, antes de ser admitido en toda
forma a esta profession, debe hacer meritos en algunas campanas .... despues
de probado algun tiempo en estas esperiencias y tenida la aprobaciou de los
ancianos, citan al pretendiente para algun dia en que deba dar la ultima
prueba de su valor.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., pp. 218-9, 396-8,
and torn, i., pp. 396-9. Examine Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mcx.,
serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 544-7; Lizasoin, in Id., pp. 684-5.
WAR CUSTOMS IN NOKTH MEXICO. 581
and new speakers in turn address the assembly. War
councils are continued for several nights, and a day is
named on which the foe is to be attacked. Sometimes
the day fixed for the battle is announced to the enemy,
and a spot on which the fight is to take place selected.
During the campaign fasting is strictly observed. The
Acaxe'es, before taking the war-path, select a maiden of
the tribe, who secludes herself during the whole period
of the campaign, speaking to no one, and eating nothing
but a little parched corn without salt. The Ceris and
Opatas approach their enemy under cover of darkness,
preserving a strict silence, and at break of day, by a
preconcerted signal, a sudden and simultaneous attack is
made. To fire an enemy's house, the Tepagues and
others put lighted corn-cobs on the points of their
arrows. In the event of a retreat they invariably carry
off the dead, as it is considered a point of honor not to
leave any of their number on the field. Seldom is sex
or age spared, and when prisoners are taken, they are
handed over to the women for torture, who treat them
most inhumanly, heaping upon them every insult de
visable, besides searing their flesh with burning brands,
and finally burning them at the stake, or sacrificing them
in some equally cruel manner. Many cook and eat
the flesh of their captives, reserving the bones as tro
phies. The slain are scalped, or a hand is cut off, and
a dance performed round the trophies on the field of
battle. On the return of an expedition, if successful,
entry into the village is made in the day-time. Due
notice of their approach having been forwarded to the
inhabitants, the warriors are received with congratula
tions and praises by the women, who, seizing the scalps,
vent their spleen in frantic gestures; tossing them
from one to another, these female fiends dance and sing
round the bloody trophies, while the men look on in
approving silence. Should the expedition, however,
prove unsuccessful, the village is entered in silence and
during the dead of night. All the booty taken is
divided amongst the aged men and women, as it is
582 NEW MEXICANS.
deemed unlucky by the warriors to use their enemy's
property.248
Their household utensils consist of pots of earthen
ware and gourds, the latter used both for cooking and
drinking purposes; later, out of the horns of oxen cups
are made. The Tarahumares use in place of saddles
two rolls of straw fastened by a girdle to the animal's
back, loose enough, however, to allow the rider to put
his feet under them. Emerging from their barbarism,
they employ, in their agricultural pursuits, plows with
shares of wood or stone, and wooden hoes. The Ceris
have a kind of double-pointed javelin, with which they
catch fish, which, once between the prongs, are prevented
from slipping out by the jagged sides.249
The Ahomoas, Eudebes, Jovas, Yaquis, and Opatas
weave fabrics out of cotton or agave-fibre, such as blan
kets or serapes, and cloth with colored threads in neat
designs and figures ; these nations also manufacture mat
ting from reeds and palm-leaves. Their loom consists of
four short sticks driven into the ground, to which a frame
is attached to hold the thread. The shuttle is an oblong
piece of wood, on which the cross-thread is wound.
After passing through the web, the shuttle is seized and
pressed close by a ruler three inches in breadth, which
is placed between the web and supplies the place of
a comb. When any patterns are to be worked, several
women assist to mark off with wooden pegs the amount
of thread required. The Yaquis and Ceris manufacture
common earthen ware, and the Tarahumares twist horse-
248 As to the Mayos, ' eran estos indios en sus costumbres y moclo de
guerrear como los de Sinaloa, hacian la centmela cada cuarto de hora, poni-
eudose en fila cincuenta iudios, uno delaute de otro, con sus arcos y flechas
y con nna rodilla en tierra.' Beaumont, Oron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 241.
See also Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 9, 18, 76, 473-4; Padilla, Conq.
N. Galicia, MS., p. 522; Guzman, Ed. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc.,
torn, ii., pp. 301-2; Hazart, Ifirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 539; Ferry, Scenes
de le vie Sauvage, p. 76; Artec/id, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 150; Coronado, in
HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., p. 363; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy.,
1851, torn, cxxxi , p. 256.
219 See Combier, Voy.. p. 157; Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 307, 335, 337;
ZHsmp. Topor/., iu DM. Hist. M^x., serieiv., torn, iv., p. 114; Hardy's Trav.,
p. 290.
PROPERTY OF CERIS, 6PATAS, AND YAQUIS. 583
hair into strong cords; they also use undressed hides cut
in strips, and coarse aloe-fibres.250
No boats or canoes are employed hy any of the na
tives of this region ; but the Ceris, the Tiburones, and
the Tepocas make rafts of reeds or bamboos, fastened
together into bundles. These rafts are about eighteen
feet long and tapering toward both ends ; some are large
enough to carry four or five men; they are propelled
with a double-bladed paddle, held in the middle and
worked alternately on both sides.251
Subsequent to the conquest, the Opatas and Yaquis.
accumulated large flocks of sheep, cattle, and bands of
horses; the latter are good miners, and expert divers^for
pearls. Their old communistic ideas follow them in
their new life; thus, the landed property of the Tara-
humares is from time to time repartitioned ; they have
also a public asylum for the sick, helpless, and for or-:
phans, who are taken care of by male and female officials
called tenanches. Pearls, turquoises, emeralds, coral,
feathers, and gold were in former times part of their
property, and held the place of money; trade, for the
most part, was carried on by simple barter.252
The Northern Mexicans make no pretensions to art;
nevertheless, Guzman states that in the province of
Culiacan the walls of the houses were decorated with
230 ' Vsanan el arte de hilar, y texer algodon, o otras yeruas siluestres,
como el Canarao de Castilla, o Pita.' Ribas, Ifist de los Trimnphos, pp. 12, 200.
For the Yaquis, see Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 73; for the 6patas and
Jovas, Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii.. torn, iv., pp.
550-2; and for the Tarahumares, Murr, Nachrichten, p. 344; Cabeza de Vaca,
Relation, pp. 16B, 174; Id., iu Ramusio, Navigations, torn, iii., fol. 327; La-
chapdle, Raousset-Boulbon, pp. 79-80.
251 ' El indio tomando el asta por medio, boga con gran destreza por uno
y otro lado.' Aleyre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, iii., p. 119. ' Aii Indian pad
dles himself. . . .by means of along elastic pole of about twelve or fourteen
feet in length.' Hardy's Trav., pp. 297, 291. See also Niza, in Hakluyt's.
Voy., vol. iii., pp. 366; Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, in Tcrnaux-Compans, Voy.,
serie i., torn, vii., p. 250; Ulloa, in Ramusio, Nacifjationi, torn, iii., fol. 342.
252 The Carrizos ' no tienen caballos, pero en cambio, sus pueblos estnu/
llenos de perros.' .Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 70. The Tahus 'sacri-
fiaient une partie de leurs richesses, qui consistaient en etoffes et en tur
quoises.' Castnneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.. serie i., torn, ix., p. 150.
Compare further, Combitr, Voy., pp. 200-1; Zuniqd, in Escudero, Noticias de
Sonora y Sinaloa, p. 135; Mat. in 1812, p. G8; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn.
ji.r p. 260; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 38Q;.Caleza de Vaca, Relation, p. 167.
584 NEW MEXICANS.
obscene paintings. They are all great observers of the
heavenly bodies and the changes in the atmosphere;
the Yaquis count their time by the moon. They are
good musicians, imitating to perfection on their own in
struments almost any strain they happen to hear. Their
native melodies are low, sweet, and harmonious. In
Petatlan they embroidered dresses with pearls, and as
they had no instrument for piercing the jewel, they cut
a small groove round it, and so strung them. With
pearls they formed on cloth figures of animals and
birds.253
I find nowhere in this region any system of laws or
government. There are the usual tribal chieftains,
selected on account of superior skill or bravery, but with
little or no power except in war matters. Councils
of war, and all meetings of importance, are held at the
chief's house.254
The Ceris and Tepocas celebrate the advent of woman
hood with a feast, which lasts for several days. The
Ahome maiden wears on her neck a small carved shell,
as a sign of her virginity, to lose which before marriage
is a lasting disgrace. On the day of marriage the bride
groom removes this ornament from his bride's neck. It
is customary among most of the tribes to give presents
to the girl's parents. The Tahus, says Castaiieda, are
obliged to purchase a maiden from her parents, and
deliver her to the cacique*59, chief, or possibly high priest,
253 ' Son grandes observadores de los Astros, porque como siempre duer-
men a Cielo descubierto, y estaii hechos a miravlos, se marabillau de qualquier
nueva impression, que registran en los Cielos.' AliegvA, Chron. de Zacatecas,
p. 175. Among the Yaquis, ' hay asimismo musicos de violin y arpa, todo
por puro ingenio, sin que se pueda decir que se les hayan ensenado las pri-
ineras reglas.' Vdasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 74. See also Ribas, Hist, de los
Triumphos, p. 12; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 285; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Com-
pans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., p. 152; Comlier, Voy., p. 201; Murr, Nachrich-
ten, p. 370; PadWa, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 80.
254 ' Leyes, ni Reyes que castigassen tales vicios y pecados, no los tuuie-
ron, ni se hallaua entre ellos genero de autoridad y gouierno politico que los
castigasse.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 11; Combier, Voy., p. 200;
Ahumada, Carta, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., toni. iii., p. 96; Espejo in
HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., p. 381.
*w The word cacique, which was used by the Spaniards to designate the
chiefs and rulers of provinces and towns throughout the West Indies,
Central America, Mexico, and Peru, is originally taken from the Cuban
language. Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 595, explains it as follows:
MARRIAGE AND POLYGAMY. 585
to whom was accorded the drolt de seigneur. If the
bride proves to be no virgin, all the presents are returned
by her parents, and it is optional with the bridegroom to
keep her or condemn her to the life of a public pros
titute. The Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Contotores, and
Tehuecos practice polygamy and inter-family marriages,
but these are forbidden by the Ceris, Chinipas, Tibur-
ones, and Tepocas. Different ceremonies take place
upon the birth of the first child. Among some, the
father is intoxicated, and in that state surrounded by a
dancing multitude, who score his body till the blood
flows freely. Among others, several days after the birth
of a male child, the men visit the house, feel each limb
of the newly born, exhort him to be brave, and finally
give him a name; women perform similar ceremonies
with female children. The couvade obtains in certain
parts; as for instance, the Lagunero and Ahomama
husbands, after the birth of a child, remain in bed for
six or seven days, during which time they eat neither
fish nor meat. The Sisibotaris, Ahomes, and Tepehua-
nes hold chastity in high esteem, and both their maid
ens and matrons are remarkably chaste. The standard
of morality elsewhere in this vicinity is in general low,
especially with the Acaxees and Tahus, whose incestuous
connections and system of public brothels are notorious.
According to Arlegui, Ribas, and other authors, among
some of these nations male concubinage prevails to a
great extent ; these loathsome semblances of humanity,
whom to call beastly were a slander upon beasts, dress
themselves in the clothes and perform the functions of
women, the use of weapons even being denied them.256
' Cacique: senor, jefe absolute 6 rey de una comarca 6 Estado. En nuestros
dias suele emplearse esta voz en algunas poblaciones de la parte oriental de
Cuba, para desigriar al regidor decano de un ayuntamiento. Asi se dice:
Regidor cacique. Metaforicamente tiene aplicacion en nuestra peninsula,
para designar a los que en los pueblos pequenos llevan la voz y gobiernau a
su antojo y capricho.'
236 ' Juntos grandes y pequenos ponen a los mocetones y inujeres casa-
deras en dos hileras, y dada una seiia emprenden a correr estas; dada otra
siguen la carrera aquellos, y alcanzaiidolas, ha de cojer cada uno la suya de
la tetilla izquierda; y quedan hechos y confirmados los desposorios.' Sonora,
Descrip. Geoy., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 542-3. 'Unos se
586 NEW MEXICANS.
Drunkenness prevails to a great extent among most of
the tribes ; their liquors are prepared from the fruit of
the pitahaya, mezquite-beans, agave, honey, and wheat.
In common with all savages, they are immoderately fond
of dancing, and have numerous feasts, where, with ob
scene carousals and unseemly masks, the revels continue,
until the dancers, from sheer exhaustion or intoxication,
are forced to rest. The Opatas hold a festival called
torom raqui. to insure rain and good crops. Clearing a
square piece of ground, they strew it with seeds, bones,
boughs, horns, and shells; the actors then issue forth
from huts built on the four corners of the square, and
there dance from sunrise to sunset. On the first day of
the year they plant in the ground a long pole, to which
are tied long ribbons of many colors. A number of
young maidens, fancifully attired, dance round the pole,
holding the ends of the ribbons, twisting themselves
nearer or away from the center in beautiful figures.
Upon other occasions they commemorate, in modern
times, what is claimed to be the journey of the Aztecs,
and the appearance of Montezuma among them. Hunt
ing and war expeditions are inaugurated by dances.
Their musical instruments are flutes and hollow trunks
beaten with sticks or bones, and accompanied with song
and impromptu words, relating the exploits of their
gods, warriors, and hunters. They are passionately
fond of athletic sports, such as archery, wrestling, and
racing ; but the favorite pastime is a kind of foot-ball.
The game is played between two parties, with a large
elastic ball, on a square piece of ground prepared ex
pressly for the purpose. The players must strike the
ball with the shoulders, knees, or hips, but never with
casan con nna muger sola, y tienen muchas mancebas. . . . Otras se casan con
quantas mugeres quieren . . . Otras naciones tienen las mugeres por comunes.'
Arle</ui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 154-7. For further account of their family
relations and marriage customs, see Ribas, Hist, de los Triumplios, pp. 11,
145, 171, 201, 242, 475; Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186; Cas-
ianeda, in Teniaitx-Compans, Voy., serie i., torn, ix., pp. 150, 152, 155, 158;
Hazart, Kirchen-Geschichte, torn, ii., p. 541; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, 3/N.,
p. 530; Alegre, Hist. Camp, de Jesus, tom. i., p. 452; Arista, in Id., p. 417;
JBerlandier 'y Thovel, Diario, p. 70; Combier, Voy., p. 201; Lowenstern, Mexi-
que, p. 409.
CUSTOMS IN NORTHERN MEXICO. 587
the hand. Frequently one village challenges another
as upon the occasion of a national festival, which lasts
several days, and is accompanied with dancing and
feasting. They have also games with wooden balls, in
which sticks are used when playing. The players are
always naked, and the game often lasts from sunrise to
sunset, and sometimes, when the victory is undecided,
the play will be continued for several successive days.
Bets are freely made, and horses and other property
staked with the greatest recklessness.257
Loads are carried on the head, or in baskets at the
back, hanging from a strap that passes across the fore
head. Another mode of carrying burdens is to dis
tribute equally the weight at both ends of a pole which
is slung across the shoulder, a la Ckiiwise. Their concep
tions of the supernatural are extremely crude ; thus, the
Opatas, by yells and gesticulations, endeavor to dispel
eclipses of the heavenly bodies; before the howling of
the wind they cower as before the voice of the Great
Spirit. The Ceris superstitiously celebrate the new
moon, and bow reverentially to the rising and setting
sun. Nuiio de Guzman states that in the province of
Culiacan tamed serpents were found in the dwellings of
the natives, which they feared and venerated. Others
have a great veneration for the hidden virtues of poison
ous plants, and believe that if they crush or destroy
one, some harm will happen to them. It is a common
237 Les Yaquis ' aiment surtout une danse appelee tutuli gamuchi dans
laquelle ils changent de femmes en se cedant reciproquement tous leurs
droits conjugaux.' Zuniya, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1842, torn, xciii., pp.
238-9. The Sisibotaris; 'En las danzas.. fue muy de notar que aunque
danzaban juntos hombres y mugeres, ni se hablaban ni se tocaban inmedia-'
tamente las manos.' Aler/re, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 124, and torn,
i., pp. 405-7. In the province of Panuco, ' cuando estan en sus borrache-
ras e fiestas, lo que no pueden beber por la boca, se lo hacen echar por
bajo con un embudo.' Guzman, Rel. Anon., in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn,
ii., p. 295. See further, Ribas, Hist, de los Triwnphos, pp. 9, 15, 256, 672;
M>irr, Nachrichten, pp. 321, 343, 345; De Laet. Novus Orbis, p. 287; Padllla,
Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 519, 530; Castaneda, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.t
p.
Id., Cent. Amer., p. 381; Sevln, inLond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 25.
583 NEW MEXICANS.
custom to hang a small bag containing poisonous herbs
round the neck of a child, as a talisman against diseases
or attacks from wild beasts, which they also believe will
render them invulnerable in battle. They will not touch
a person struck by lightning, and will leave him to die,
or, if dead, to lie unburied.258
Intermittent and other fevers prevail among the peo
ple of Northern Mexico. Small-pox, introduced by
Europeans, has destroyed many lives; syphilis was in
troduced among the Carrizos by the Spanish troops.
The Tarahumares suffer from pains in the side about the
end of the spring. The Opatas of Oposura are disfig
ured by goitres, but this disease seems to be confined
within three leagues of the town. Wounds inflicted by
arrows, many of them poisoned, and bites of rattle
snakes are common. Friends, and even parents and
brothers leave to their fate such as are suffering from
contagious diseases; they, however, place water and wild
fruits within the sufferer's reach. To relieve their
wearied legs and feet after long marches, they scarify
the former with sharp flints. In extreme cases they
rub themselves with the maguey's prickly leaf well
pounded, which, acting as an emollient on their hardened
bodies, affords them prompt relief. The Carrizos cure
syphilis with certain plants, the medicinal properties of
which are known to them. As a purgative they use the
grains of the maguacate, and as a febrifuge the cenicitta
(teraina frutescensj. With the leaves of the latter
they make a decoction which, mixed with hydromel, is
an antidote for intermittent fevers. They also use the
258 The Opatas have ' grande respeto y veneracion que hasta hoy tienen
a los hombrecitos pequenos y contrahechos, a quienes temen y franquean su
casa y comida.' tionora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serieiii., torn, iv.,
p. 628. ' Aiigulis atque adytis angues complures reperti, peregrinum in rno-
dum conglobati, capitibus supra et infra exsertis, terribili rictu, si quis pro-
puis accessisset, caeterum inuocui; quos barbari vel maxirne venerabantur,
quod diabolus ipsis hac forma apparere consuesset: eosdem tamen et mani-
bus contrectabant et nonnunquam iis vescebantur.' De Lad, Novus Orbis, p.
284. Further reference in Itibas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 472; Ovitdo,
Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 574-5; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 79; Cabezade
Vaca, Relation, p. 169; Arlcyui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 166-7; Sevin, in
Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., voL xxx., p. 26.
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 589
leaves of the willow in decoction, as a remedy for the
same complaint. In Sinaloa, the leaf and roots of the
guaco are used by the natives as the most efficacious
medicine for the bites of poisonous reptiles. The Opatas
employ excellent remedies for the diseases to which they
are subject. They have a singular method of curing
rattlesnake bites, a sort of retaliative cure; seizing the
reptile's head between two sticks, they stretch out the
tail and bite it along the body, and if we may believe
Alegre, the bitten man does not swell up, but the reptile
does, until it bursts. In some parts, if a venomous snake
bites a person, he seizes it at both ends, and breaks
all its bones with his teeth until it is dead, imagining
this to be an efficacious means of saving himself from
the effect of the wounds. Arrow wounds are first
sucked, and then peyote powder is put into them; after
two days the wound is cleaned, and more of the same
powder applied ; this operation is continued upon every
second day, and finally powdered lechugilla-root is used ;
by this process the wound, after thoroughly suppurat
ing, becomes healed. Out of the leaves of the maguey,
lechugilla, and date-palm, as well as from the rosemary,
they make excellent balsams for curing wounds. They
have various vegetable substances for appeasing the thirst
of wounded persons, as water is considered injurious.
The Acaxees employ the sucking processes, and blowing
through a hollow tube, for the cure of diseases. The
Yaquis put a stick into the patient's mouth, and with it
draw from the stomach the disease ; the Ceris of Tiburon
Island also employ charms in their medical practice.259
I find nothing of cremation in these parts. The
dead body is brought head and knees together, and
259 « Quando entre los Indies ay algun contagio, que es el de viruelas
el mas contmuo, de que muereu innumerables, nrndan cada dia lugares, y
se van a los mas retirados montes, buscando los sitios mas espinosos y en-
maraiiados, para que de miedo de las espinas, no entren (segun juzgan, y
como cierto lo afirman) las viruelas.' Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 152-3,
182. See also, Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., ptii., p. 431; Berlandlery Thovel,
Diario, pp. 70-1; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 399rtom. ii., t>p.
213-4, 219-20; Elba*, IHst. de los Triumphos, pp. 17, 322-3; Loicenslern,
Mexique, p. 411; Hardy's Trav., p. 282; Sonora, Descrip, Geog., in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 547-8.
590 NEW MEXICANS,
placed in a cave or under a rock. Several kinds of edibles,
with the utensils and implements with which the de
ceased earned a support while living, are deposited in
the grave, also a small idol, to serve as a guide and fel
low traveler to the departed on the long journey. On
the lips of dead infants is dropped milk from the
mother's breast, that these innocents may have suste
nance to reach their place of rest. Among the Acaxees,
if a woman dies in childbirth, the infant surviving is
slain, as the cause of its mother's death. Cutting the
hair is the only sign of mourning among them.260
The character of the Northern Mexicans, as portrayed
by Arlegui, is gross and low ; but some of these tribes
do not deserve such sweeping condemnation. The
Mayos, Yaquis, Acaxees, and Opatas are generally in
telligent, honest, social, amiable, and intrepid in war;
their young women modest, with a combination of sweet
ness and pride noticed by some writers. The Opatas
especially are a hard-working people, good-humored, free
from intemperance and thievishness; they are also very
tenacious of purpose, when their minds are made up
—danger often strengthening their stubbornness the
more. The Sisibotaris, Ahomamas, Onavas, and Tara-
hurnares are quiet and docile, but brave when occa
sion requires ; the last-mentioned are remarkably, hon
est. The Tepocas and Tiburones are fierce, cruel, and
treacherous, more warlike and courageous than the
Ceris of the main land, who are singularly devoid of
good qualities, being sullenly stupid, lazy, inconstant,
revengeful, depredating, and much given to intemper
ance. Their country even has become a refuge for evil
doers. In former times they were warlike and brave:
but even this quality they have lost, and have become as
cowardly as they are cruel. The Tepehuanes and other
mountaineers are savage and warlike, and their animosity
to the whites perpetual. The Laguneros and other tribes
of Coahuila are intelligent, domestic, and hospitable;
the former especially are very brave. In Chihuahua
260 See SchoolcrafVs Arch., vol. iii., p. 516; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 443.
CHARACTER. TRIBAL BOUNDARIES. 591
they are generally fierce and uncommunicative. At El
Paso, the women are more jovial and pleasant than the
men; the latter speak but little, never laugh, and seldom
smile; their whole aspect seems to be wrapped in mel
ancholy — everything about it has a semblance of sad-
. ness and suffering.*1
261 ' Las mas cle las naciones referidas son totalmente Barbaras, y de gro-
seros eutendimientos; gente baxa.' Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 149. The
Yaquis: ' by far the most industrious and useful of all the other tribes in
Sonora. .. .celebrated for the exuberance of their wit.' Hardy's Trav., pp.
439, 442. ' Los 6 >at:is sou tan honrados como valientes .... la nacion opata es
pacifica, ddc-il, y hasta cierto puuto diferente cle todas los clemas ind- genus
del continente . . .son amantes deltrabajo.' Zuniga, in Escudero, Xolidas de
Sonora y Sinaloa, pp. 139-41. ' La tribu opata fue la que manifesto un earac-
ter franco, dacil, y con simpatfas a los blancos siempre fue iuclinada al
drden y la paz.' Velasco, Notic'ias de Sonora, pp. 151, 117. The Opatas ' son
de genio malicioso, disimulados yen sumo grado vengativos; y en esto sobre-
saleu las mujeres.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn,
iv., pp. 629-30. See also: Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 237, 285, 358,
339, 385; Ilartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., pp. 442-3; Ward's Mexico, vol. i. p.
583, vol. ii., p. 606; Combier, Voy., pp. 198-201; Malte-Brun, Sonora, pp.
13-14; Browne's Apache Country, p. 248; Lachapelle, Raoussd-Boulbon, p. 79;
Cabeza de Vaca, Relation, pp. 169, 176; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, pp. 405,
442; Alegre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 284, 402-3, 405, 452, and torn,
ii., p. 184; Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 80, 84; Berlandier y Thovel,
Diario, pp. 69-70; Garcia Conde, in Album Mex., torn, i., p. 93.
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
To the New Mexican group belong the nations inhabiting the territory
lying between the parallels 36° and 23J of north latitude, and the meridians
96" and 117J of west longitude; that is to say, the occupants of the states of
New Mexico, Arizona, Lower California, Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Du-
rango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Northern Zacatecas, and Western Texas.
Ix THE APACHE FAMILY, I include all the savage tribes roaming through
New Mexico, ths north-western portion of Texas, a small part of Northern
Mexico, and Arizona; being the Comanches, Apaches proper, Navajos, Mo-
javes, Hualapais, Yumas, Cosninoi, Yampais, Yalchedunes, Yamajabs,
Cochees, Cruzados, Nijoras, Cocopas, and others.
The Comanches inhabit Western Texas, Eastern New Mexico, and Eastern
Mexico, and from the Arkansas River north to near the Gulf of Mexico
south, rtangc ' over the plains of the Arkansas from the vicinity of Bent's
fort, at the parallel of 38°, to the Gulf of Mexico . . . from the eastern base
of the Llano Estacado to about the meridian of longitude 98th.' Pope, in
Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. ii., p. 16. Prom the western border of the Choctaw coun
try ' uninterruptedly along the Canadian to Tucumcari creek and thence,
occasionally, to Rio Pecos. From this line they pursue the buffalo north
ward as far as the Sionx country, and on the south are scarcely limited by
the frontier settlements of Mexico.' Whipple, Eiobank, and Turner's Rept., p.
592 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
8, in Pac. R. E. Rept., vol. iii. 'During summer. . .as far north as the
Arkansas river, their winters they usually pass about the head branches of
the Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p.
307. • Between 102° and 104° longitude and 33^ and 37° north latitude.'
Norton, in Lid. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 146. 'About thirteen thousand square
miles of the southern portion of Colorado, and probably a much larger extent
of the neighboring States of Kansas and Texas, and Territory of New Mexico
and the " Indian country," are occupied by the Kioways and Comanches.'
Dole, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1862, p. 34; Evans and Collins, in Id., pp. 230, 242;
Martinez, in Ind. Aff. RepL. Spec. Com., 1867, p. 487. ' En Invierno se acercan
a Tejas, y en Estio a la sierra de Santa Fe.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p.
251. 'Comanches ou Hietans (Eubaous, Yetas), dans le nord-ouest du
Texas.' Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxiii., p. 225.
' Originaire du Nouveau-Mexique ; mais. . . .ils descendent souvent dans les
plaines de la Basse-Calif ornie et de la Sonora.' Soc. Geog., Bulletin, serie v.,
No. 96, p. 192. ' Range east of the mountains of New Mexico.' Bent, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. i., p. 244. 'In dem uucultivirten Theile des Bolson de
Mapimi' (Chihuahua). Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 214; Froebel, Aus Amerika,
torn, ii., pp. 221-2. 'Entre la riviere Rouge et le Missouri, et traversent el
Rio-Bravo-del-Norte.' Dufey, Resume de I'Hist., torn, i., p. 4. 'Upon the
south and west side' of the Rio Brazos. Marcy's Rept., p. 217; Marcy's Army
Life, pp. 43-6. ' Im Westen des Missisippi und des Arcansas . . . .und bis an
das linke Ufer des Rio Grande.' Ludecus, Reise, p. 104. 'Range from the
sources of the Brazos and Colorado, rivers of Texas, over the great Prairies,
to the waters of the Arkansas and the mountains of Rio Grande.' Ludeicig's
Ab. Lang., p. 51. Concurrent statements in Wilson's Amer. Hist., p. 625;
Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 549; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 557;
Moore's Texas, p. 30; Dewees' Texas, p. 233; Holley's Texas, p. 152; Dragoon
Camp, p. 153. ' La iiacion comanche, que esta situada entre el Estado de
Texas y el de Nuevo Mexico . . . . se compone de las siguientes tribus d pueb
los, a saber: Yaparehca, Cuhtzuteca, Penande, Pacarabo, Caiguaras, Noconi
6 Yiuhta, Napuat ;6 Quetahtore, Yapaine, Muviuabore, Sianabone, Caigua,
Sarritehca y Quitzaene.' Garcia Rejon, in Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 347.
' Extends from the Witchita Mountains as far as New Mexico, and is divided
into four bands, called respectively the Cuchanticas, the Tupes, the Yam-
paxicas, and the Eastern Comanches.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 21.
See also: Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 344, 348-9; Foote's Texas, vol. i., p.
298; Frost's Ind. Wars, p. 293.
The Apaches may be said to ' extend from the country of the Utahs, in
latitude 38 J north to about the 30th parallel.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. 1., p.
325. 'Along both sides of the Rio Grande, from the southern limits of the
Navajo country at the parallel of 34:. to the extreme southern line of the
Territory, and from thence over the States of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Du-
rango, of Mexico. Their range eastward is as far as the valley of the Pecos,
and they are found as far to the west as the Pimos villages on the Gila.'
Pope, in Pac. R. R. Repi., vol, ii., p. 13. Scattered 'throughout the whole
of Arizona, a large part of New Mexico, and all the northern portion of Chi
huahua and Sonora, and in some parts of Durango.' Cremony's Apaches, p.
APACHE TRIBES. 593
141. Range 'over some portions of California, most of Sonora, the frontiers
of Durango, and Chihuahua.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 291. Apats-
chee, a nation 'welche um ganz Neu-Biscaya, und auch an Tarahumara
granzet.' Steffel, in Murr, Nachrichten, p. 302. ' Reicht das Gebiet der
Apache-Indianer vom 103. bis zum 114. Grad. westlicher Lange von Green
wich, und von den Grenzen des Utah-Gebietes, deni 38. Grad, bis himmter
zum 30. Grad nordlicher Breite.' Mollhausen, Tagebitch, p. 229. Inhabit 'all
the country north and south of the Gila, and both sides of the Del Norte,
about the parallel of the Jornada and Dead Man's lakes." Emory's Recon
naissance, p. 132. ' Tota hcec regio, quam No vain Mexicanam vocant, ab
omnibus pene lateribus arnbitur ab Apachibus.' De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 316.
• Recorren las provincias del Norte de Mexico, llegando algunas veces hasta
cerca de Zacatecas.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 251. ' Derramadas desde
la Intendencia de San Luis Potosi hasta la extremidad setentrional del golfo
de California.' Balbi, in Orozcoy Berra, Geografia, p. 385. ' Se extieuden en
el vasto espacio. . . .que comprenden los grados 30 a 38 de latitud norte, y
264 a 277 de longitude de Tenerife.' Cordero, in Id., p. 369; see also Id.,
p. 40. ' From the entrance of the Rio Grande to the Gulf of California.'
Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 337. 'The southern and south-western portions
of New Mexico, and mainly the valley of the Gila.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol.
v., p. 203; Bent, in Id., vol. i., p. 243. ' Scarcely extends farther north than
Albuquerque .... nor more than two hundred miles south of El Paso del
Norte; east, the vicinity of the White Mountains; west, generally no further
than the borders of Sonora.' Henry, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 207.
' Us ont principalement habite le triangle forme par le Rio del Norte, le Gila
et le Colorado de 1'ouest.' Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn.
cxxxv., pp. 307, 313. Concurrent authorities: Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn,
cxxxi., pp. 298, 301; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 453; Lude-
icig's Ab. Lang., pp. 8, 186; Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 345; Stanley's Por
traits, p. 57; Pattie's Pers. Nar., p. 297; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii.,
p. 549; Western Scenes, p. 233; Will's Hist. Hex., p. 170; Delaporte, Reisen,
torn, x., p. 456; Conder's Mex. Gnat., vol. ii., p. 74-5; Domenech's Deserts,
vol. ii., pp. 4-6; Graves, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1854, p. 180; Poston, in Id.,
1864, p. 155; Clark, in Ind. Aff. Eept. Spec. Corn., 1867, p. 336.
The Apache nation is divided into the following tribes; Chiricaguis,
Coyoteros, Faraones, Gilenos, Copper Mine Apaches, Lipaues, Llaneros,
Mescaleros, Mimbreiios, Natages, Pelones, Pinalenos, Tontos, Vaqueros, and'
Xicarillas.
The Lipanes roam through western Texas, Coahuila, and the eastern
portion of Chihuahua. Their territory is bounded on the west by the
' lands of the Llaneros; on the north, the Comanche country; on the east,
the province of Cohagui'la; and on the south, the left bank of the Rio
Grande del Norte.' Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Kept., vol. iii., p. 119; Whipple,
Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., p. 8, in Id.; Pope, in Id., vol. ii., p. 14. The
Lee Panis ' rove from the Rio Grande to some distance into the province of
Texas. Their former residence was on the Rio Grande, near the sea shore.'
Pike's Explor. Trav., p. 363. Su 'principal asiento es en Coahuila, Nuevo
Lecn y Tarnaulipas.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 251. 'Dividese en dos
VOL I. 38
594 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
clases la primera ha estado enlazada con los mescaleros y llaiieros, y
ocupa los terrenes contiguos a aquellas tribus: la segunda vive general -
mente en la frontera de la provincia de Tejas y orillas del mar. . . .For el
Pouiente son sus 1 unites los llaneros; por el Norte los comauches; por el
Oriente los carancaguaces y borrados, provincia de Tejas, y por el Sur nuestra
frontera (Mexico).' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia. p. 382. 'From
time immemorial has roved and is yet roving over the Bolson de Mapiini.'
Wislixenus' Tour, p. 70. ' Frequented the bays of Aransas and Corpus
Christi, and the country lying between them and the Rio Grande.' Kennedy's
Texas, vol. i., p. 349; Footers Texas, p. 298. See also: Malte-Brun, Precis de
.la Geog., torn, vi., p. 289; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 210; Moore's Texas, p. 31;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6.
The Mescaleros inhabit ' the mountains on both banks of the river Pecos,
•jus far as the mountains that form the head of the Bolson de Mapiini, and
:there terminate on the right bank of the Rio Grande. Its limit on the west
is the tribe of the Taracones; on the north, the extensive territories of the
Comanche people; on the east, the coast of the Llanero Indians; and on the
;south, the desert Bolson de Mapimi.' Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p.
119. 'Im Bolson de Mapimi und in den ostlichen Granzgebirgeu del Cha-
nate, del Diablo puerco und de los P flares.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii.,
pt ii., p. 521. ' Occupent le Bolson de Mapiini, les moutagnes de Chanate,
•«t celles de los Organos, sur la rive gauche du Rio Grande del Norte.' Hum-
•boldt, EssaiPol, torn, i., p. 289. Live ' east of the Rio del Norte.' Gregg's
• Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 290; Carleton, in Smithsonian Eept., 1854, p. 315;
Western Scenes, p. 233; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6; Kennedy's Texas,
vol. i., p. 343. ' On the east side of the Rio Grande, and on both sides of
;the Pecos, extending up the latter river. ... to about the thirty-fourth parallel.'
Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 170-1. See also: Steck, in Id.,
1858, pp. 195-8, 1863, p. 108; Coffins, in Id., 1862, p. 240; Cooky, in Id.,
1865, p. 20; Norton, in Id., 1866, p. 145
'The Copper Mine Apaches occ.i^y the country on both sides of the Rio
•Grande, and extend west to the country of the Coyoteros and Pinalinos, near
ihe eastern San Francisco River.' JBarllett's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 323.
The Faraones, Pharaones or Taracones, ' inhabit the mountains between the
river Grande del Norte and the Pecos.' Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol. iii., p.
119. The following concur; Muhlenpfordt, SPjico, torn, i., p. 213, torn. ii. pfc
ii., p. 521; Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., p. 416; Humboldt, Essai
Pol., torn, i., p. 289.
The ' Xicarillas anciently inhabited the forests of that name in the far ter
ritories to the north of New Mexico, until they were driven out by the
Comanches, and now live on the limits of the province, some of them having
;gone into the chasms (canadas) and mountains between Pecuries and Taos,
which are the last towns of the province.' Cortez, in Pac. E. E. Eept., vol.
iii., p. 119. ' Inhabiting the mountains north of Taos.' Gregg's Com. Prai
ries, vol. i., p. 285. 'Les Jicorillas, al'extremite nord duNouveau-Mexique.'
Turner, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1852, torn, cxxxv., p. 310. 'From the
Rio Grande eastward beyond the Red river, between the thirty-fourth and
thirty-seventh parallels.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Eept., 1854, p. 170. 'In
APACHE TKIBES. 595
the mountains which lie between Santa Fe, Taos, and Abiquin.' Collins, in
Id., 1860, pp. 159-60. 'At the Cimarron.' Graves, in Id., 1866, p. 133.
'Upon Rio Ose, west of the Rio Grande.' Davis, in Id., 1868, p. 160;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 8.
The Llaueros occupy ' the great plains and sands that lie between the
Pecos and the left bank of the river Grande del Norte.' Cortez, in Pac. R.
R. Kept., vol. iii., p. 119. Inhabit the ' cajoues de la Cabellera y Pitaycachi,
Sierra de Mimbres, Lagnna de Guzman.' Barrangan, in El Orden, Mex., Dc-
cemb. 27, 1853. ' Ocupan. . . .los llanos y arenales situados entre el rio de
Pecos, nombrado por ellos Tjunchi, y el Colorado que llaman Tjulchide.'
Cordero, in Orozcoy Berra, Geografia, p. 381; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6.
The Mimbreiios have their hunting grounds upon the Mimbres Mount
ains and River, and range between the sierras San Mateo and J'lorida on the
north and south, and between the Burros and Mogoyen on the west and east.
Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 207. 'Sudlich von den Apaches Gilenos, an
den Granzen von Chihuahua und Neu-Mejico jageninden Gebirgenim Osten
die Apaches Mimbreiios.' Muhknpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 211. 'La pro-
vincia de Nuevo Mexico es su confin por el Norte; por el Poniente la par-
cialidad mimbreiia; por el Oriente la faraona, y por el Sur nuestra frontera.'
Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 380. See also: Cortez, in Pac. R.
R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 119; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 6. ' In the wild
ravines of the Sierra de Acha.' Mill's Hist. Mex., p. 185.
The Chiricaguis adjoin on the north 'the Tontos and Moquinos; on the
east the Gilenos; and on the south and west the province of Sonora.' Cortez,
in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 119. 'Live in th'e mountains of that name,
the Sierra Largua and Dos Cabaces.' Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, pp.
345-6.
The Toutos ' inhabit the northern side of the Gila from Antelope Peak
to the Pimo villages.' Cremony's Apaches, p. 130. ' Between Rio Verde
and the Aztec range of mountains,' and ' from Pueblo creek to the junction
of Rio Verde with the Salinas.' Whipple, Eicbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 14-
15; in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii; Cortez, in Id., p. 118. ' Sudlich von den
Wohnsitzen der Cocomaricopas und dem Rio Gila.' Muhknpfordt, Mejico,
torn, i., p. 211. On the ' rio Puerco.' Barrangan, in El Orden, Mex., Decemb,
27, 1853. ' In the canons to the north and east of the Mazatsal peaks. ' Smart,
in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 417. See Palmer, in Harper's Mag., vol. xvii.,
p. 460; Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 185, vol. ii., p. 7. 'Inhabit the Tonto
basin from the Mogollon Mountains on the north to Salt River on the south,
and between the Sierra Ancha on the east to the Mazatsal Mountains.'
Colyer, in Ind. Aff, Rept., 1869, p. 94. 'On both sides of the Verde from
its source to the East Fork, and. . . .around the headwaters of the Chiquito
Colorado, on the northern slope of the Black Mesa or Mogollon Mountains
on the north, to Salt River on the south, and between the Sierra Ancha
on the east and the Mazatsal Mountains on the west.' Jones, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1869, p. 221.
The Pinalenos, Pinols or Finals range ' over an extensive circuit between
the Sierra Final and the Sierra Blanca.' Bartlelt's Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 308.
'Batween the Colorado Chiquito and Rio Gila.' Whipple, Ewbank, and Tur-
596 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
ner's Sept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Kept., vol. iii. See also: Mollhausen, Tage-
buch, p. 147; Ludeicig's Ab. Lang., p. 150. In 'the country watered by the
Salinas and other tributaries of the Gila.' Steck, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p.
346; also Whittier, in Id., 1868, p. 141; Colyer, in Id., 1869, p. 94; Jones, in
Id., p. 222.
The Coyoteros ' live in the country north of the Gila and east of the San
Carlos.' Colyer, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869, p. 223. 'Upon the Rio San Fran
cisco, and head waters of the Salinas.' Steck, in Id., 1859, p. 346; Domenech's
Deserts, vol. i., p. 185; Hardy's Trav., p. 430.
' The Gilenos inhabit the mountains immediately on the river Gila
bounded on the west by the Chiricagiiis; on the north by the province of
New Mexico; on the east by the Mimbreiio tribe.' Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,
vol. iii., p. 119. ' Oestlich von diesem Flusse (Gila), zwischen ihm und dem
Budlichen Fusse der Sierra de los Mimbres, eines Theiles der Sierra Madre.'
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 421; Cordero, in Orozco y Berra,
Geograffa, p. 380; Maxwell, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1873, p. 116.
The Apache Mojaves are ' a mongrel race of Indians living between the
Verde or San Francisco and the Colorado.' Poston, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864,
p. 156.
The Navajos occupy ' a district in the Territory of New Mexico, lying
between the San Juan river on the north and northeast, the Pueblo of Zuni
on the south, the Moqui villages on the west, and the ridge of land dividing
the waters which flow into the Atlantic ocean from those which flow into the
Pacific on the east.' Letherman, in Smithsonian Rept., 1855, p. 283. 'Ex
tending from near the 107th to lllth meridian, and from the 34th to the 37th
parallel of latitude.' Clark, in Hist. Mag., vol. viii., p. 280. Northward from
the 35th parallel ' to Rio San Juan, valley of Tune Cha, and Canon de
Chelle.' Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Rept.,
vol. iii. ' Between the Del Norte and Colorado of the West, ' in the northwest
ern portion of New Mexico. Eaton, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol iv., p. 216.
' In the main range of Cordilleras, 150 to 200 miles west of Santa Fe, on
the waters of Rio Colorado of California.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i.,
p. 285-6. 'Between the del Norte and tha Sierra Anahuac, situated upon
the Rio Chama and Puerco, — from thence extending along the Sierra de los
Mimbros, into the province of Sonora.' Scenes in the Rocky Mts, p. 180. 'La
Provincia de Navajoos, que esta situada a la parte de el Norte del Moqui,
y a la del Noruest de la Villa de Santa Fee.' Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro,
torn, ii., p. 426. 'Esta nacion dista de las fronteras de Nuevo-Mexico como
veinticinco leguas, entre los pueblos de Moqui, Zuni y la capital (Santa Fe).'
Barreiro, Ojeada sobre N. Mex., app., p. 10. ' Habita la sierra y mesas de
Navajo.' Cordero, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 382. See also: Alcedo, Dic-
cionario, torn, iii., p. 295. ' Along the 34th parallel, north latitude.' Mowry's
Arizona, p. 16. ' On the tributaries of the river San Juan, west of the Rio
Grande, and east of the Colorado, and between the thirty-fifth and thirty-
seventh parallels of north latitude.' Merriwether, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1854, p.
172. 'From Canon de Chelly to Rio San Juan.' Palmer, in Harper's Mag.,
vol. xvii., p. 460. ' From the Rio San Juan to the Gila.' Graves, in Ind. Aff.
R°pi., 1854, p. 179. 'Directly west from Santa Fe, extending from near the
MOJAVES AND YUMAS. 597
Bio Grande on the east, to the Colorado on the west; and from the land of
the Utahs on the north, to the Apaches on the south.' Backus, in School-
craft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 209. 'Fifty miles from the Eio del Norte.' Pattie's
Pers. Nar., p. 102. 'From the 33° to the 38° of north latitude.' and 'from
Soccorro to the valley of Taos.' Hughes' Doniphdn's Ex., p. 202. Concur
rent authorities: Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 78; Domenech's Deserts,
vol. i., p. 184; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 132.
The Mojaves dwell on the Mojave and Colorado rivers, as far up as Black
Canon. The word Mojave ' appears to be formed of two Yuma words —
hamook (three,) and ha'bi (mountains) —and designates the tribe of Indians
which ocupies a valley of the Colorado lying between three mountains. The
ranges supposed to be referred to are: 1st, " The Needles," which terminates
the valley upon the south, and is called Asientic-habi, or first range; 2d,
the heights that bound the right bank of the Colorado north of the Mojave
villages, termed Havic-habi, or second range ; and, 3d, the Blue Ridge, extend
ing along the left bank of the river, to which has been given the name of
Hamook-habi, or third range.' Whipple, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 30.
' Von 34° 36' nordwarts bis zum Black Canon. ' Mollhausen, Reisen in die
Felsengeb., torn, i., pp. 430-4. 'Inhabit the Cottonwood valley.' Ives' Colo
rado Riv., p. 79. ' Occupy the country watered by a river of the same name,
which empties into the Colorado.' BartletVs Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 178.
'The Mohaves, or Hamockhaves, occupy the river above the Yumas.'
Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 302. See further: Ludewig's Ab. Lang.,
p. 122; Col. Mercantile Jour., vol. i., p. 227; Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1869,
p. 217; Willis, in Id., Spec. Com., 1867, pp. 329-30; Stratton's Capt. Oatman
Girls, p. 123.
The Hualapais are ' located chiefly in the Cerbat and Aquarius Mount
ains, and along the eastern slope of the Black Mountains. They range
through Hualapai, Yampai, and Sacramento valleys, from Bill Williams Fork
on the south to Diamond River on the north.' Jones, in Ind. Aff. Rept.,
1869, p. 217. 'In the almost inaccessible mountains on the Upper Colo
rado.' Poston, in Id., 1863, p. 387. ' On the north and south of the road
from Camp Mohave to Prescott.' Whittier, in Id., 1868, p. 140. ' In the
northwest part of Arizona.' Willis, in Ind. Aff. Rept. Spec. Com., 1867, p.
329.
The Yumas or Cuchans range ' from the New River to the Colorado, and
through the country between the latter river and the Gila, but may be said
to inhabit the bottom lands of the Colorado, near the junction of the Gila
and the Colorado.' Ind. Traits, vol. i., in Hayes Collection. ' Both sides of
the Colorado both above and below the junction with the Gila,' Bartlett's
Pers. Nar., vol. ii., pp. 177-9. 'From about sixty miles above Fort Yuma to
within a few miles of the most southern point of that part of the Colorado
forming the boundary.' Emory's Rept. V. S. and Mex. Boundary Sur
vey, vol. i., p. 107. ' Das eigentliche Gebiet dieses Stammes ist das Thai des
untern Colorado; es beginnt dasselbe ungefahr achtzig Meilen oberhalb der
Mundung des Gila, und erstreckt sich von da bis nahe an den Golf von Cali-
fornien.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., vol. i., pp. 122, 43*0-1, 434.
'La junta del Gila con el Colorado, tierra poblada de la nacion yuma.'
598 TRIBAL BOUNDAKIES.
Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 849. 'Le nord
de la Basse-Calif ornie, sur la rive droite du Rio-Colorado.' Soc. Geog., Bulk-
tin, serie v., No. 96, p. 186. ' For ten or fifteen miles north and south ' in the
valley near the mouth of the Gila. lues' Colorado Riv., p. 42. See Whip-
pie, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., p. 101, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii.; La
tham's Comparative Philology, vol. viii., p. 420; Lachapelle, Raousset-Boulbon,
p. 78; Howry's Arizona, p. 33; McKinstry, in San Francisco Herald, June, 1853;
Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 205; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, pp. 301-2; Bai
ley, in Id., 1858, p. 202; Jones, in Id., 1869, p. 216; Howard, in Id., 1872,
pp. 161-2; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 561.
The Cosninos 'roam northward to the big bend of the Colorado.' Whip-
pie, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'In the
vicinity of Bill Williams and San Francisco Mountains.' Jones, in Ind. Aff.
Rept., 1869, p. 221. See also: Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 484; Domenech's
Deserts, vol. i., p. 185.
The Yampais inhabit the country west and north-west of the Aztec range
of mountains to the mouth of the Rio Virgen. Whip2)le, Ewbank, and Tur
ner's Rept., p. 14, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'Am obern Colorado.'
' Nordlich von den Mohaves.' Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., torn, i., pp.
431, 277. ' On the west bank of the Colorado, about the mouth of Bill Wil-
liams's fork.' Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 302; Poston in Id., 1863, p.
387.
The Yalchedunes or Talchedunes ' live on the right bank of the Colorado,
and their tribes first appear in lat. 33° 20V Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
iii., p. 124.
The Yamajabs or Tamajabs ' are settled on the left bank of the Colorado
from 34° of latitude to 35 V Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 124;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 62.
The Cochees are in the ' Chiricahua mountains, southern Arizona and
northern Sonora.' Whittier, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 141.
The Nijoras dwell in the basin of the Rio Azul. 'Petite tribu des
bords du Gila.' Ruxton, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1850, torn, cxxvi., p.
47; Gallatin, in Id., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 291.
The £ooneslive 'near the head waters of the Salinas.' Emory's Reconnois-
sance, p. 133; Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 296.
The Cocopas 'live along the Colorado for fifty miles from the mouth.'
lues' Colorado Riv., p. 31. ' On the Colorado bottoms were the Cocopahs,
the southern gulf tribes of which Consag calls the Bagiopas, Hebonomas,.
Quigyamas, Cuculetes, and the Alcheduinas.' Browne's Explor. of Lower
Cal., p. 54. ' On the right bank of the river Colorado, from lat. 32° 18' up
ward.' Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 123. 'Range all the way
from .Port Isabel, upon the east bank of the river (Colorado), to the boundary
line between the Republic of Mexico and the United States.' Johnson's Hist.
Arizona, p. 10. 'Between the Gila and the Gulf, and near the latter.'
Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 179. See also: Emory's Rept. V. S. and Mex.
Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 107; Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1857, p. 301;
Poston,'in Id., 1863, p. 386; Bailey, in Id., 1858, p. 202; Howard, in Id.,
1872, p. 149.
PUEBLO FAMILY. 599
Without definitely locating them, Salmeron enumerates the following
nations, seen by Onate during his trip through New Mexico:
The Cruzados, somewhere between the Moquis and the Bio Gila, near a
river which he calls the Bio Sacramento. ' Dos jornadas de alii (Cruzados)
estaba un rio de poco agua, por donde ellos iban a otro muy grande que
entra en la mar, en cuyas orillas habia una nacion que se llama Amacava.'
'Pasada esta nacion de amacabos llegaron a la nacion de los Baha-
cechas.' 'Pasada esta nacion de Bahacecha, llegaron a la nacion de los
indios ozaras.' ' La primera nacion pasado el rio del nombre de Jesus, es
Halchedoma.' 'Luego esta la nacion Cohuana.' ' Luego esta la nacion
Haglli.' 'Luego los Tlalliquamallas.' Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 31-6. 'La nacion Excanjaque que habita
cien leguas del Nuevo-Mexico, rumboNordeste.' Id., p. 92. ' Habitan indios
excanjaques aquel tramo de tierra que en cuarenta y seis grades de altura al
polo y ciento sesenta y dos de longitud, se tien de obli'cuamente al abrigo que
unas serranfas hacen a un rio que corre Norueste, Sur deste a incorporarse
con otro que se va a juntar con el Misissipi, son contermino de los pana-
nas.' Id., p. 107. ' Cerca de este llano de Matanza, esta otro llano de esa
otra parte del rio en que hay siete cerros, habitados de la nacion Aixas.' Id.,
p. 92. ' La nacion de los Aijados, que hace frente por la parte del Oriente y
casi confina con la nacion Quivira por la parte del norte, estando vecina de
los Tejas por Levante.' Paredes, in Id., p. 217.
In the PUEBLO FAMILY, besides the inhabitants of the villages situated in
the valley of the Bio Grande del Norte, I include the seven Moqui villages
lying west of the former, and also the Pimas, the Maricopas, the Papagos,
and the Sobaipuris with their congeners of the lower Gila river . ' The num
ber of inhabited pueblos in the Territory [New Mexico] is twenty-six ...
Their names are Taos, Picoris, Nambe, Tezuque, Pojuaque, San Juan, San
Yldefonso, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Cochiti, Isleta, Silla,
Laguna, Acoma, Jemez, Zuni, Sandia, and Santa Clara .... In Texas, a short
distance below the southern boundary of New Mexico, and in the valley of
the Del Norte, is a pueblo called Isleta of the South, ' and another called
Los Lentes. Davis' El Gringo, pp. 115-16. San Geronimo de Taos, San
Lorenzo de Picuries, San Juan de los Caballeros, Santo Tomas de Abiquiu,
Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, San Francisco de Nambe, Nuestra Seiiora de
Guadalupe de Pojuaque, San Diego de Tesuque, N. S. de los Angeles de
Tecos, San Buena Ventura de Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, N. S. de
los Dolores de Sandia, San Diego de Jemes, N. S. de la Asumpcion de Zia,
Santa Ana, San Augustin del Isleta, N. S. de Belem, San Estevan de Acoma,
San Josef de La Laguna, N. S. de Guadalupe de Zuni. Alencaster, in Meline's
Two Thousand Miles, p. 212. Taos, eighty-three miles north north-east of
Santa Fe; Picuris, on Bio Picuris, sixty miles north by east of Santa Fe;
San Juan, on the Bio Grande, thirty-four miles north of Santa Fe, on road
to Taos; Santa Clara, twenty-six miles north north-west of Santa Fe; San
Ildefonso, on Bio Grande, eighteen miles north of Santa Fe; Nambe, on
Nambe Creek, three miles east of Pojuaque; Pojuaque, sixteen miles north
of Santa Fe; Tesuque, eight miles north of Santa Fe; Cochiti, on west bank
600 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
of Rio Grande, twenty-four miles south-west of Santa Fe; Santo Domingo,
on Rio Grande, six miles south of Cochiti; San Felipe, on Rio Grande, six
miles south of Santo Domingo; Sandia, on Rio Grande, fifteen miles south
of San Felipe; Isleta, on Rio Grande, thirty miles south of Sandia; Jemes,
on Jemes River, fifty miles west of Santa Fe; Zia, near Jemes, fifty-five
miles west of Santa Fe; Santa Ana, near Zia, sixty-five miles west of Santa
Fe; Laguna, west of Albuquerque forty-five miles, on San Jose River; Acoma,
one hundred and fifteen miles west of Santa Fe, on a rock five hundred feet
high, fifteen miles south-west of Laguna; Zuiii, one hundred and ninety
miles west south-west of Santa Fe, in the Navajo country, on Zuni River.
Meline's Two Thousand Miles, p. 222. See Abert, in Emory's Reconnoissance,
pp. 488-94; Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., pp. 10-12, in Pac. R. E.
Kept., vol. iii.; Ward, in Ind. Aff. Kept., 1864, pp. 191, 193-4; Barreiro,
Ojeada sobre N. Hex., p. 15. ' La primera, entrando sur a norte, es la
nacion Tigua Estan poblados junto a la sierra de Puruai, que toma el nom-
bre del principal pueblo que se llama asi, y orillas del gran rio fueran de
este, pueblan otros dos pueblos, el uno San Pedro, rio abajo de Puruai y el
otro Santiago, rio arriba .... La segunda nacion es la de Tahanos, que al
rumbo oriental y mano derecha del camiuo, puebla un rio que de la parte del
Oriente .... viene a unirse con el rio Grande ; su pueblo principal es Zandia
con otros dos pueblos .... La tercera nacion es la de los Gemex, que a la parte
Occidua puebla las orillas del Rio-Puerco cuyo principal pueblo Qicinzigua
.... La cuarta nacion es de los teguas, que estan poblados al Norte de los
tahanas, de esa otra parte del rio, su principal es Galisteo .... con otros dos
pueblos, y hay al rumbo oriental, encaramada en una sierra alta, la quinta de
Navon de los Pecos, su principal pueblo se llama asf, otro se llama el Tuerto,
con otras rancherfas en aquellos picachos .... La sesta nacion es la de los
queres .... El pueblo principal de esta nacion es Santo Domingo .... la
setima nacion al rumbo boreal es la de los tahos. . . .La octava nacion es la
de los picuries, al rumbo Norueste de Santa Cruz, cuyo pueblo principal es
San Felipe, orillas del rio Zama, y su visita Cochite, orilla del mismo rio ....
La ultima nacion es la de los tompiras, que habita de esa otra parte de la
Canada de Santa Clara y rio Zama, en un arroyo que junta al dicho rio, y es
las fronteras de los llanos de Cibola 6 Zuni.' Salmeron, Relaciones, in DOG.
Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 98-100.
' Some sixty miles to the south southeast of Fort Defiance is situated the
pueblo of Zuni, on a small tributary of the Colorado Chiquito.' Davis' El
Gringo, p. 422. ' On the Rio de Zuni.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., p. 90.
4 To the N. E. of the Little Colorado, about lat. 35°, are the Zunis.' Prichard's
Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 563.
The Moquis, are settled ' West from the Navajos, and in the fork between
the Little and the Big Colorados.' The names of their villages are, according
to Mr Leroux, ' Oraibe, Shiimuthpa, Mushaima, Ahlela, Gualpi, Shiwinna,
Tequa.' Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept., p. 13, in Pac. R. R. Kept.,
vol. iii. ' Westward of the capital of New Mexico Oraibe, Taucos, Mos-
zasnavi, Guipaulavi, Xougopavi, Gualpi.' Cortez, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol.
iii., p. 121. ' Desde estos parages (Zuni) corriendo para el Vest Noruest,
empiezan los Pueblos, y Rancherfas de las Provincias de Moqui Oraybe : los
THE PIMAS OF AKIZONA. 601
Pueblos Moquinos son: Hualpi, Tanos, Moxonavi, Xongopavi, Quianna,
Aguatubi, y Rio grande de espeleta.' Villa-Sefwr y. Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii.,
pp. 425-6; Venegas, Noticia de la CaL, torn, ii., p. 527. 'The five pueblos
in the Moqui are Orayxa, Masanais, Jongoapi, Gualpa, and another, the
name of which is not known.' Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 195. 'The three
eastern villages are located on one bluff, and are named as follows: Taywah,
Sechomawe, Jualpi .... Five miles west of the above-named villages .... is ....
the village of Meshonganawe . . . .One mile west of the last-named village
is .... Shepowlawe. Five miles, in a northwestern direction, from the last-
named village is. . . .Shungopawe. Five miles west of the latter. .. .is the
Oreybe village.' Crothers, in Ind. Af. Kept., 1872, p. 324. Further authori
ties: Palmer, in Id., 1870, p. 133; Browne's Apache Country, p. 290; Dome-
nech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 185, vol. ii., p. 40; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i.,
p. 305; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 278; Ives' Colorado Riv.,p. 127; Marcy's Life
on the Border, p. 111.
' The Pimas inhabit the country on both banks of the Gila River, two
hundred miles above its mouth. They claim the territory lying between the
following boundaries : Commencing at a mountain about twelve miles from
the bend of the Gila River, the line runs up said river to the Maricopa Cop
permine. The north line extends to Salt River and the southern one to
the Picacho.' Walker's Pimas, MS. 'La partie la plus septentrionale de
1'intendance de la Sonora porte le nom de la Pimeria... On distingue la
Pimeria alta de la Pimeria baxa.' Ilumboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 296.
' Corre, pues, esta Pimeria alta, de Sur a Norte desde los 30 grades hasta los
34 que se ci»entan desde esta mision de Nuestra Senora de los Dolores hasta
el rio del Gila. . . .y de Oriente a Poniente desde el valle de los pimas, llama-
dos sobaipuris, hasta las cercanias y costas del seno del mar californio, habita-
das de los pimas sobas. . . .Por el Sur tiene el resto de las naciones opata,
eudeves, pertenecientes a dicha provincia y entre ellas y la sierra-madre, de
Oriente a Poniente, la Pimerfa baja.' Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iv., torn, i., pp. 345-6. 'Los pueblos de pimas bajos son... desde
Taraitzi hasta Cuinuripa, Ouapa, Nuri, Movas y Oanbas lo son hacia el Sur
de Cumuripa, Suaqui, San Jose de Pimas, Santa Rosalfa, Ures y Nacameri
hacia el Pouiente, son la f rontera contra los seris .... Los pimas altos ocupan
todo el terrene que hay desde de Cucurpe por Santa Ana Caborca hasta la mar
de Oriente a Poniente y Sur Korte, todo lo que desde dicha mision tirando
por Dolores, Remedios, Cocospera el presidio de Terrenate, y desde este
siguiendo el rio de San Pedro 6 de los Sobaipuris hasta su junta con el rio
Xila, y por ambas orillas de este hasta el Colorado y entre la mar, o seno de
Californias se encierra.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie
iii., torn, iv., pp. 553-4. 'From the river Yaqui in Sonora, northward to
the Gila and even beyond the Tomosatzi (Colorado) eastward beyond the
mountains in the province of Taraumara, and westward to the sea of Cortez,'
Smith, Grammar of the Pima or Nevome Language, p. viii; Id., Heve Lan
guage, pp. 5-7; Arricivita, Cronica Serdfica, p. 396; Alegre, Hist. C'omp.
de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 216. 'Nordlich vom Flusse Yaqui; vom Dorfe S.
Jose de Pimas bis zu dem uber 60 Leguas nordlicher gelegenen Dorfe Cucu-
rape, bewohnen die Pimas bajas die Mitte des Landes.' 'Nordlich vom
602 TRIBAL BOUND ABIES.
Fluss Ascension, von der Kuste weit ins Land hinein, treffen wir die Pimas
alias.' Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., pp. 419-20. 'Pimerie haute et
basse. La premiere s'etend depuis les Rios Colorado et Gila jusqu'k la ville
de Hermosillo et au Riode losUres, et la seconde depuis cettelimite jusqu'au
Rio del Fuerte qui la separe de Sinaloa.' Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 208.
4 Los pimas altos ocupan lospartidos de la Magdalena y del Altar; lindaii al
Norte con el Gila; al Este con los apaches y con los dpatas, sirviendo de
li'mite el rio San Pedro 6 de Sobaipuris; al Oeste el mar de Cortes, y al Sur
el terreno que ocuparon los seris.' Orozco y Berra, Geografi'a, p. 347. See
also: Malte-Brun, Sonora, pp. 14-15; Mill's Hist. Mex., p. 191; Lachapelle,
Raousset-Boulbon, p. 81; Hardy's Trav., p. 437; Cults' Conq. Cal., p. 195;
Stanley's Portraits, p. 58; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 296; Cremony's
Apaches, pp. 89-90; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 50.
The Maricopas inhabit both sides of the Gila River, for about 36 leagues
in the vicinity of its junction with the Asuncion River. Apostolicos Afanes,
p. 354. ' On the northern bank of the Gila, a few miles west of that of the
Pimas, in about west longitude 112°.' Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Kept.,
p. 102, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii. 'Desde Stue Cabitic, se estienden a lo
largo del rio (Gila) como treinta y seis leguas.' Sedelmair, Relation, in Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie, iii., torn, iv., p. 849; Villa- Senary Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii.,
pp. 404-5. ' Vom siidlichen Ufer desGila bis zum ostlichen des Colorado.'
Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 420; Emory's Reconnoissance, pp.
131-2; Mollhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb, torn, i., p. 123. ' Au sud du rio
Gila, sur une etendue de pres de 150 milles, en remontant depuis 1'embou-
chure.' Gallatin, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., p. 291;
Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 18; Escudero, Noticias de Chihuahua, p. 228.
The Pimas and Maricopas live ' on the Gila, one hundred and eighty
miles from its junction with the Colorado.' Howry's Arizona, p. 14. 'Wo
der 112te Grad westlicher Lange den Gila-Strom Kreuzt, also ungefahr auf
der Mitte der Strecke, die der Gila, fast vom Rio Grande del Norte bis an die
Spitze des Golfs von Kalifornien, zu durchlaufen hat, liegen die Dorfer der
Pimos und Coco-Maricopas.' Mollhausen, Fliichtling, torn, iv., p. 137. 'Non
loin du confluent du rio Salinas, par 112° environ de longitude.' Gallatin,
in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1851, torn, cxxxi., pp. 289-90. 'On the Gila
river, about one hundred miles above the confluence of that stream with
the Colorado.' Dole, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 20. 'Claimed as their own
property the entire Gila valley on both sides, from the Piilal mountains to
the Tesotal.' Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 358. ' From Maricopa Wells
to a short distance beyond Sacaton.' Whitlier, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1868, p. 142.
Limits also given in Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 232; Ives' Colorado Riv.,
p. 45; Bailey, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1858, pp. 203; Poston, in Id., 1864, p. 152.
The Pdpagos ' inhabit that triangular space of arid land bounded by the
Santa Cruz, Gila, and Colorado rivers, and the Mexican boundary line.' Pos
ton, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 384. ' Nordlich von diesen (Pimas altas)
hausen im Osten der Sierra de Santa Clara, welche sich unter 31%° nord-
licher Breite dicht am ostlichen Ufer des Meerbusens von Californien erhebt,
die Papagos oder Papabi-Ootam.' Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 210.
'Junto al rio de San Marcos: 50 leguas mas arriba habita la nacion de los
LOWER CALIFORNIANS. 603
Papagos.' Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 217. 'In the country about San
Xavier del Baca, a few miles from Tucson.' Parker, in 2nd, Aff. Kept., 1869,
p. 19; Jones, in Id., p. 220; Dole, in Id., 1864, p. 21. ' Wander over the
country from San Javier as far west as the Tinajas Altas.' Emory's JKept.
Mex. and U. S. Boundary Survey, vol. i., p. 123. See also: Davidson, in
Ind. Aff. Kept., 1865, p. 133; LacJiapelle, Raousset-Boulbon, p. 81.
The Sobaipuris, a nation related to the Pimas, live among the lower
Pimas. ' Por una sierrezuela que hay al Oriente de este rio y sus ranche-
rias, se dividen estas del valle de los pimas sobaipuris, que a poca distancia
tienen las suyas muchas y muy iiumerosas, las mas al Poniente y pocas al
Oriente del rio, que naciendo de las vertientes del cerro de Terrenate, que
esta como treinta leguas al Norte de esta mision, corre de Sur a Norte hasta
juntarse con el tantas veces nombrado de Gila y juntos corren al Poniente.'
Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 349. Reference
also in Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iv., p. 218; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i.,
p. 210.
The LOWER CALIFORNIAN FAMILY includes all the nations inhabiting the
Peninsula of Lower California, northward to the mouth of the Colorado
River.
The Cochimis inhabit the peninsula north of the twenty-sixth degree of
north latitude. ' I Cochimi ne presero la parte settentrionale da gr. 25 sino
a 33, e alcune isole vicine delMarPacifico.' Clavigero, Storia della Cat., torn.
i., p. 109. 'Desde el territorio de Loreto, por todo lo descubierto al Norte
de la Nacion Cochimi, 6 de los Cochimies.' 'La Nacion, y Lengua de los
Cochimies azia el Norte, despues de la ultima Mission de San Ignacio.' ' Los
Laymones son los mismos, que los Cochimies del Norte.' Venegas, Noticia
de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 63-7. ' Los Cochimies ocupaban la peninsula desde
Loreto hasta poco mas alia de nuestra frontera. Los de las mision es de San
Francisco Javier y San Jose Comondu se llamaban edues; los de San Igna
cio didiies.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 366; Forbes' Cal., p. 21; Lude~
wig's Ab. Lang., pp. 49, 99; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 207; Buschmann,
Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 469-70. 'Between San Fernando and Moleje
were the Limonies, divided (going from north) into the Cagnaguets, Adacs
and Kadakamans.' 'From Santo Tomas to San Vicente they were termed
leas.' Browne's Lower Cal., p. 54; Hist. Chre'tienne de la Cal, p. 163. 'Nord-
lich von Loreto schwarmt der zahlreiche Stamm der Cochimies, auch Co-
chi'mas oder Colimies genannt. Zu ihnen gehoren die Laimones und die
leas,' Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443.
The Guaicuris roam south of the Cochimis, as far as Magdalena Bay.
'Si stabilirono tra i gr. 23% e 26.' Clavigero, Storia della Cal., torn, i., p.
109. ' Los guaicuras se subdividen en guaicuras, coras, conchos, uchitas,
y aripas. Los guaicuras vivian principalmente en la costa del Pacffico,
desde el puerto de San Bernabe hasta el de la Magdalena. Los coras en la
costa del Golfo, desde los pericues hasta la mision de los Dolores, compren-
diendo el puerto de la Paz. Entre los guaicuras, los coras, y los peri-
cues estaban los uchitas 6 uchities. Hasta el mismo Loreto, o muy cerca
llegaban los conchos d monquies, a quienes los jesuitas pusieron lauretanos,
604 . TKIBAL BOUNDABIES.
. . . .una rama de su nacion nombrada monqui— laimon 6 monqui'es del in
terior, porque vivian lejos de la costa, y se encuentran tambien nombrados
por solo laimones. Los aripas al Norte de los guaicuras.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, pp. 365-6. ' Desde la Paz hasta mas arriba del Presidio Real de
Loreto, es de los Monquis a si mismos se llaman con vocablo general Mon
qui, 6 Monquis.. . .los Vchities, que pueblan las cercanias de la Bahia, y
Puerto de la Paz; y la de los Guaycuras, que desde la Paz Be estienden en la
Costa interior hasta las cercanfas de Loreto. Los Monquis mismos se dividcn
en Liyues," Didius, y otras ramas menores.' Venegas, Noticia de la Cat., torn,
i., pp. 63-7. ' Los Guaicuras se establecieron entre el paralelo de 23° 30' y
el de 26°.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 207. ' Von La Paz bis uber den Pre
sidio von Loreto dehnt der Stamm Monqui, Moqui oder Mongui sich aus,
welcliem die Familien Guayciira und Uchfti oder Vehiti angehoren, die je-
doch von einigen Beisenden fiir ganz vershiedene Stamme gehalten werden.'
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443; Buschntann, Spuren der Aztek.
Spr., p. 473; Forbes' Cal., p. 21; Browne's Lower Cal.. p. 54; Ludewig's Ab.
Lang., p. 198. 'La nacion ya nombrada Guaicure, que habita el ramalde
la sierra giganta, que viene costeando el puerto de la Magdalena hasta el de
San BernabeV Salmeron, Relaciones, in Doc, Hist. Hex., serie iii., torn, iv.,
p. 64.
The Pericuis live in the southern portion of the Peninsula from Cape
San Lucas northward to La Paz. ' Desde el Cabo de San Lucas, hasta mas
aca del Puerto de la Paz de la Nacion Pericu A los Indies, que caen al
Sur, 6 Mediodia de su territorio, llaman Edu, 6 Equu, 6 Edues . . se divide
en varias Nacioncillas pequenas, de las quales la mas nombrada es la de los
Coras, nombre propio de una Bancherfa, que se ha comunicado despues a
algunos Pueblos, y al Bio, que desagua en la Bahia de San BernabeV Vene
gas, Noticia de la Cal., torn, i., pp. 63-7. ' Los periciies habitan en la mision
de Santiago, que tiene sujeto a San Jose del Cabo y en las islas de Cerralvo,
el Espiritu Santo y San Jose.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 365. ' I Pericui
ne occuparono la parte australe dal C. di S. Luca sino a gr. 24, e le isole
adjacenti di Cerralvo, dello Spirito Santo, e di S. Giuseppe.' Clavigero, Storia
della Cal., torn, i., p. 109. ' Im Siiden, vom Cp,p San Lucas bis uber den
Hafen Los Pichilmgues und die Mission La Paz h'inaus wohnen die Pericues
zu welchen die Familien Edu oder Equu und Cora gerechnet werden.'
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 443. See also: Pimentel, Cuadro,
torn, ii., p. 207; Californias, Noticias, carta i., p. 86; Browne's Lower Cal., p.
45; Forbes' Cal., p. 21; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 480.
The NORTHERN MEXICAN FAMILY is composed of the inhabitants of the
States of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and portions
of Tamaulipas, Durango, and Zacatecas, south as far as 23° north latitude,
divided as follows:
The Seris ' live towards the coast of Sonora, on the famous Cerro Prieto,
and in its immediate neighborhood.' Cortez, in Pac. R. E. Kept., vol. iii., p.
123. ' Beside in the village near Hermosillo, occupy the island of Tiburon
in the Gulf of California, north of Guaymas.' BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i.,
p. 464. ' Son las Islas nombradas S. Antonio, Taburon, S. Estevan, Boca-
CERIS AND 6PATAS. 605
linas, Salsipuedes, la Tortuga, la ensenada de la Concepcion, habitadas de
Indies de la nacion Seris.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 490. ' Su
principal abrigo es el famoso cerro Prieto, al Poniente de San Jose de los
Pimas, doce leguas, y doce casi al Sur del Pitic; del niar como cerca de
catorce leguas al Orieute, y de la boca del rio Hiaqui al Norte, treinta leguas. . .
Otro asilo tienen, asi en su isla del Tiburon, casi como cuarenta leguas al
Poniente de la hacienda del Pitic y como una legua de la costa, en el seno de
Calif ornias; como en la de San Juan Bautista, cerca de nueve" leguas del
Tiburon al Sud-sudtaeste y a mas de dos leguas de tierra.' Sonora, Descrip.
Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., vol. iv., pp. 559-60. ' Los ceris. . . .[1779]
estabau situados en la villa de Horcasitas en un pueblo llamado el Populo,
una legua hacia el Este de dicha villa, camino para Nacameri. De alii se
trasladaron en 1789 al pueblo de Ceris.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 124.
' The Ceres are confined to the island of Tiburon, the coast of Tepoca, and
the Pueblo of Los Ceres, near Pitic.' Hardy's Trav., p. 437. 4 Zwischendem
Flecken Petic und der Kiiste, und diese hinauf bis zum Flusse Ascension.'
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419. The country adjacent to the Bay
of San Juan Bautista was occupied by the Ceris. Browne's Apache Country,
p. 247. ' Sus madrigueras las han tenido en el famoso cerro Prieto, doce
leguas al Oeste de San Jose de los Pimas, en la cadena que se extiende hacia
Guaymas, en el rincon de Marcos, en las sierras de Bocoatzi Grande, en la
sierra de Picu cerca de la costa, y sobre todo en la isla del Tiburon, situada
en el Golfo de Calif ornias, a una legua de la playa.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
p. 354; Pajaken, in Cal. Farmer, June 13, 1862. Concurrent authorities: La-
chapelle, Eaousset-Boulbon, p. 79; Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 215; Ward's Mexico,
vol. i., p. 565; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 34; Domenech's Deserts, vol. ii., p. 57;
Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 214; Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166.
The Salineros 'hacia los confines de la Pimeria alta.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 354.
The Tepocas are south of the latter. ' Ordinarily live on the island of
Tiburon.' Cortez, in Pac. E. R. Kept., vol. iii.. p. 122. 'Los mas proximos a
la isla del Tiburon.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 354; Malte-Brun, Sonora,
pp. 20-1; Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 214.
The Guaymas and Upanguaymas live near the like-named port. ' Ocupa-
ban el terreno en que ahora se encuentra el puerto de ese nombre, y que se
redujeron al pueblo de Belen.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 354.
The Opatas occupy central and eastern Sonora. ' In the eastern part of
the State, on the banks of the Sonora and Oposura, and in the vicinity of
the town of Arispe and the mineral region of Noc&sari.' Mayer's Mex. Aztec,
etc., vol. ii., p. 300. ' Leurs villages couvrent les bords des rivieres de Yaqui,
de Sonora et de Nacameri, ainsi que la belle vallee d'Oposura.' Zuniga, in
Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1842, torn, xciii., pp. 238-9. « Im Osten des
Staats, an den Ufern der Flusse Sonora und Oposiira und bis gegen die
Stadt Arispe und den Minendistrict von Nacosari hinauf.' Muhlenpfordt,
Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 420. 'Habita el centre del Estado de Sonora. '
Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 403. ' Le long des rivieres de San Miguel de
Horcasitas, d'Arispe, de los Ures et d'Oposura.' Ternaux-Compans, in Nou-
velles Anmlcs des Poy., 1842, torn, xcv., p. 319. ' Coufinan al Norte con los
606 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
pimas y con los apaches; al Este con la Tarahumara; al Sur con la Pimeria
baja, y al Oeste con los pimas y con los seris.' ' Ocupan en el Estado de So-
nora los actuales partidos de Sahuaripa, Oposura, Ures, Arizpe y parte del
de Magdalena.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 338, 343-4. The 6patas,
Eudebes, and Jovas ' pueblan la mayor parte de la Sonora, desde muy
adentro de la sierrra, son sus terrenes hacia al Sur desde este que pusimos
por lindero al Oriente, por el desierto pueblo de Natora, Aribetzi, Bacanora,
Tonitzi, Soyopa, Nacori, Alamos, parte de Tires, Nacameri, Opodepe, Cu-
curpe hacia el Poniente ; desde aqni Arispe, Chinapa, Bacoatzi, Cuquiaratzi
hasta Babispe hacia el Norte, y desde esta mision la poco ha citado sierra
hasta Natora, los que la terminan hacia el Oriente.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog.,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii., torn, iv., pp. 552-3. See also: Wappdus, Geog.
u. Stat., p. 174; Mofras, Explor., torn, i., p. 213; Malte-Brun, Sonora, p. 14;
BartleWs Pers. Nar., vol. i., p. 444; Hardy's Trav., p. 437; Pajaken, in
Cal. Farmer, June 6, 1862; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, torn, ii., p. 562;
Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 597; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 139; Velasco, Noticias
de Sonora, pp. 117, 145. In early days ' they occupied the whole western
slope of the Sierra, from the headquarters of the Sonora River to Nuri, near
the Yaqui towns. They were then esteemed different tribes in different
localities, and are named in the old records as Jobas, Teqiiimas, Teguis,
and Cogiiinachies.' Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 166. 'La nacion opata
se subdivide en opatas tegiiis, avecindados en los pueblos de Opodepe, Ter-
rapa, Ci^urpe, Alamos, Batuco. En opatas teguimas en Sinoquipe, Bana-
michi, Huepaca, Aconchi, Babiacora, Chinapa, Bacuachi, Cuquiarachi,
Cumpas. Opatas Cogiiinachis en Toniche, Matape, Oputo, Oposura, Gua-
savas, Bacadeguachi, Nacori (otro), Mochopa. Los del pueblo de Santa
Cruz se dice que son de nacion contla. Los Batucas, en el pueblo de Batuco
corresponden tambieri a los opatas, asi como los sahuaripas, los himeris y
los guasabas.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 343-4, and Velasco, Noticias
de Sonora, pp. 155-6.
To the Jovas 'pertenecen los pueblos de San Jose Teopari, Los Do
lores, Sahuaripa, donde hay tambien opatas, Ponida, Santo Tornas, Arivetzi,
San Mateo Malzura.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 345; Pimentel, Cuadro,
torn, ii., p. 249. Ovas, 'esta nacion esta poblada a orillas del rio Papi-
gochic, variedad de alguuos pueblos y corre hasta cerca del partido de
Samaripa y uno de sus pueblos llamado Teopari (que es de nacion ova
su geiite) y corre como se ha dicho poblada en este rio hasta cerca de
la mision de Matachic.' Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii.,
p. 341. 'Los ovas, tribu que vive priucipalmente en Sonora.... en Chi
huahua esta poblada orillas del rio Papigochi (el Yaqui), llegando hasta
cerca de Yepomera, de la mision de tarahumares de Matachic; sus ran-
cherfas se llamaron Oparrapa, Natora, Bacaniyahua d Baipoa, Orosaqui
y Xiripa.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325.
The Sobas ' ocuparon a Caborca, encontrandose tarnbien en los alrede-
dores.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 348.
The Potlapiguas, ' uacion gentil cerca de Babispe y de Bacerac, colocada
en la frontera.' Ib.
The Tepahues were ' habitadores de una peninsula que forman dos rios d
brazos del Mayo al Oriente de los de esta nacion.' Id., p. 356.
SINALOAS AND MAYOS. 607
The Tecayaguis, Cues or Macoyahuis were ' en las vertientes del rio,
antes de los tepahues. . . .sus restos se encuentran en el pueblo de la Cou-
cepciou de Macoyahui.' Ib.
The Hymeris, ' nacion situada en los varios valles que forma la Sierra
Madre entre Occidente y Norte del valle de Sonora.' Alegre, Hist. Comp.
de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 243.
The Sonoras inhabit the valley of Sonora, which ' cae a la banda del
Norte, apartado de la villa (Sinaloa) ciento y treinta leguas.' Ribas, Hist,
de los Triumphos, p. 392.
The Eudeves, Eudebes, Hegues, Hequis, Heves, Eudevas or Dohme
dwell in the villages 'Matape, Nacori, Los Alamos, Robesco, Bacanora,
Batuco, Tepuspe, Cucurpe, Saracatzi, Toape, and Opodepe.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 344.
The Sibubapas 'del pueblo de Suaqui.' Id., p. 351.
The Nures, ' habitadores del pueblo de Nuri.' 2b. ' Habita cerca de la de
los Nebomes.' Alcedo, Diccionario, vol. iii., p. 350.
The Hios, 'a ocho leguas al Este deTepahue.' Orozco y Berra, Gtografia,
p. 351.
The Huvagueres and Tehuisos are neighbors of the Hios. 11).
The Basiroas and Teatas, ' mas al Este.' Ib.
The Tupocuyos are four leagues Northwest of Santa Magdalena. ' De
Santa Magdalena en .... el rtimbo al Noroeste .... a 4 leguas de distaucia
llegamos a la rancher fa del Tupocuyos.' Mange, Itinerario, in Doc. Hist.
Alex., serie iv., torn, i., p. 232.
'The Indians of the state of Cinaloa belong to different tribes: towards
the south, in the country and in the Sierra, the Coras, Najarites, and Huei-
colhues are to be found; to the north of Culiacan, the Cinaloas, Cochitas
and Tuvares; and towards the town of El Fuerte, and farther north, we find
the Mayos Indians, to which belong also the tribes Quasare, Ahome, and
Ocoronis.' Sevin, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12; Muhlenpfordt,
Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 402.
The Sinaloas ' tiene su assiento y poblaciones en el mismo rio de Tegueco,
y Quaque, en lo mas alto del, y mas cercauas a las haldas de serranias
de Topia; y sus pueblos comien^an seis leguas arriba del fuerte de Mon-
tesclaros.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, pp. 199, 47. « Los mas orieutales
de las gentes que habitaban las riberas del que ahora llamanios rio del
Fuerte.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesiis, torn, i., p. 460. ' Avecindudos en una
parte de las orillas, hacia las fueutes del rio del Fuerte.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 329.
The Mayos occupy the banks of the rivers Mayo and Fuerte. The Mayo
river ' bafia todos los pueblos de indigenas llamados los Mayos.' Velasco,
Noticias de Sonora, p. 82. ' Die eigentlichen Mayos wohneu hauptsuchlich
westlichund nordwestlich von der Stadt Alamos.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn,
ii., ptii., p. 402. 'Los mayos, sobre el rio Mayo. . . . estan distribuidos en
los pueblos de Santa Cruz de Mayo, Espfritu Santo Echojoa 6 Echonova,
Natividad Navajoa 6 Navohoua, Coiicepcion Cuirinipo, San Ignacio de Tesia,
Santa Catalina Cayamoa 6 Camoa, San Bartolome Batacosa, Masiaca. ' Orozco
y Berra, Geografia, pp. 356, 354; Malte-Brun, Sonora, p. 13. 'The Mayos on
608 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
ihe river Mayo inhabit the following towns: Tepague, Conecare, Camoa,
Tesia, Navahda, Curinghda, Echehda, and Santa Cruz de Mayo, a seaport.
Towns of the same nation on the Rio del Fuerte: Tdro, Baca, Chois, Omi,
San Miguel, Charac, Sivilihoa, and Tegueco.' Hardy's Trav., pp. 438, 390;
Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 583, vol. ii., p. 606; also: Stone, in Hist, Mag.,
vol. v., p. 165; Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 299.
The Yaquis are settled on the Rio Yaqui and between it and the Rio
Mayo. On the Yaqui River at a distance of twelve leagues from the sea,
'esta poblada la famosa Nacion de Hiaquis.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos,
p. 284. ' Lista de los pueblos del rio Yaqui, contados desde Cocori, primer
pueblo al otro lado del rio de Buenavista, al Este del Estado, camino para la
ciudad de Alamos, y rio abajo hasta Belen: Cocori, Bacum, Torin, Bicam,
Potam, Rahum, Huirivis.' Velasco, Noticias de Sonora, p. 84. ' Zwischen
den Fliissen Mayo und Yaqui Die Ortschaften des Stammes Yaqui (Hia-
qui) sind besonders: Beleii, Huadibis, Ravin, Potan, Bican, Torin, Bacun
und Cocorun.' Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419; Malte-Brun, So-
nora, p. 13. ' Les habitations des Yaquis commencent, a partir de la riviere
de ce nom, et s'etendent egalement sur le Rio de Mayo Fuerte et de Sinaloa,
sur tine etendue de plus de 140 lieues.' Zuniga, in Nouvelles AnnalesdesVoy.,
1842, torn, xciii., p. 239; Ternaux-Compans, in Id., torn, xcv., p. 306. 'Tara-
umara es la resiclencia de los Indios Yaquis.' ' Are still farther north (than
the Mayos), and belong entirely to the state of Sonora.' Sevin, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxx., p. 12: Stone, in Hist. Mag., vol. v., pp. 164-5; Paja-
Jcen, in Cal. Farmer, June 6, 1862; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, v., p. 46. ' Oc-
cupent le pays situe au sud de Guaymas jusqu'au Rio del Fuerte.' Mofras,
Explor., torn, i., p. 212. See further: Ferry, Scenes de la Vie Sauvage, pp.
15, 45; Ward's Mexico, vol. i., p. 582, vol. ii., p. 606; Hardy's Trav., pp.
437-8; Combier,Voy., p. 200: Mex. in 1842, pp. 67-8: Hist. Chre'tienne de la
Cal., p. 244.
The Zuaques have their villages between the Mayo and Yaqui rivers.
1 Los zuaques estaban adelante, a cinco leguas de los tehuecos, y sus tierras
corrian por espacio de diez leguas.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 332. ' Sus
pueblos. .. .eran tres....el principal dellos, llamado Mochicaui.' Ribas,
Hist, delos Triumphos, p. 163; Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 419.
The Tehuecos are west of the Sinaloas. ' Seis leguas al Oeste del ultimo
de sus pueblos (Sinaloas) seguian los teguecos 6 tehuecos.' Orozco y Berra,
Gwgrafia, p. 332. « Los pueblos desta Nacion, que en sus priucipios fueron
tres, comen9auan quatro leguas rio arriba del vltimo delos Cuaques.' Ribas,
Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 171.
The Ahornes dwell on the Rio Zuaque four leagues from the sea. ' La
Nacion Ahome. y su principal pueblo. . . .Dista quatro leguas de la mar de
Calif ornias.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 145; Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
p. 332; Alcedo, Diccionario, vol. i., p. 33; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii.,p.522.
The Vacoregues ' vivian en las playas del mar y en los medanos, . . . . un
pueblo, orillas del rio (Fuerte), no lejos de Ahome.' Orozco y Berra, Geogra
fia, p. 332.
The Batucaris ' frecuentaban un lagunazo a tres leguas de Ahome.' Ib.
The Comoporis ' existian en una peninsula, siete leguas de Ahome.' Ib.
TKIBES OF SINALOA. 609
' En vna peninsula retirada, y en los Medanos, 6 montes de arena del mar,
viuian las rancherias de la gente fiera destos Comoporis.' Ribas, Hist, de los
Triumphos, p. 153.
The Guazaves ' distante diez, y doze leguas de la villa ' (Cinaloa). Id., p.
46. 'Habitadores de San Pedro Guazave y de Tamazula, orillas del rio
Sinaloa.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 332.
The Zoes ' eran Indies serranos, que tenian sus poblaciones en lo alto del
mismo rio de los Cinaloas, y a las haldas de sus serranias.' Ribas, Hist, de
los Triumphos, p. 208. ' Se establecieron a las faldas de la Sierra, en las
f uentes del rio del Fuerte cercanos a los sinaloas. ' Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
p. 333. ' Confinan con los tubares.' Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iv.,
torn, iii., p. 395.
The Huites 'Vivian en la Sierra, a siete leguas de los sinaloas.' Orozco y
Berra, Geografia, p. 333.
The Ohueras and Cahuimetos dwell at ' San Lorenzo de Oguera. . . .situado
4 seis leguas al E. de la villa de Sinaloa y sobre el rio.' Id., p. 334.
The Chicoratos and Basopas, ' en la sierra, y a siete leguas al E. de
Oguera, se encuentra la Concepcion de Chicorato Cinco leguas al Norte
tiene a San Ignacio de Chicuris, en que los habitantes son tambienbasopas.'
16.
The Chicuras 'eran vecinos de los chicoratos.' Ib.
The Tubares or Tovares live in the * pueblos de Concepcion, San Ignacio
y San Miguel.' 'habitan uno de los afluentes del rio del Fuerte.' Id., pp.
323-4. ' Poblada en varias rancherias sobre los altos del rio grande de Cina
loa.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 117. ' En el distrito de Mina.' Pimen-
tel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 254.
The Chinipas, Guailopos, and Maguiaquis live ' en San Andres Chinipas.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 324; Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 95.
The Hizos are in ' Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Voragios 6 Taraichi.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 324.
The Varogios, Husorones, Cutecos and Tecargonis are in ' Nuestra Senora
de Loreto de Voragios d Sinoyeca y en Santa Ana.' Ib.
The Tarahumares inhabit the district of Tarahumara in the state of Chi
huahua. ' Provincia .... confina por el O con la de Sonora, por el E con el
Nuevo Mexico, sirviendole de limites el rio Grande del Norte, por este ruinbo
no estan conocidos aun sus terminos, por el S O con la de Cinaloa toma
el nombre de la Nacion de Indies asi llamada, que confinaba con la de los Te-
peguaues.' Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, v., p. 46; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p.
363. ' In den tiefen uiid wilden Schluchten von Tararecua und Santa Sinfo-
rosa, jagen verschiedene Farailien der Tarahumaras.' Miihlenpfordt, Mejico,
toin. ii., pt ii., p. 521; Mexilcanische Zastande, torn, i., p. 74. 'Bewohnen
einen Theil des Berglandes im W. der Hauptstadt, wo sie namentlich indem
schonen Hochthale des Rio Papigdchic in alien Ortschaften einen Theil der
Bevolkerung bilden.' Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 213. 'Inhabit the towns in
Mulatos.' Hardy's Trav., p. 438. 'En la raya que divide los Reynos de la
Vizcaya y de la Galicia no en los terminos limitados que hoy tiene que es
Acaponeta, sino en los que antes tubo hasta cerca de Sinaloa.' Padilla,
Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 491. ' Al Oriente tienen el rio de los Conchos y al
VOL. I. 39
610 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Poniente la Sinaloa, Sonora y las regiones del Nuevo Mexico, al Norte y al
Austro la Nacion de los Tepehuanes. ' Se estiendan por el Norte hasta mas
abajo de San Buenaventura.' 'Vivian en S. Jose de Bocas, cabecera de
una de las misiones de los jesuitas,' in Durango. Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
pp. 319-25. 'Atres leguas de San Jose Temaichic esta otro pueblo y
mucha gente en el llamada tarauniar Pachera.' Zapata, in Doc. Hist.
Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 333; Richthofen, Mexico, p. 448. ' Les Tahues
etaient probable tnent les memes que ceux que Ton designe plus tard
sous le nom de Tarahumaras.' 'Leur capitale etait Teo-Colhuacan.' Bras-
seur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, preface, p. 191.
The Conchos inhabit the banks of the Rio Conchos, near its confluence
with the Rio del Norte. ' Enderecjo su camino hazia el Norte, y a dos jorna-
das topo mucha cantidad de Indies de los que llaman Conchos.' Espejo, in
HakluyVs Voy., vol. iii., pp. 384, 390. 'En en Real del Parral.' Arlegui,
Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 97. ' Se estiende hasta las orillas del rio grande del
Norte. Por la parte del septentrion confina con los laguneros, y al Medio-
dia tiene algunos pueblos de los tepehuanes y valle de Santa Barbara.'
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p, 58.
The Passaguates live twenty-four leagues north of the Conchos. ' Anda-
das las veinte y quatro leguas dichas (from the Conchos;, toparon otra nacion
de Indios, llamados Passaguates.' Espejo, in HakluyVs Voy,, vol. iii., pp. 384,
391.
The Mamites, Colorados, Arigames, Otaquitamones, Pajalames, Poaramas
were in the neighborhood, of the Conchos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325.
The Guazapares are ' a veinte leguas de distancia del pueblo y partido de
Loreto al Sur, reconociendo al Oriente, y solas diez del pueblo y partido de
Santa Ines, caminando derecho al Oriente, esta el pueblo y partido de Santa
Teresa de Guazapares, llamado en su lengua Guazayepo.' Zapata, in Doc.
Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 389.
The Temoris dwell in the ' pueblo de Santa Maria Magdalena de Temoris
.... A cinco leguas de distancia hacia el Norte del pueblo y cabecera de Santa
Teresa esta el pueblo llamado Nuestra Sefiora del Valle Humbroso. Id., p.
390.
The Tobosos are north of the Tarahumares and in the Mission of San
Francisco de Coahuila, in the state of Coahuila. ' Se extendian por el Bolson
de Mapimi, y se les encuentra cometiendo depredaciones asi en Chihuahua
y en Durango, como en las misiones de Parras, en las demas de Coahuila y
en el Norte de Nuevo Leon.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 308-9, 302, 325.
In Coahuila, 'Un paraje. . . .que llaman la Cuesta de los muertos, donde
tienen habitacion los Indios Tobosos.' Villa-Senor y Sanchez, Theatro, torn.
ii., pp. 296-7, 348-9. 'A un paraje que hoy es la mision del Santo nombre
de Jesus.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, p. 519.
The Sisimbres, Chizos, Cocoyomes, Coclamas, Tochos, Babos, and Nures
live near the Tobosos. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 325. Valle de San Bar-
tholome, Presidio de la Provincia de Tepeguana. . . .antigua residencia de los
Indios Infieles Cocoyomes. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, i., pp. 222-3.
The Tepagues are 'Cinco leguas arriba del rio de Mayo, en vn arroyo.'
Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 253.
NORTH-EASTERN MEXICAN TRIBES. 611
The Conicaris live ' distante de Chinipadiezy seis leguas.' Id., pp., 265,
254.
A multitude of names of nations or tribes are mentioned by different
authorities, none of which coincide one with the other. But few nations
are definitely located. I therefore first give the different lists of names, and
afterwards locate them as far as possible. ' Babeles, Xicocoges, Gueiquiza-
les, Goxicas, Manos Prietas, Bocoras, Escabas, Cocobiptas, Pinanacas, Co-
dames, Cacastes, Colorados, Cocomates, Jaimamares, Contores, Filifaes,
Babiamares, Catujanes, Apes, Pachagues, Bagnames, Isipopolames, Piez de
benado. Chancafes, Payaguas, Pachales, Jumes, Johamares, Bapancora-
pinamacas, Babosarigames, Pauzanes, Paseos, Chahuanes, Mescales, Xara-
mes, Chachaguares, Hijames, ledocodamos, Xijames, Cenizos, Pampapas,
Gavilanes. Sean estos nombres verdaderos, 6 desfigurados seguii la inteli-
gencia, caprichos, o voluntariedad de los que se emplearon en la pacificacion
del Pais, 6 de los fundadores de las Doctrinas, parece mas creible que los
mencionados Yndios, fuesen pequenas parcialidades, 6 ramos de alguna na-
cion, cuyo nombre generico no ha podido Saberse.' Revillagigedo, Carta, MS.
' Pacpoles, Coaquites, Zibolos, Canos, Pachoches, Sicxacames, Siyan-
guayas, Sandajuanes, Lignaces, Pacuazin, Pajalatames y Carrizos.' Pa-
dilla, cap. Ixix., quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 306. 'Negritos,
Bocalos, Xanambres, Borrados, Guanipas, Pelones, Guisoles, Hualahuises,
Alasapas, Guazamoros, Yurguimes, Mazames, Metazures, Quepanos, Coyo
tes, Bgaanas, Zopilotes, Blancos, Amitaguas, Quimis, Ayas, Comocabras,
Mezquites.' Archivo General, MSS., torn, xxxi., fol. 208, quoted in Ib. Paogas,
Caviseras, Vasapalles, Ahomamas, Yanabopos, Daparabopos, Mamazorras,
Neguales, Salineros y Baxaneros, conocidos generalmente bajo la apelacion
de Laguneros. Id., p. 305. ' Rayados y Cholomos.' Id., p. 306.
' Las tribus que habitaban el Valle (del rio Nazas) se nombraban Irritilas,
Miopacoas, Meviras, Hoeras y Maiconeras, y los de la laguna ' [Laguna
grande de San Pedro or Tlahuelila]. Id., p. 305.
' Pajalates, Orejones, Pacoas, Tilijayas, Alasapas, Pausanes, y otras mu-
chas diferentes, que se hallan en las misiones del rio de San Antonio y rio
grande . . .como son; los Pacuaches, Mescales, Pampopas, Tacames, Chayo-
pines, Venados, Pamaques, y toda la juventuddePihuiques, Borrados, Sani-
paos y Manos de Perro.' Id., p. 306; Pimenlel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 409. ' A
media legua corta . . .[de San Juan Bautista] se fundo la misionde San Ber
nardo . . . con las naciones de Ocanes, Canuas, Catuxanes, Paxchales,
Pomulumas, Pacuaches, Pastancoyas, Pastalocos y Pamasus, a que se agrega-
ron despues los Pacuas, Papanacas, Tuancas y otras.' Orozco y Berra, Oeo-
grafta, p. 303.
The Gijames are in the mountains near the mission of El Santo Nombre
de Jesus de Peyotes. Morfi, in Doc. Hist. Hex., serie iii., torn, iv., p. 434.
The Pitas and Pasalves at the Mission of ' Nuestra Senora de los Do
lores de la Pimta.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 303.
The Pampopas « habitaban en el rio de las Nueces, a 22 leguas al Sur de la
mision de San Juan Bautista; los Tilijaes mas abajo de los anteriores; al Sur
de estos los Patacales, y los'Cachopostales cerca de los Pampopas. Los Paja-
laques vivian en el rio de San Antonio coino a 40 leguas de la mision de San
612 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Bernardo; los Pacos y los Pastancoyas a 15 leguas en el paraje nombrado el
Carrizo; los Panagues a 18 leguas de la mision sobre el rio de las Nueces;
Los Pauzanes sobre el rio de San Antonio, y los Paguachis a 15 leguas del
mismo San Bernardo.'. . . .' Con Indies de la naciones Mahuames, Pachales,
Mescales, Jarames, Ohaguames y Chahuames con ellos y con las tribus
de Pampopas, Tilofayas, Pachalocos y Tusanes situd de nuevo la mision de
San Juan Bautista, junto al presidio del mismo nombre, cerca del rio Bravo.'
' A tiro de escopeta [from Santo Nombre de Jesus Peyotes] se encuentra
San Francisco Vizarron de los Pausanes . . . con f amilias de Tinapihuayas,
Pihuiques y Julimenos, aunque la mayor parte fueron Pauzanes.' Orozco y
Berra, Geografia, pp. 303-4. ' En el valle de Santo Domingo, a orilla del
rio de Sabinas San Juan Bautista ...lo pobld con indios Chahuanes,
Pachales, Mescales y Jarames, a que se agregaron despues algunos Pampo
pas, Tilofayas, Pachalocos y Tusanes.' Morfi, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iii.,
torn. iv.,pp. 440-1.
The Cabesas, Contotores, Bazaurigames and others were at the mission
San Buenaventura. Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 530.
The Gabilanes and Tripas Blancas roamed over a stretch of country sit
uated north of the Presidio of Mapimi, between the rivers San Pedro and
Conchos to their confluence with the Rio Grande. Villa-Senor y Sanchez,
Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 348-9.
The Laguneros ' poblados a las margenes de la laguna que llaman Grande
de sau Pedro, y algunos dellos en las isletas que haze la misma laguna.'
Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 669.
Los misioneros franciscanos atrajeron de paz las tribus siguientes, con
los cuales fundaron cinco misiones. )San Francisco de Coahuila, un cuarto
de legua al Norte de Monclova, con indios Boboles y Obayas, a los cuales
se agregaron algunos Tobosos y Tlaxcaltecas conducidas de San Esteban
del Saltillo. Santa Rosa de Nadadores, puesta en 1677 a cuarenta leguas al
Noroeste de Coahuila, de indios Cotzales y Manosprietas, trasladada junto al
rio de Nadadores para huir de la guerra de los Tobosos, y colocada al fin,
en 1693, a siete leguas al Noroeste de Coahuila: se le agregaron ocho familias
Tlaxcaltecas. San Bernardo de la Candela, con indios Catujanes, Tilijais
y Milijaes, y cuatro familias Tlaxcaltecas. San Buenaventura de las cuatro
Cienegas, veinte leguas al Oeste de Coahuila, con indios Cabezas, C/onto-
tores y Bauzarigames : la mision repuesta en 1692 con los Tocas y los Colo-
rados. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 302.
The Irritilas occupy ' la parte del partido de Mapimi al Este.' Id., p. 319.
The Pisones and Xanambres roam ' Al Sur del valle de la Purfsima y al
Norte hasta Rio Blanco, confinando al Oeste con los Cuachichiles.' Orozco y
Berra, Geografia, p. 298.
Other names which cannot be located are: Cadimas, Pelones, Nazas,
Pamoranos, Quedexefios, Palmitos, Piutos, Quinicuanes, Maquiapemes,
Seguyones, Ayagua, Zima, Canaina, Comepescados, Aguaceros, Vocarros,
Posuamas, Zalaias, Malahuecos, Pitisfiafuiles, Cuchinochis, Talaquichis,
Alazapas, Pafaltoes. Id., pp. 299-300.
The nations or tribes of Tamaulipas, although very numerous, are mostly
located.
TRIBES OF TAMAULIPAS. 613
The Olives live in Horcasitas. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 293.
The Palagueques are at the Mission of San Francisco Xavier. Ib.
The Anacanas, '& una legua de Altamira.' 76.
The Aretines, Panguais, and Caramiguais in the ' sierra del Chapopote,
que remata en la barra del Tordo.' Ib.
The Mapulcanas, Cataicanas, Caramiguais, Panguais, and Zapoteros live
hear the Salinas, which are between the Cerro del Maiz and the sea. Ib.
The Caribays, Comecamotes, Ancasiguais, Tagualilos, and Pasitas .are near
De Soto la Marina and Santander. Ib.
The Moralenos and Panguajes live on the coast between Marina and Alta-
mirano. Ib.
The Martinez, 'en la Sierra de Tamaulipa vieja.' Ib.
The Mariguanes, Caramariguanes, Aretines, ' habitada desde el cerro de
S. Jose a la mar.' Ib.
The Tumapacanes, 'en el camino para Santander.' Ib.
The Inapanames, ' a una y media leguas de la priniera villa (Santillana).'
Ib.
The Pintos and Quinicuanes dwell near San Fernando de Austria. Ib.
The Tedexenos, ' en las lagunas de la barra.' Ib.
The Comecrudos, ' donde el rio se vacia en sus crecientes.' Ib.
The Tamaulipecos and Malinchenos live at the mission of S. Pedro Alcan
tara. Ib.
The Guixolotes, Cadimas, Canaynes, and Borrados are ' al pie de la sierra
de Tamaulipas, teniendo al Sur el terreno que se llama la Tamaulipa Moza. '
Id., pp. 293-4.
The Nazas, Nances, Comecrudos, and Texones are at the mission of Rey-
nosa. Id., p. 294.
The Tanaquiapemes, Saulapaguemes, Auyapemes, Uscapemes, Comesaca-
pemes, Gummesacapemes, Catanamepaques are ' rumbo al Este y sobre el rio,
a seis leguas de la mision. . . .se internan a las tierras llegando en sus corre-
rias unicamente hasta el mar.' Ib.
The Carrizos, Cotomanes, and Cacalotes are at ' Camargo, situado sobre el
rio de S. Juan....al otro lado del Bravo....los cuales por fuera del rio
Grande llegaii hasta Revilla.' Ib.
The Garzas and Malaguecos live near rio Alamo. Id., p. 294.
No location for the following can be found: Politos, Mulatos, Pajaritos,
Venados, Payzanos, Cuernos quemados. Id., pp. 295-6.
The Tepehuanes inhabit the mountains of southern Chihuahua and the
northern portions of Durango, a district commonly called the partido de
Tepehuanes. ' Estiende desde la Sierra del Mezquital hasta el Parral . . .
hasta adelante de Topia, muy cerca de Caponeta.' Arlegui, Chron. de Zacate-
cas, pp. 187-8. ' Se extiende esta region desde la altura misma de Guadiana,
a poco menos de 25 grades hasta los 27 de latitud septentrional. Sus pueblos
comienzan a las veinticinco leguas de la capital de Nuevu-Vizcaya, acia el
Noroeste en Santiago de Papasquiaro. Al Norte tiene a la provincia de
Taraumara, al Sur la de Chiametlan y costa del seno Californio, al Oriente
los grandes arenales y naciones vecinas a la laguna de S. Pedro, y al Poni-
ente la Sierra Madre de Top 'a, que la divide de estaprovinciay la de Sinaloa.'
614 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES.
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 319. * Sus pueblos, parte en llanos,
y parte en sierra, a las vertientes de la de Topia, y san Andres Y por essa
parte vezinos a las Naziones Xixime, y Acaxee, y aun a las de la tierra mas
adentro de Cinaloa.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 573. For concurrent
testimony see: Zapata, in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., p. 310; Villa-
Seiior y Sanchez, Theatro, torn, ii., pp. 344-5; Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p.
43; Murr, Nachrichten, p. 323; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 318-19.
The Acaxees inhabit the valleys of the mountain regions of Topia and S.
Andres in Durango and Sinaloa. ' La principal Nacion, en cuyas tierras esta
el Keal de Topia, es la Acaxee.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 471. 'Lo
limitan al Norte y al Este el Tepehuan, al Sur el Xixime y al Oeste el Sa-
baibo y el Tebaca.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 319, 310, 315; Zapata,
in Doc. Hist. Mex., serie iv., torn, iii., pp. 416-17. ' San Pedro valle de
Topia, el mineral de Topia, Asuncion Sianori, San Antonio Tahuahueto y
los Dolores de Agna Caliente, las cuales poblaciones marcan los terrenes
habitados por los Acaxees.' Tamaron, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 314.
The Tebacas lived among the Acaxees in the mountain districts of Topia
and S. Andres. Id., p. 334.
The Sabaibos ' habitaban en el partido de San Ignacio Otatitlan y pueblos
de Piaba, Alaya y Quejupa.' Ib.
The Cdcaris dwell in Cacaria. Id., p. 319.
The Papudos and Tecayas were settled in the district of San Andres.
Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 379-80.
The Xiximes inhabited ' en el coraqon desta sierra ' de San Andres.
Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 531. ' Ocupan el partido de San Dimas.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 315-17.
The Ilinas ' Habitan la mayor parte en profundfsimas quebradas del cen-
tro de la sierra, y muchos a las margenes del rio de Humace, que en su em-
bocadura llaman de Piaxtla, muy cerca de su nacimiento, como a cinco leguas
de Yamoriba.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 195. ' Habitantes de
las margenes del rio de Piaztla.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 316.
The Humes are in the Sierra de San Andres. ' Como nueue leguas del
pueblo de Quilitlan, y en lo mas alto de toda esta sierra, caminando al Ori-
eiite.' Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 562. ' Nueve leguas mas adelante
del lugar de Queibos 6 de Santiago.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii.,
p. 199; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 316, 325.
The Zacatecos inhabit the like-named State, and particularly near the rio
Nazas. ' Baxo la Sierra, que oy llaman del calabazal, y paro a las orillas de
un rio, que oy llaman de Suchil.' Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 26. ' Los que
habitaii en el rio de las Nasas son indios zacatecos.' Doc. Hist. Mex.,
serie iv., torn, iii., p. 33. ' Se extendian hasta el rio Nazas. Cuencame,
Cerro Gordo, S. Juan del Hio, Nombre de Dios, quedaban comprendidos en
esta demarcacion.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 319.
The Guachichiles, Cuachichiles, or Huachichiles ' corrian por Zacatecas
hasta San Potosf y Coahuila.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 285. 'La villa
del Saltillo esta fundada sobre el terreno que en lo antiguo ocuparon los
indios cuachichiles.' Ifi., pp. 301, 287; De Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 281.
CHAPTER VI.
WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
TERRITORIAL ASPECTS— Two MAIN DIVISIONS; WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL
MEXICO, AND WILD TRIBES OF SOUTHERN MEXICO — THE CORAS AND
OTHERS IN JALISCO — DESCENDANTS OF THE AZTECS — THE OTOMIS
AND MAZAHUAS ADJACENT TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO — THE FAMES —
THE TARASCOS AND MATLALTZINCAS OF MICHOACAN— THE HUAZTECS AND
TOTONACS OF VERA CRUZ AND TAMAULIPAS — THE CHONTALES, CHINAN-
TECS, MAZATECS, CUICATECS, CHATINOS, MIZTECS, ZAPOTECS, MIJES, HUA-
VES, CHIAPANECS, ZOQUES, LACANDONES, CHOLES, MAMES, TZOTZILES, TZEN-
DALES, CHOCHONES, AND OTHERS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO.
The term WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, which I employ
to distinguish this from the other groupal divisions of
the Native Races of the Pacific States needs some ex
planation. The territory embraced under this title ex
tends from latitude 23° north, to the eighteenth parallel
on the Atlantic, and the fifteenth on the Pacific ; that is
to the Central American line, including Yucatan and
excluding Guatemala. At the time of the conquest, a
large portion of this region as well as part of Central
America was occupied by those nations that we call civi
lized, which are fully described in the second volume of
this work. These several precincts of civilization may
be likened to suns, shining brightly at their respective
centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness
with greater or less intensity according to distance and
circumstances. The bloody conquest achieved, these,
suns were dimmed, their light went out ; part of this civi-
616 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
lization merged into that of the conquerors, and
part fell back into the more distant darkness. Later
'many of the advanced aboriginals became more and more
identified with the Spaniards; the other natives soon
came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified,
spread over the seat of their nation's former grandeur,
obliterating many of the traces of their peoples' former
high advancement; — so that very shortly after the
Spaniards became masters of the land, any description
of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage
nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples
of higher culture. And thus I find it, and thus must
treat the subject, going over the whole territory almost
as if there had been no civilization at all.
For variety and striking contrasts the climate and
scenery of central and southern Mexico is surpassed by
no region of equal extent in the world. It is here that
the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either ocean,
the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the
tierra fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most
definite forms. The interior table-lands have an aver
age elevation above the sea of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet.
The geological formation is on a Titanic scale ; huge rocks
of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes, inter
sected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting un
paralleled scenes of grandeur. Prominent among the
surrounding mountains tower the snow-clad crests of
Orizaba and Popocatepetl, — volcanic piles whose slum
bering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest.
The plateau is variegated with many lakes; the soil,
almost everywhere fertile, is overspread with a multi
tudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of ever
green, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak
stand conspicuous. Seasons come and go and leave no
mark behind ; or it may be said that spring, satisfied
with its abode, there takes up its perpetual rest; the
temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine
by day, while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy
nowhere excelled. The limits of the tierra templada
TRIBES OF CENTEAL MEXICO. 617
it is impossible to define, as the term is used in a some
what arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different
altitudes. On the lowlands along the coast known as
the tierra caliente, the features of nature are changed ;
vegetation assumes a more luxuriant aspect ; palms, para
sitical plants and trees of a tropical character, take the
place of the evergreens of a colder clirne; the climate
is not salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. On the
Atlantic side furious storms, called ' northers/ spring
up with a suddenness and violence unexampled in other
places, often causing much destruction to both life and
property.
For the purpose of description, I separate the Wild
Tribes of Mexico in two parts, — the Wild Tribes of Cen
tred Mexico, and the Wild Tribes of Southern Mexico. The
first of these divisions extends from 23° north latitude
to the northern boundary of the state of Oajaca, or rather
to an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary
and running from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexi
co, that is to say from Yera Cruz to Acapulco.
To enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes
within this territory, to separate the uncivilized from
the civilized, the mythical from the real, is not pos
sible. I have therefore deferred to the end of this
chapter such authorities as I have on the subject,
where they will be found ranged in proper order
under the head of Tribal Boundaries. Of the tribes that
are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was
found among the Aztecs and other cultivated nations, I
will only mention the people denominated ChichimecSj
under which general name were designated a multitude
of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the valley
of Mexico, all of which were prominently dependent
on the result of the chase for their subsistence; the
ancient Otomis who mostly occupied the mountains
which inclose the valley of Mexico ; and the Fames in
Queretaro. South of Mexico were numerous other
nations who were more or less intermixed with those
more civilized. Finally, I shall describe those people
618 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
who, since they came in contact with the whites, have
retrogaded in such a degree, that their manners and cus
toms can only be given in connection with those of the
Wild Tribes, and which comprise a large proportion of
all the present aborigines of Mexico.1
The natives of the valley of Mexico are represented
by some authorities as tall, by others as of short stature ;
but from what I gather we may conclude that on the
whole they are over rather than under the middle height,
well made and robust. In Yera Cruz they are some
what shorter, say from four feet six inches to five feet
at most, and clumsily made, having their knees further
apart than Europeans and walking with their toes turned
in ; the women are shorter than the men and become
fully developed at a very early age. In Jalisco both
sexes are tall ; they are also well built, and among the
women are found many forms of such perfection that
they might well serve as models for sculpture. Through
out the table- lands, the men are muscular and well pro
portioned. Their skin is very thick and conceals the
action of the muscles; they are out-kneed, turn their
toes well in, and their carriage is anything but graceful.2
Various opinions have been advanced by competent per
sons in regard to the features of the natives of Mexico.
Baron Yon Humboldt describes them as resembling the
aborigines of Canada, Peru, Florida, and Brazil; hav-
1 Otomi; — ' Otho en la misma lengua othorai quiere decir nada, j mi,
quieto, o sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la palabra, significa
nada-quieto, cuya idea pudieramos expresar diciendo peregrino 6 errante.'
Pimentel, .^Cuadro, torn, i., p. 118. Chichimecs; — ' Los demas Indies les
llamaban Chichimecos (que hoy lo mismo es chichi que perros altaneros)
por la ninguna residencia.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 44. Speak
ing of Chichimecs, ' debaxo deste nombre estan muchas naciones con die-
rencias de lenguas como son Pamies, Capuzes, Samues, Zanqas, Maiolias,
Guamares, Guachichiles, y otros, todos diferentes aunque semejantes en las
costumbres.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xiv. For further
etymology of tribes, see .Buschmann, Ortsnamen.
2 ' Hanno d'altezza piu di cinque piedi parigini.' Clavir/ero, Storia Ant.
del Messico, torn, iv., p. 161. ' De pequena estatura [cuatro pies seis pulgadas,
a cinco pies cuando mas.]' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p, 229. In Yalisco
'casi en todo este reyno, son grandes, y hermosas.' Gomara, Hist. Ind.,
fol. 271. 'Son de estatura alta, bien hechos y fornidos.' Ulloa, Noticias
Americanas, p. 308; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 182; Burkart, Mexico, torn, i., p. 49;
Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 560; Beaumont, Cron de Mechoacan, MS., p.
236.
PHYSICAL JFEATUKES IN NOETHEKN MEXICO. 619
ing elongated eyes, the corners turned towards the
temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet
expression about the mouth, forming a strong contrast
with their otherwise gloomy and severe aspect. Rossi
says that their eyes are oval, and that their physiognomy
resembles that of the Asiatics. According to Prescott,
they bear a strong resemblance to the Egyptians, and
Yiollet le Due asserts that the Malay type predominates.
They have generally a very narrow forehead, an oval
face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with
thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and
rather flat. The general expression of the countenance
is melancholy, and exhibits a strange combination of
moroseness and gentleness. Although some very hand
some women are to be found among them, the majority
of the race, both men and women, are ugly, and in old
age, which with the \vomen begins early, their faces are
much wrinkled and their features quite harsh. They have
acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains un
impaired to a very advanced age. Long, straight, black,
thick, and glossy hair is common to all ; their beard is thin,
and most of them, especially in the capital and its vicinity,
have a small moustache ; but very few, if any, have hair
on their legs, thighs, or arms. It is very seldom that a
gray-haired native is found. All the people referred to,
are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which
may be judged of by the heavy burdens they carry on
their backs. The inhabitants of the table-lands are of
various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a
red copper color. In the Sierras some have- a bluish
tint as if dyed with indigo. The natives of the tierras
calientes are of a darker complexion, inclining to black.
There are some called Indios Pintos, whose cuticle is of
a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked
with dark copper-colored spots.3
3 ' In complexion, feature, hair and eyes, I could trace a very great re
semblance between these Indians and the Esquimaux.' Lyon's Journal, vol.
i., p. 296, see also vol. ii., pp. 199, 239. 'Son de la frente ancha, y las ca-
bezas chatas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 133, 129. See further,
Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man., vol. ii., p. 511; Calderon de la Barca's Life in
620 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
In the valley of Mexico the natives wear the ichapilli^
or a sort of shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue
striped cotton, which reaches to the knees and is gathered
round the waist with a belt. This is frequently the only
garment worn by the aborigines of the Mexican valley.
In lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head,
they -now use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which
is about nine inches in width ; or they bind round the
head a colored handkerchief. Most of the men and
women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for
their feet, use the cades, or huarackes, (sandals) made of
tanned leather and tied with thongs to the ankles. The
dress of the women has undergone even less change than
that of the men, since the time of the Spanish conquest.
Many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen
cloth, bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers
the purpose of a petticoat ; it is woven in stripes of dark
colors or embellished with figures. The ichapilli is
white, with figures worked on the breast, and is longer
than that worn by the men. In Puebla the women
wear very narrow petticoats and elegant quichemels cover
ing the breast and back and embroidered all over with
silk arid worsted. In the state of Yera Cruz and other
parts of the tierra caliente the men's apparel consists of a
short white cotton jacket or a dark-colored woolen tunic,
with broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a
sash, and short blue or white breeches open at the sides
near the knee ; these are a Spanish innovation, but they
continue to wear the square short cloak, tiltna or tilmatli,
with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the
breast. Sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of
goat or deer skin are worn over the cotton ones, and
also a jacket of the same material. The women wear a
Mex., vol. i., p. 200; Almaraz, Memoria, p. 79; Huniboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i.,
pp. 82, 86; Rossi, Souvenirs, p. 280; Viollet-Le-Duc., in Charnay, Euines Ameri-
caines, p. 102; PoinseWs Notes on Mex., pp. 107-8; Ottavio, in Nouvdks Annales
des Voy., 1833, torn, lix., pp. 73-4; Fossey, Mexique, p. 391; Vigneaux, Souv.
291.
MEXICAN COSTUMES. 621
coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often worked
about the neck in bright • colored worsted, to suit the
wearer's fancy ; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round
the waist, very full below, and a blue or brown rebozo
is used as a wrapper for the shoulders. Sometimes a
muffler is used for the head and face.* They bestow
great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange
in two long braids that fall from the back of the head,
neatly painted and interwoven with wwsted of lively
colors, and the ends tied at the waist-band or joined be
hind; others bind the braids tightly round the head,
and occasionally add some wild flowers.5 In the tierra
fria, a thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the
centre through which passes the head protects the wearer
during the day from the cold and rain, and serves at
night for a covering and often for the bed itself. This
garment has in some places taken the place of the til-
matli. Children are kept in a nude state until they are
eight or ten years old, and infants are enveloped in a coarse
cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs exposed. The
Huicholas of Jalisco have a peculiar dress ; the men wear a
short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric,
tightened at the waist with a girdle hanging down in
front and behind, and very short breeches of poorly
dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower edges
of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. Mar
ried men and women wear straw hats with high pointed
crowns and broad turned-up rims ; near the top is a nar
row and handsomely woven band of many colors, with
long tassels. Their long bushy hair is secured tightly
4 In Mexico in 1G98 the costume was a ' short doublet and wide breeches.
On their shoulders they wear a cloak of several colours, which they call Tilma.
The women all wear the Guaipil, (which is like a sack) under the Cobixa,
which is a fine white cotton cloth ; to which they add another upon their
back Their coats are narrow with figures of lions, birds, and other crea
tures, adorning them with curious ducks' feathers, which they call Xilotcpec.'
Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 491. Dress of a native
girl of Mexico, ' enaguas blanqui'simas, el quisquemel que graciosamente cubre
su pecho y espalda. . . .dos largas trenzas color de ebano caen a los lados del
cuello.' Prieto, Viajes, pp.454, 190-1, 430-1. ' Leur costume varie selon le
terrain et le climat.' Loicenstern, Mexique, pp. 176, 339.
* See Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. ii., pp. 346-8.
622 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
round the crown of the head with a bright woolen rib
bon. Many of the men do up the hair in queues with
worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the
waist.6 De Laet, describing the natives of Jalisco early
in the seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made
cf cotton and maguey tied on the right or left shoulder,
and small pebbles or shells strung together as necklaces.
Mota Padilla, in his history of New Galicia, says that
the Chichimecs at Xalostitlan, in 1530, went naked.
The inhabitants of Alzatlan about that time adorned
themselves with feathers. In Zacualco, the common
dress of the women about the same period, particularly
widows, was the huipil, made of fine cotton cloth, gen
erally black. The natives of the province of Panuco,
for many years after the Spanish Conquest, continued
to go naked; they pulled out the beard, perforated the
nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp point,
bored holes in them and dyed them black. The slayer
of a human being used to hang a piece of the skin and
hair of the slain at the waist, considering such things as
very valuable ornaments. Their hair they dyed in
various colors, and wore it in different forms. Their
women adorned themselves profusely, and braided their
hair with feathers. Sahagun, speaking of the Matlalt-
zincas, says that their apparel was of cloth made from
the maguey; referring to the Tlahuicas, he mentions
among their faults that they used to go overdressed;
and of the Macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women
as well as the young ones paint themselves with a varnish
called tecocavitl, or with some colored stuff, and wear
feathers about their arms and legs. The Tlascaltecs
in 1568 wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various
fine colors. The inhabitants of Cholula, according to
Cortes, dressed better than the Tlascaltecs; the better
class wearing over their other clothes a garment re
sembling the Moorish cloak, yet somewhat different,
as that of Cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the
6 ' Usan de nna especie de gran pano cuadrado, que tiene en el centre una
abertura por donde pasa la cabeza.' Ikrlandier y Tfiovel, Diario, p. 229.
DRESS IN MICHOACAN. G23
cut, and the fringe, there was much resemblance to the
cloak worn in Africa. Old Spanish writers tell us that
the natives of Michoacan made much use of feathers for
wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and
heads. At their later religious festivals, both sexes
appear in white, the men with shirt and trowsers, having
a band placed slantingly across the breast and back, tied
to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red
cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendant
scarlet feathers, similar to those used by the ancient Aztec
warriors. The man is also adorned with a quantity of
showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of which is
placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third
invariably on his forehead. At his back he carries a
quiver, and in his hand a bow, adorned with bright col
ored artificial flowers, or it may be the Aztec axe, so
painted and varnished as to resemble flint. At the
present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears
a necklace of coral or rows of red beads. The unmar
ried women of Chilpanzinco used to daub their faces
with a pounded yellow flower. In Durango, the na
tives were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with
clay of various colors, and paint reptiles and other ani
mals thereon.7
7 'Yuan muy galaues, y empenachados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib.
viii., cap. i. ' Senores 6 principales, trafan en el labio un bezote de chalchi-
vite 6 esmeralda, 6 de caracol, 6 de oro, d de cobre. . . .Las mugeres cuando
ninas, tambien se rapaban la cabeza, y cuando ya mosas dejaban criar los
cabellos. . . .cuando alguna era ya muger hecba y habia parido, tocabase el
cabello. Tambien traian sarcillos 6 orejeras, y se piutaban los pechos y los
brazos, con una labor que quedaba de azul muy nno, pintada en la misma
carne, cortandola con una navajuela.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x.,
pp. 123-5, 133-4. ' En el Pueblo de Juito salieron inuchos Yudios de paz con
escapularios blaucos al pecho, cortado el cabello en modo de cerquillo como
j\ovus uruis, pp. 250, 252, 281; Lafond, Voyages, torn. I., p. 211; Alec/re,
Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., pp. 90, 279; Lyon's Journal, vol. ii., pp. 64,
198; Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas, p. 162; Beaumont, Cron de Meehoacan, MS.,
p. 210; Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 10, 67; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 299;
Vigneaux, Souv. Mex., pp. 276, 296; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 55-6; Biart,
in Revue Francaise, Dec. 1864, pp. 478-9; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1833, toin. lix., p. 61; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 302; Burkart, Mexico, torn.
i., pp. 50-1.
624 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
The dwellings of the Wild Tribes of Central Mexico
vary with climate and locality. In the lowlands, sheds
consisting of a few poles stuck in the ground, the spaces
between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with
palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. In the colder
highlands they built somewhat more substantial houses
of trunks of trees, tied together with creeping plants,
the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of split
boards kept in place with stones. In treeless parts,
houses were constructed .of adobe or sun-dried bricks and
stones, and the interior walls covered with mats; the
best houses were only one story high, and the humbler
habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. The
entire house constituted but one room, where all the
family lived, sleeping on the bare ground. A few stones
placed in the middle of the floor, served as a fireplace
where food was cooked. In Yera Cruz there is a sep
arate small hut for cooking purposes. The wild nomadic
Chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated
in secluded valleys, and the Fames contented themselves
with the shade afforded by the forest-trees.8
Corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits
and vegetables constitute the chief subsistence of the
people, and in those districts where the banana flour
ishes, it ranks as an important article of food. The
natives of Yera Cruz and Tamaulipas gather large quan
tities of the pitahaya, by means of an osier basket
attached to a long pole; round the brim are arranged
several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit,
which then drops into the basket. From the blossoms
and buds they make a ragout, and also grind the seeds
for bread. From the sea and rivers they obtain a plen
tiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from child
hood a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to
be injurious to their physical development. It has been
8 'Les cabanes sont de veritables cages en bambous.' Vigneaux, Souv.
Mex., p. 274; Mayer's Hex. as it Was, p. 170; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., pp.
179, 522; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, pp. 192, 195, 373, 437, 447; Muhlen-
pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 223-4; Beaufoy's Mex. Illustr., p. 258; Pages'
travels, vol. i., p. 159; Dillon, Hist. Mex., p. 47.
FOOD AND AGKICULTUKE. 625
stated that in former days they used human flesh as food.
The Otomis and tribes of Jalisco cultivated but little
grain, and consumed that little before it ripened, trust
ing for a further supply of food to the natural produc
tions of the soil and to game, such as rabbits, deer,
moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other
reptiles. Corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the
powder, and baked the mixture on the fire. From the
lakes in the valley of Mexico they gathered flies' eggs,
deposited there in large quantities by a species of flies
called by the Mexicans axayacatl, that is to say, 'water-
face,' and by MM. Meneville and Yirlet d'Aoust corixa
femorata and notonecta unifasciata. The eggs being
pounded, were moulded into lumps and sold in the
market-place; they were esteemed a special delicacy,
and were eaten fried. These people are also accused by
some authors of having eaten human flesh.9
Other tribes, inhabiting the valley of Mexico, Puebla,
Michoacan, and Queretaro, show a greater inclination to
cultivate the soil, and live almost wholly on the products
of their own industry. They plant corn by making a
hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into
which the seed is dropped and covered up. Honey is
plentiful, and when a tree is found where bees are at
work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off the
branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short
time they remove the clay, and the bees continue their
operations in their new locality, as if they had not been,
disturbed.10
Gremelli Careri thus describes a novel method of
catching ducks: " Others contrive to deceive ducks, as
9 Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 250; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 582. « Estos
Otomies comian los zorrillos que hieden, culebras y lirones, y todo genero de
ratones, comadrejas, y otras sabandijas del campo y del monte, lagartijas de
todas suertes, y abejones y langostas de todas maneras.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen.,
torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 126-7, 123-5. In Jalisco 'Los indios de aquellas pro-
vincias son caribes, que comen carne humana todas las ve<jes que la pueden
aver.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 568.
iQ In Puebla ' Los Indios se han aplicado mas al cultivo de la tierra y
plantio de frutas y legumbrps.' In Michoacan ' Cultivan mucho maiz,
frixoles y ulgodon.' Alc.edo, Diccionario, torn, i., pp. 494, 714. In Queretaro
' viven del cultivo de las sementeras.' Id., torn, iii., p. 320.
Vol. I. 40
626 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
shy as they are ; for when they have us'd 'em to be fre
quently among calabashes left floating on the lake for
that purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so
that putting their heads in them, they can see out of
them, and then going up to the neck in the water, they
go among the ducks and draw 'em down by the feet."
For making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it
in water, to which a little lime is added, and allowing it
to soak all night, or it is put to simmer over a slow fire;
the husk is then easily separated and the corn mashed
or ground on the metate. From this paste the tor
tilla is formed by patting it between the hands into a
very thin cake, which is cooked on an earthern pan
placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten with boiled
beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. The ground
corn is also mixed with water and strained through a
sieve; of this liquor they make a gruel, to which is
added a little cacao or sugar. The sediment which re
mains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are
a combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which
ingredients are covered with the corn paste, and the
whole enveloped in corn or plantain leaves and boiled or
baked. The Mexicans are very moderate eaters, but
have an insatiable passion for strong liquors.11
Laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward
in our observations; among the Mexicans, the poorer
classes especially are filthy in their persons, and have a
disgusting appearance, which increases with the infirmi
ties of age. Many of them indulge freely in the use
'Of a stearn-bath called temazcalli, similar to the Russian
11 ' They boil the Indian wheat with lime, and when it has stood a-while
;grind it, as they do the cacao.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol.
v., pp. 496, 492, 513; Walton's Span. Col., p. 305. For further account of
food see Tylor's Anahuac, pp. 88-9, 156; Sive.rs, Mittelamerika, p. 295; Klemm.
Cultar-Geschichte, p. 102; Delaporte, Reisen, torn, x., p. 323; Padllla, Conq. N.
Galicia, MS., pp. 31, 44, 53, 73, 127; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 79,
87; Larenaudiere, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1824, torn, xxiii., p. 67; Pritto
Viajes, pp. 191-2, 373; Mex. in 1842, pp. 46, 64, 68; Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc.,
vol. ii., p. 32; Albornoz, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 488; Muhlen-
pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 185, 218-19; Armin, Das Heutige Mexifco, p. 245,
with plate; Mendoza, Hist, de las Cosas, p. 310; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge'og.,
torn, vi., p. 443.
WEAPONS AND SHIELDS. 627
vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of
cleansing their persons.12
All these tribes use bows and arrows ; the latter car
ried in a quiver slung at the back, a few spare ones
being stuck in the belt for immediate use. A heavy
club is secured to the arm by a thong, and wielded with
terrible effect at close quarters. In battle, the principal
warriors are armed with spears and shields. Another
weapon much in use is the sling, from which they cast
Btones to a great distance and with considerable accu
racy. The natives of the valley of Mexico kill birds
with small pellets blown through a hollow tube.13
The clubs, which are from three to four feet in length,
are made of a species of heavy wood, some having a
round knob at the end similar to a mace, others broad
and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian, fas
tened on either side. Acosta states that with these
weapons they could cut off the head of a horse at one
stroke. Spears and arrows are pointed with flint or
obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a piece of
hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. Their
quivers are made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal
or shark skin. Shields are ingeniously constructed of
small canes so woven together with thread that they
can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. When
wanted for use they are loosed, and when opened out
they cover the greater part of the body.14
12 Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., pp. 268-9. ' One would think the bath would
make the Indians cleanly in their persons, but it hardly seems so, for they
look rather dirtier after they have been in the temazcalli than before.' Tylor's
Anahuac, p. 302.
!3 Padilla, Conq. N. Galicia, MS., pp. 33, 72-3; Beaumont, Cron. deMechoa-
can, MS., p. 235. 'El arco y la flecha eran sus nrmas en la guerra, auuque
para la caza los caciques y senores usaban tainbien de cervatanas.' Akgre,
Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 279. ' I saw some Indians that kill'd the
least birds upon the highest trees with pellets shot out of trunks.' Gemelli
Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 512, and in Berenger, Col. de Voy.,
torn, ii., p. 397.
" West und Ost Indischer Lustgarl, pfc i., p. 102; Clarigcro, Storia An.t dd
Messico, torn, ii., pp. 141-4, with plate; Cartasal Abate de Pradt, p. 114; Helps'
Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 286; Arricivita, Cronica Serafca, p. 89; Sahagun, Hist.
Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 129, 133; Ly on' s Journal, vol. i., pp. 149, 293;
Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii.; Muhknpfordt, Mejico,
torn, ii., pt ii., p. 378. ' Una macana, a manera de porra, llena de puutas Ue
628 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
Aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare
was the normal state of these people. The so-called
Chichimecs attacked all who entered their domain,
whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. War
once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors
to secure by alliance as many of their neighbors as
possible; to which end ambassadors are despatched to
the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each bearing in his
hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of
the stranger chief. Arriving at the village, the mes
senger seeks out the chief and lays the arrow at his
feet ; if the proposal of his master be accepted by the
stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the mes
senger departs. The ambassadors having returned with
their report, preparations are at once made for the re
ception of the allies, a feast is prepared, large quanti
ties of game and intoxicating drink are made ready,
and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed
before them. Then follow eating and drinking, con
cluding with drunken orgies; this finished, a council
is held, and the assault planned, care being taken to
secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for
the slingers. A regular organization of forces is ob
served and every effort made to outflank or surround
the enemy. Archers and slingers march to an attack
in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors
armed with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear ;
the assault is commenced by the former, accompanied
with furious shouts and yells. During the period of
their wars against the Spaniards, they often expended
much time and labor in the fortification of heights by
means of tree-trunks, and large rocks, which were so
arranged, one on top of another, that at a given sig
nal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assail
ants. The chiefs of the Tepecanos and contiguous tribes
carried no weapons during the action, but had rods
piedras pedernales.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 568. 'En schilden nit
Btijve stokjens gevlochten, van welke sick verwonderens-waerdig dienen in
den oorlog.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weerekl, pp. 225-6, and Dapper, Neue Welt.,
p. 254.
WAR AND TREATMENT OF CAPTIVES. 629
with which they chastised those who exhibited symp
toms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks.15
The slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and
prisoners were treated with the utmost barbarity, end
ing invariably in the death of the unfortunates; often
were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody tro
phy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. The
heads of the slain were placed on poles and paraded
through their villages in token of victory, the inhabi
tants meanwhile dancing round them. Young children
were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks
of their conquerors; and in order to brutalize their
youthful minds and eradicate all feelings of affection
toward their own kindred, the youthful captives were
given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered
parents. The Chichimecs carried with them a bone,
on which, when they killed an enemy, they marked a
notch, as a record of the number each had slain. Mot a
Padilla states that when Nuno de Guzman arrived in
the valley of Coynan, in Jalisco, the chiefs came out to
meet him, and, as a sign of peace and obedience, dropped
on one knee; upon being raised up by the Spaniards,
they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and
quails, in token of respect.16
As the wants of the people are few and simple, so is
the inventory of their implements and household furni
ture. Every family is supplied with the indispensable
metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen inches,
smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a
slanting position ; with this is used a long stone roller,
15 ' Siempre procuran de acometer en malos pasos, en tierras dobladas y
pedregosas.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. vii., lib. ii., cap. xii. 'Tres mil
Yndios formaban en solo una fila haciendo freute a nuestro campo.' Padilla,
Conq. N. Galicia, MS., p. 34; see further, Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p.
572; Beaumont, Cron. de Mechoacan, MS., p. 235.
16 The Chichimecs ' Flea their heads, and fit that skin upon their own
heads with all the hair, and so wear it as a token of valour, till it rots off in
bits.' Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's CoL Voyages, vol. iv., p. 513, and Berenger,
Col. deVoy., torn, ii., p. 400. ' Quitandoles los cascos con el pelo, se'los
lie van a su Pueblo, para"baylar el mitote en compania de sus parientes con las
cabezas de sus euemigos en serial del triunfo.' Arlegui, Chron. de Zacatecas,
pp. 179, 159-60. Further reference in Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x.,
pp. 133-4; Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 281.
630 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO.
called the metlapilli, for rubbing down the maiz, and a
large earthen pan, called the comatti, on which to bake the
tortillas. Their bottles, bowls, and cups are made from
gourds, often prettily painted, and kept hanging round
the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, orna
mented with black figures on a dull red ground, are used
for cooking, a block of wood serves for a stool and
table, and lastly a few petates (Aztec, petlatlj ' palm-leaf
mat' ) , are laid upon the ground for beds. These com
prise the whole effects of a native's house. For agricul
tural purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp
stakes for planting corn. Their products are carried
home or to market in large wicker-work frames, often
five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from •
split palm-leaves.17
In the State of Jalisco, the natives are celebrated for
the manufacture of blankets and woolen mantas; in
other parts of the country they continue to weave cot
ton stuffs in the same manner as before the conquest, all
on very primitive hand-looms. The common designs
are in blue or red and white stripes, but they are some
times neatly worked with figures, the juice from the
murex or purple shell supplying the vermilion color for
the patterns. The inhabitants of Tonala exhibit much
taste and excellence in the production of pottery, mak
ing a great variety of toys, masks, figures, and orna
ments, besides the vessels for household use. In the
vicinity of Santa Cruz, the fibres of the aloe, crushed
upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of
ropes, nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing-
down the body after a bath. Palm-leaf mats and
dressed skins also figure largely among the articles of
native industry.18
17 Cassel, in Nouvettes Annaks des Voy., 1830, torn, xlv., p. 338; Vigneaux,
Souv. Mex., p. 274; Prieto, Viajes, p. 193; Tylor's Anahuac, pp. 201-2;
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 224-6, 241; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p.
224; and Dapper, Neue Welt., p. 252.
18 ' The Indians of this Countrie doe make great store of Woollen Cloth and
Silkes.' Purchas, His Pilgrimes, vol. iv., lib. vii., p. 1433. The Otonifs
' sabian hacer lindas labores en. las innntas. enaguas, y vipiles que tejian muy
curiosamente ; pero todas elks labraban lo dicho de hilo de maguey que
TEADE AND AKTS. 631
In Yera Cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk
of a mahogany or cedar tree, which are capable of hold
ing several persons, and are worked with single paddles.19
A considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats,
dressed skins, and manufactures of the aloe-fibre ; also
fruit, feathers, vegetables, and fish. All such wares are
packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown upon their
backs, are carried long distances to the several markets.
In the province of Yera Cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other
herbs are important articles of native commerce, and all
the interior tribes place a high value on salt, for which
they readily exchange their products.20
The natives display much patience and skill in orna
mental work, especially carvings in stone, and in paint
ing; although the figures, their gods bearing witness,
are all of grotesque shapes and appearance. With noth
ing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious
figures, of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal,
clay, and bone. They are fond of music, and readily
imitate any strain they hear. From time immemorial
they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons
of the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwell
ings and shops. The art of working in gold and silver
is well known to the natives of Jalisco, who execute
well-shaped specimens of cups and vases, beautifully
engraved and ornamented.21
sacaban y beneficiaban de las pencas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x.,
p. 127; see also, Tylor's Anahuac, p. 201; Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes,p.
193; Carpenter's Trav. Mex., p. 243; Mex. in 1842, p. 66; Muhlenpfordt, Meji-
co, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 341; Lyon's Journal, vol. ii., p. 43; Thummel, Mexiko,
p. 63.
is Dale's Notes, p. 24.
20 ' In those countreys they take neither golde nor silver for exchange of
any thing, but onley Suit.' Chilton, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; com
pare Lyon's Journal, vol. i., p. 293, and vol. ii., p. 198; and Tylor's Anahuac,
p. 85.
21 Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 98; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 316; Ward's
Mexico, vol. ii., p. 237; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p. 131; Muhlenpfordt,Meji-
co, torn, i., p. 243; MUl's Hist. Mex.,' p. 6; Carpenter's Trav. Mex., p. 243.
' Les Mexicains ont conserve un gout particulier pour la peinture et pour
1'art de sculpter en pierre et en bois.' Matte- Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn,
vi., p. 44G. ' Lo particular de Michoacan era el arte de pintar con las plu-
mas de diversos colores.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 90. 'Son
ni'iy bueuos cantores y tafiedores de toda suerte de instrumentos.' Mendoza,
Hist, de las Cosas, p. 3U8.
632 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
The wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed
with, the Civilized Nations of Central Mexico, as far as
I can learn, do not appear to have had any systematic
tribal government; at least, none of the old historians
have given any account of such. Some of the tribes
attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom
they pay a certain tribute from the produce of their
labor or hunting expeditions, while others live without
any government or laws whatsoever, and only elect a
chief on going to war.22
Marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are
seldom found single after they attain fourteen or fifteen
years. Gomara, however, says that women in the dis
trict of Tamaulipas are not married till they reach the
age of forty. The Otomis marry young, and if, when
arrived at the age of puberty, a young girl has not
found a mate, her parents or guardians select one for her,
so that none shall remain single. Among the Guachichi-
les, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on
trial for an indefinite period ; if, afterwards, both parties
are satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage
is performed; should it happen, however, that the man
be not pleased, he returns the girl to her parents, which
proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of her
obtaining another suitor. The Chichimecs cannot marry
without the consent of parents ; if a young man violates
this law and takes a girl without first obtaining the
parental sanction, even with the intention of mar
rying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient
times, the offender was shot with arrows. When one of
this people marries, if the girl proves not to be a virgin,
the marriage is null, and the girl is returned to her
parents. When a young man desires to marry, his
parents make a visit to those of the intended bride, and
leave with them a bouquet of flowers bound with red
22 Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, i., p. 281; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.
viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 567; Padilla, Conq. N.
Galicia, MS., pp. 31,68; Ottavio, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1833, torn, lix.,
p. 61.
MAKKIAGE CUSTOMS. 633
wool; the bride's parents then send round to the houses
of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic herb,
which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride's
father's on the next night. The meeting is inaugurated
by smoking; then they chew mariguana, during which
time all preliminaries of the marriage are settled. The
following day the resolutions of the conclave are made
known to the young man and woman, and if the decision
is favorable, the latter sends her husband a few presents,
and from that time the parties consider themselves mar
ried, and the friends give themselves up to feasting and
dancing.23
A plurality of wives was found among all the inhabi
tants of this region at the time of the Spanish conquest,
the first wife taking precedence of those who came after
her. Many had concubines who, it may be said, ranked
third in the family circle. The missionary Fathers,
however, soon put an end to the custom of more than
one wife, whenever they had the power to do so. Her-
rera says that the Chichimecs indulged in one wife only,
but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any
slight cause, and of taking another. The women are
kept under subjection by their husbands, and not only
have all the indoor work to do, such as cooking,
spinning, and mat- making, but they are also required to
carry heavy burdens home from the market, and bring
all the wood and water for household use. Infants are
carried on the mother's back, wrapped in a coarse cot
ton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. Among the
Chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she
places her child in a wicker basket, and there leaves it,
usually suspending it from the branch of a tree. A child
is suckled by the mother until another comes on and
crowds it out. Mlihlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of
23 Mayer's Mex., Aztec, etc., vol. ii., p. 296; Villa, in Prieto, Viajes, pp.
428-30. ' Tenian uso y costumbre los otomies, de que los varones siendo muy
muchachos y tiernos se casasen, y lo mismo las mugeres'. ' Sahagun. Hist.
Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 127. Chicliimecs ' casanse con las parientas mas
cercanas, pero no con las hermanas.' Ilerrera, Hist. Gen.t dec. viii., lib. vi.,
cap. xv.
634 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO.
seven or eight years of age demanding suck and receiv
ing it from his mother. A woman near her time of
confinement, retires to a dark corner of the house,
attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and
pretends to call the baby from afar; This midwife, how
ever, does not in any way assist at the birth, but as
soon as the child is born she goes out, meanwhile cover
ing her face with her hands, so that she may not see.
Having walked once round the house, she opens her
eyes, and the name of the first object she sees is chosen
as the name of the child. Among the Otorm's, a young
woman about to become a mother is the victim of much
unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious
practices; loaded with certain amulets and charms, she
must carefully avoid meeting certain individuals and
animals whose look might produce evil effects — a black
dog especially must be avoided. The song of a mock
ing-bird near the house is held to be a happy omen.
At certain hours the mother was to drink water
which had been collected in the mountains, and pre
viously presented to the gods; the phases of the moon
were carefully watched. She was obliged to undergo
an examination from the old crone who attended her,
and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning
aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. Sometimes,
amidst her pains, the ancient attendant obliged her
charge to jump about, and take powerful medicines,
which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery.
If the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in
his arms and painted on its breast an axe or some im
plement of husbandry, on its forehead a feather, and on
the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it
the protection of the gods. If the child proved to be
a female, the same ceremony was observed, with the
exception that an old woman officiated, and the figure of
a flower was traced over the region of the heart, while
on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was
pictured, and on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating
the several duties of after life. According to the Apos-
CHILDREN AND AMUSEMENTS. 635
tdticos AfaneSj the Coras call the child after one of
its uncles or aunts. In twelve months' time a feast is
prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and
child, together with the uncle or aunt, placed in the
middle of the circle of relatives. Upon these occasions
much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is placed
in the child's mouth. As soon as the child's teeth are
all cut, a similar meeting takes place, and the child is
then given its first meal; and again, at the age of
twelve, the ancients come together, when the youth is
first given wine to drink. As a rule, young people show
great respect and affection for their parents; all their
earnings being at once handed over to them.24
In early times, immorality and prostitution existed
among these nations to an unparalleled extent. Gomara
says that in the province of Tamaulipas there were pub
lic brothels, where men enacted the part of women, and
where every night were assembled as many as a thou
sand, more or less, of these worse than beastly beings,
according to the size of the village. It is certain that
incest and every species of fornication was commonly
practiced, especially in the districts of Yera Cruz, Ta
maulipas, and Queretaro.25
Their amusements are stamped with the general mel
ancholy of their character. Dancing, accompanied with
music and singing, is their favorite pastime, but it is
seldom indulged in without the accompanying vice of
intoxication. When the Totonacs join in their na
tional dances, they attach a kind of rattle called aia-
cachtli to a band round the head, that produces a
peculiar sound during the performance. Among some
tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances.
24 Miihlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 246-8; Bullock's Mexico, vol. i., p.
192; Apostolicos Afanes, pp. 21-2; Rittner, Guatimozin, p. 81. 'Elamanceba-
miento no es deshonra entre ellos.' Zarfate, in Aletjre, Hist. Cornp. de Jesus,
torn, i., pp. 281, 335. ' Zlingerden de kinderen in gevlochte korven aen
boomtakken.' Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 219; and Dapper, Neue Well., p.
246.
25 ' La mancebfa, el incesto, y cuanto tiene de mas asquerosamente re-
pugnante el desarreglo de la concupiscencia, se ha convertido en habito.'
Prieto, Viajes, p. 379; Fossey, Mexique, p. 27; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 56.
636 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO.
They make various kinds of drinks and intoxicating
liquors. One is made from the fruit of the nopal or
prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed ; the juice
is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire
or in the sun, where in about an hour it ferments.
Another drink, called chicha, is made from raw sugar
cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and passed
through a pressing-machine. Their principal and na
tional drink is pulque, made from the agave americana,
and is thus prepared : When the plant is about to bloom,
the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole in the center,
which is covered with the outer leaves. Every twenty-
four hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the
cavity fills with the sap from the plant, which is taken
out and fermented by the addition of some already-fer
mented pulque, and the process is continued until the
plant ceases to yield a further supply. The liquor
obtained is at first of a thick white color, and is at
all times very intoxicating.26
Father Joseph Arlegui, in his Chrdnica de la Pro-
vincia de Zacatecas, which province then comprised a
much larger extent of territory than the present state
of Zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere
else mentioned. It is employed when one nation
wishes to form a close connection, friendship, alliance,
family or blood relationship, so to say (tratan de ha-
cerse parientes), with another nation; and the process
is as follows: From the tribe with which the alliance
is desired, a man is seized, and a feast or drunken
carousal commenced. Meanwhile the victim destined
to form the connecting link between the two bands,
and whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept
without food for twenty-four hours. Into him is then
poured of their execrable beverages until he is filled,
26 Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p. 97; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 160;
Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 131; Apostolicos Afanes, p. 12; Pa-
dilla, Cong. N. Galicia, pp. 19, 127; Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 80; Thum-
mel, Mexiko, p. 61; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, ii., p. 470; Muhlenpfordt,
Mejico, torn, i., p. 219; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv.,
p. 517.
MAKING AN ALLIANCE. 637
and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched
before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all
the people may have access to him. Having warmed
well his body, and rubbed his ears, each aspirant to the
new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped instru
ment, made of deer's bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of
the prostrate miserable, each in turn forcing his sharp
ened bone through some new place, which causes the
blood to spurt afresh with every incision. With the
blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint
themselves, and the ceremony is done. On the spot
where the relative of a Cora is killed in a fight, a
piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and kept as a remem
brance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer,
or one of the males of his family. When meeting each
other on a journey, they make use of many compli
mentary salutations, and a kind of freemasonry appears
to exist among them. Major Brantz Mayer mentions a
tribe at Cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man
arriving at their village, immediately seize and place
him under guard for the night in a large hut ; he and
his animals are carefully provided for until the following
day, when he is despatched from the village under an
escort, to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of
the settlement. The custom, at the present day, of hid
ing money in the ground is universal ; nothing would
induce a native to entrust his savings with another. The
inhabitants of Queretaro spend much of their time bask
ing in the sun, and if the sun does not yield sufficient
warmth, they scoop out a hole in the ground, burn in it
branches and leaves of the maguey, and when properly
heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover
themselves with a mat or the loose earth.27
27 Arlequi, Chron. de Zacatecas, pp. 161-2; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, pp.
175-6; Mendoza. Hist, de las Cosas, p. 311; Prieto, Viajes, p. 375; Aposto-
licos Afanes, p. 12. ' Los indios, si no todos en su mayor parte, \iven liga-
dos por una especie de masoneria.' Bustamante, in Prieto, Viajes, p. 199.
* Wenn melirere in Gesellschaft gehen, nie neben, sondern irnnier hiiater ein-
ander und selten ruhig schreitend, sondern fast immer kurz trabend.' Wap-
piius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 39. 'L'Indien enterre son argent, et au moment de
sa niort il ne dit pas a son plus proche parent oii il a depose son tresor, aim
638 WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO.
The Mexicans are not subject to many diseases. Small
pox, brought into the country at the time of the con
quest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are those which
cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former
are aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages.
Yellow fever, or black vomit, very rarely attacks the
aborigines. The measles is a prevalent disease. Death
is likewise the result of severe wounds, fractures, or
bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to
neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat
them. The Huastecs of Yera Cruz suffer from certain
worms that breed in their lips, and highly esteem salt
for the curative properties they believe it to possess
against this disorder. At the village of Comala, in the
state of Colima, a considerable number of the children
are born deaf and dumb, idiots, or deformed; besides
which, when they reach a mature age, if we may believe
the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less devel
oped on them, notwithstanding Humboldt's assertion
that the aborigines never suffer from this disorder.
There is another disease, cutaneous in its character,
which is quite prevalent in many parts of the country,
and is supposed to be contracted under the influence
of a warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may
be described as follows: Without pain the skin assumes
a variety of colors, the spots produced being white, red,
brownish, or blue. The Pintos, as south-western coast-
dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder,
experience no physical pain, except when they go into
a cold climate; then they feel twitchings in the places
where the skin has changed color. The disease is de
clared to be contagious : and from all accounts no remedy
for it has been as yet discovered. Formerly, an epidemic
called the matlalmhiiail visited the country at long inter
vals and caused terrible havoc. All the Spanish writers
wrho speak of it call it the peste, and suppose it to be the
same scourge that destroyed nearly the whole population '
r'il ne lui fasse pas faute quand ilressuscitera.' Cassel, in Nouvelles Annales
Voy., 1830, torn, xlv., p. 339.
MEDICAL TREATMENT. 639
of the Toltec empire in the eleventh century. Others
believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow
fever. The disease, whatever it is, made its appearance
in 1545, 1576, and 1736, since which date I find no
mention of it, destroying each time an immense num
ber of people ; but upon no occasion did it attack the
pure whites or the mestizos. Its greatest havoc was in
the interior, on the central plateau, and in the coldest
and most arid regions, the lowlands of the coast being
nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects.28
When small-pox was first introduced, the natives
resorted to bathing as a cure, and a very large number
succumbed to the disease. An old Spanish author,
writing in 1580, states that the natives of the kingdom
of New Spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal
herbs; that they seldom resorted to bleeding or com
pound purgatives, for they had many simple cathartic
herbs. They were in the habit of making pills with
the India-rubber gum mixed with other substances,
which they swallowed, and rubbed themselves withal,
to increase their agility and suppleness of body. Cold
water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked
with fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to aban
don the practice. The temazcalli or sweat-bath, is also
very much used for cases of severe illness. The bath
house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is
built and heated not unlike a European bake-oven.
When up to the required temperature the fire is taken
out, and water thrown in ; the patient is then thrust into
it naked, feet foremost and head near the aperture, and
laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. The hole that
affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches
28 ' La petite verole et la rougeole sont deux maladies tres communes. '
Chappe d' Auteroche, Voyage, p. 25. The Pintos ' marked with great daubs of
deep blue. . . .the decoration is natural and cannot be effaced.' Tylor's Ana->
huac,p. 309. See further: Fossey, Mexique, pp. 33-4, 395-6. Compare Hum-
boldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 66, 69-70, 88; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p.
250; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 282; Cassel, in NouveUes Annales des Voy., 1830,
torn, xlv., p. 340; Lowenstern, Mexique, p. 207; Charnay, Ruincs Anie'ricaines,
pp. 502-3; Matte-Brim, Precis de la Gfeog., torn, vi., p. 443; Woppilus, Geo'j. u.
Stat., p. 40.
640 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
square. When sufficiently steamed, and the body well
beaten with rushes, a cold water bath and a brisk rub
bing complete the operation.29
In Michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of
a plant called cozolmecatl or olcacaran applied to a sore
part of the body will foretell the result of the disorder;
for if the leaves adhere to the spot, it is a sure sign that
the sufferer will get well, but if they fall off, the con
trary will happen. When prostrated with disease, the
nearest relatives and friends surround the patient's
couch and hold a confab tfpon the nature of his ailment
and the application of the remedy. Old sorceresses and
charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations and
meltings of saltpetre abound ; and by some jugglery, out
of the crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant,
a horrible worm, or some other object, which, as they
allege, is the cause of the disorder. As the disease pro
gresses, the friends of the sufferer severally recommend
and apply, according to the judgment each may have
formed of the' matter, oil of scorpions or of worms,
water supposed to produce miraculous effects on fevers,
or like applications, and these empirical remedies, most
of which are entirely useless, and others extremely bar
barous, are applied together without weight or measure.30
In common with other peoples, it is usual with these
nations to place several kinds of edibles in the grave
with the deceased. Among the Coras, when one died,
the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if a
man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her
distaff, etc., and in this manner the body was buried
in a cave previously selected by the deceased. All
his worldly goods were placed at the door of his
29 ' Los Indies son grandes herbolarios, y curan siempre con ellas.' Men-
doza, Hist, de Las Cosas, p. 311. 'For fevers, for bad colds, for the bite of a
poisonous animal, this (the temazcalli) is said to be a certain cure; also for
acute rheumatism.' Calderon de la Bared1 s Life in Mex., vol. i., p. 255;
Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 430; Menonville, Reise,p. 124; Murr, Nachrich-
ten, p. 306; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 250.
so 'Notant barbari, folia parti affectee aut dolenti applicata, de eventu
morbi prasjudicare: nam si firmiter ad hsereant, certum signuni esse aegrum
corivaliturum, sin decidant, contra.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 271; Villa, in
Prfc'to, Viajes, pp. 438-9.
BUKIAL AND CHAKACTEK. 641
former house, so that he might come and take them
without crossing the threshold, as they believed the dead
returned to see about property. If the deceased had
cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then
placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear
he might come for the cattle he formerly owned. Five
days after death a hired wizard essayed to conjure away
the shade of the departed property - holder. These
spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead
man's house, and shook zapote-branches in the corners,
till they pretended to have found the fancied shadow,
which they hurled headlong to its final resting-place.
Upon the second of November most of the natives of
the Mexican valley bring offerings to their dead rela
tives and friends, consisting of edibles, live animals,
and flowers, which are laid on or about the graves.
The anniversary or commemoration of the dead among
the ancient Aztecs occurred almost upon the same day.31
The thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aborig
inals of central Mexico are most enigmatical in their
character. Their peculiar cast of features, their natural
reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make it ex
tremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the
face what their real thoughts are. The general char
acteristics of this people may be summed up as follows :
peaceable, gentle and submissive to their superiors,
grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking
exhibitions and noisy revelry ; improvident but charita
ble, sincerely pious, but wallowing in ignorance and
superstitions ; quick of perception, and possessed of great
facility for acquiring knowledge, especially of the arts,
very imitative, but with little originality, unambitious,
31 The remains of one of their ancient kings found in a cave is thus de
scribed; ' estaba cubierto de pedreria texida segun su costumbre en la manta
con que se cubria desde los hombros hasta los pies, sentado en la mismasilla
que le fingieron el solio, con tahalf, brazaletes, collares, y apretadores de
plata; y en la frente una corona de hermosas plumas, de varies colores mez-
cladas, la mano izquierda puesta en el brazo de la silla, y en la derecha un
alfange con guarnicion de plata.' Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 299. See
also: Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., pp. 259-60; Apostdlicos Afanes, p. 22;
Armin, Das Heutige Mexiko, p. 249.
Vol. I. '41
642 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of
life. Irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature,
but it seems to lie dormant until awakened by intox
ication or some powerful impulse, when the innate
cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a
state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierce
ness. Courage and cowardice are so blended in their
character that it is no easy matter to determine which
is the predominant trait. A fact worthy of notice is
that upon many occasions they have proved themselves
capable of facing danger with the greatest resolution,
and yet they will tremble at the angry frown of a
white man. Laziness, and a marked inclination to
cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities
attributed to them ; but there is abundant evidence to
show, that although naturally averse to industry, they
work hard from morning till night, in mining, agri
culture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient
way accomplish no little labor. Murder and highway
robbery are crimes not generally committed by the
pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything but food
to appease his hunger or that of his family. A Mex
ican author says, the Indian cuts down a tree to pick
its fruit, destroys an oak of ten years growth for a
week's firewood; in other words, he produces little, con
sumes little, and destroys much. Another Mexican
writer affirms that the Indian is active, industrious,
handy in agricultural labor, a diligent servant, a trusty
postman, humble, hospitable to his guests, and shows
a sincere gratitude to his benefactors.32
32 D'Orbigny, Voy., p. 353; Calderon de la Barca's Life in Mex., vol. i., p.
200; Mayer's Mex. as it Was, pp. 170, 201; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy.
Tehuantepec, pp, 114, 172; Larenaudiere, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy.,
1824, torn, xxiii., p. G7; Ottavio, in Id., 1833, torn, lix., p. 71; Rittner, Gua-
.timozin, pp. 81-2; Villa, in Prielo, Viajes, pp. 446-7; Arizcorreta, Respuesta
d, pp. 24, 2G; Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 131, 135; Rossi, Sou
venirs, p. 285; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p. 213; Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat.,
pp. 40-1; Padilla, Cong. N. Galicia, MS., p. 10; Poinsett's Notes Mex., pp.
108, 161; Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 445; Gemelli Careri, in
Churchill's Col. Voyages, vol. iv., p. 492; Berenger, Col. de Voy., torn, ii.,
pp. 383-4; Bonny castle' s Span. Am., vol. i., pp. 49-50. ' L 'indigene mexi-
caiii est grave, melancolique, silencieux, aussi long-temps que les liqueurs
CHARACTER IN NORTHERN MEXICO. 643
The Fames, Otomfs, Pintos, and other nations north
of the Mexican valley were, at the time of the conquest,
a barbarous people, fierce and warlike, covetous even of
trifles and fond of display. The Michoacaques or Taras-
cos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the
conquest showed themselves exceedingly hostile tj the
whites, whom they attacked, plundered, and frequently
murdered, when traveling through their country. In
1751 they were already quiet, and gave evidences of
being intelligent and devoted to work. The men in the
vicinity of the city of Yera Cruz are careless, lazy, and
fickle; much given to gambling and drunkenness; but
the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely
industrious. The natives of Jalapa, judging by their
countenance, are less intelligent, and lack the sweetness
of character that distinguishes the inhabitants of the
higher plateau ; they are, however, peaceable and inoffen
sive. The wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful,
dull, irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder,
and murder. Such are the characteristics attributed to
them under the name of Chichirnecs by old Spanish au
thors and others. Indeed, the only creditable traits they
were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage
and an independent spirit. Of the nations of Jalisco,
both ancient and modern writers bear testimony to their
bravery. They are also sagacious and somewhat indus
trious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not),
and not easily kept under restraint. Those who dwell
on Lake Chapala are quiet and mild, devoted to agricul
tural pursuits. They indeed proved themselves high-
spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when
long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. The
Coras were hardy arid warlike, averse to any inter
course writh the whites and to the Christian religion,
but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the heavy
enivrantes n'ont pas agi sur lui.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., pp. 94, 96.
1 The most violent passions are never painted in their features.' Mill's Hist.
Mex., pp. 5-6, 10. ' Of a sharpe wit, and good vnderstanding, for what so-
euer it be, Sciences or other Arts, these people are very apt to learne it with
small instructing.' Purchas' His PUgrimes, vol. iv., p. 1433.
644 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO.
blows of the Spanish soldiers, they were brought under
subjection, and became tractable.33
The SOUTHERN MEXICANS, under which name I group
the people inhabiting the present states of Oajaca, Guer
rero, Chiapas, the southern portion of Yera Cruz,
Tabasco, and Yucatan, constitute the second and last
division of this chapter. Much of this territory is sit
uated within the tierras calientes, or hot lands, wherein
every variety of tropical vegetation abounds in luxuriant
profusion. The heat, especially along the coast, to the
unacclimated is most oppressive. The great chain of
the cordillera in its transit across the Tehuantepec isth
mus, approaches nearer to the Pacific seaboard than to
the Atlantic, and dropping from the elevated table-land
of central Mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks
into cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and
west direction. Upon the northern side of the isthmus
are plains of considerable extent, of rich alluvial soil,
through which several rivers, after draining the mount
ain districts, discharge into the Mexican gulf. These
streams, in their course through the table-lands, are bor
dered by rich lands of greater or lesser extent. On the
southern side, nature puts on a bolder aspect and a nar
rower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers,
which discharge the drainage of the southern slope into
the Pacific Ocean, and into the lagoons that border the
ocean. One of the most important features of Yucatan
is the absence of any important river. The coast, which
is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid ap
pearance, and is little broken except on the north-west,
33 The Pintos of Guerrero are 'most ferocious savages.' Tylor'sAnahuac,
p. 309. The Chichimecs are ' los peores de todos y los mayores homicidas
y salteadores de toda la tierra.' Zarfate, in Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn,
i., p. 281. See further, Almaraz, Memoria, p. 18; Keratry, in Revue des deux
Mondes, Sept., 1866, p. 453; Delaporte, Rcisen, torn. x.,p.323; Orozco y Berra,
Geojmfia, p. 284; Lad, Novus Orbis, pp. 269, 280; Combier, Voy., p. 394;
Eiart, 'in Revue Francaise, Dec., 1864, pp. 479, 485; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.
viii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; Ribas, Hist, de los Triumphos, p. 721; Oviedo. Hist.
Gen., torn, iii., p. 560; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 271; Beaumont, Cron. deMe-
choacan, MS., pp. 197, 235; Pages' Travels, vol. i., p. 150.
THE NATIONS OF SOUTHERN MEXICO. 645
where it is indented by the laguna de Terminos, and
on the eastern side by the bays of Ascension, Espiritu
Santo, and Chetumel. The central part of the Yucatan
peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of
barren aspect. A short distance from the coast the
general appearance of the country improves, being well-
wooded, and containing many fertile tracts.
Many of the nations occupying this region at the
time of the conquest may be called cultivated, or at
least, progressive, and consequently belong to the civil
ized nations described in the second volume of this work ;
others falling back into a state of wildness after the cen
tral civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely
difficult to draw any line separating civilization from
savagism. Nevertheless we will examine them as best
we may ; and if it be found that what we learn of them
refers more to the present time than has been the case
with nations hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious.
The Zapotecs, who were in former times a very pow
erful nation, still occupy a great portion of Oajaca, sur
rounded by the ruins of their ancient palaces and cities.
The whole western part of the state is taken up by the
Miztecs. Tributary to the above before the conquest,
were the Mijes and other smaller tribes now residing in
the mountain districts in the centre of the isthmus.
The Huaves, who are said to have come by sea from the
south, and to have landed near the present city of Te-
huantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the
lagoons on the south-western coast of Oajaca. In the
province of Goazacoalco, and in Tabasco, are the Alma-
lukos, and Chontaks, who occupy a large portion of the
latter state. South of them in Chiapas are the Choles,
jfkendaks, Zotziles, Alai/nes, and Queknes, and in the ex
treme south-eastern end of the same state, and extend
ing into Central America, some tribes of the Lacandones
are located. The extensive peninsula of Yucatan, the
ancient name of which was Mayapan, formed the inde
pendent and powerful kingdom of the Mayas, who held
undisputed possession of the country until, after a heroic
646 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
resistance, they were finally compelled to yield to the
superior discipline and weapons of the Spanish in
vaders.34
The Zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong ; the
features of the men are of a peculiar cast and not pleas
ing; the women, however, are delicately formed, and
graceful with handsome features. Another tribe of the
same nation, the Zapotecs of Tehuantepec, are rather un
der the medium height, with a pleasing oval face and pre
sent a fine personal appearance. Not a few of them
have light-colored hair, and a somewhat fair complexion.
Their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and the
constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their
habits of intoxication. The females have regular and
handsome features, and though of small stature and
bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and seduc
tive. Dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined
eye-brows, luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play
havoc with the men. Those of Acayucan village are
particularly noted for their beauty. But not all are
thus; instance the Chatinos who are remarkably ugly.
The natives of Oajaca are generally large and well- formed ;
those of Sierra are of a light-yellow complexion, and
their women are tolerably white with mild features.
Some branches of the Miztecs and Mazatecs carry upon
their shoulders very large loads. Farther Burgoa writ
ing of the Miztecs, of Yangiiistlan, in the year 1541,
speaks of their beautiful complexion and fine forms.
The Mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and
active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is
repulsive. The Zoques are very much like the Mijes,
their features are as prominent and unprepossessing ; but
they are probably more athletic. The Chontales are
34 The Mayas, ' Sie selbst nennen sich heute noch Macegual, d. h. Einge-
borene vom Maya-Lande, nie Yucatanos oder Yucatecos, was spanischer
Ausdruck fur die Bewohner des Staates ist.' Wappfius, Geoy. u. Stat., pp.
142-3. See also Orozco y Berra, Geofirafia, pp. 163, 173, 176, 196; Brasseur
de Bourboury, Popol Vuh, preface, p. clvii ; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 208;
torn, ii., pt i., pp. 140-3; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip',\om. ii., pt ii., fol. 396,400-
1; Kemesal, Hist, de Chyapa, pp. 264-5; Juarros' Hist. GuaL, p. 14.
PHYSIQUE IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN. 647
tall and very robust. In the village of Tequisistlan,
Oajaca, shortly after the Spanish conquest, they were
all reported as of a gigantic stature. The Huaves pre
sent a different appearance from any of the other natives
of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. They are generally well-
made, and of strong constitutions. The natives of Ta
basco who dwell in the country bordering on the river of
that name, are of medium height, and with well-devel
oped limbs. Both men and women have round flat
faces, low foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips,
small but quite full mouths, \vhite teeth, and tawny
complexions. The Ahualulcos are rather under the
middle height, but of great physical strength. They
have a low narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full
lips, white teeth, small beard, and coarse hair. Their
features are aquiline, and the expression of their coun
tenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with
sternness. They strongly resemble the descendants of
the Aztecs of Mexico. The women are more delicately
made, and some beautiful ones are seen among them.
They move quickly and with much natural grace.35
The descendants of the Mayas are of medium size,
with good limbs, large faces and mouth, the upper lip
slightly arched, and a marked tendency to stoutness;
the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair
black and glossy, which rarely turns gray ; complexion
of a copper color, and in some instances yellowish. Nat
urally strong, the Maya or Yucatec can carry heavy
loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard
labor without showing signs of fatigue. An old Spanish
35 Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 220, 224, 227; Moro, in Garay, Reconodmiento,
pp. 89-94; Miilihnpfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 215; Macgregor's Progress of
America, pp. 848, 850: Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p.
543; Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 287, 500-i; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol.
ii., p. 394. Zapoteos 'bien tallados,' Mijes 'Arrogantes, altiuos de condi-
cion, y cuerpo, ' Miztecs ' linda tez en el rostro, y buena disposicion en el
talle.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 202, 271, 354, 401, torn, i.,
pt ii., p. 134. 'Tehuantepec women: Jet-black hair, silky and luxuriant, en
frames their light-brown faces, on which, in youth, a warm blush on the
cheek heightens the lustre of their dark eyes, with long' horizontal lashes
and sharply-marked eyebrows.' Tempsky's Mitla, p. '269. The Soques,
'short, with large chests and powerful muscles. .. .Both men and w< men
have very repulsive countenances.' Shu/eldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126.
648 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
writer mentions that they were generally bow-legged,
and many of them squint-eyed. The same author says
they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a
beard, and were long-lived. The women are plump, and
generally speaking not ugly.36
Yery scanty was the dress of the dwellers on Tehuan-
tepec isthmus. In Oajaca and Chiapas, the men wore
a piece of deer or other skin fastened round the waist,
arid hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons
of maguey-fibre. Montanus in describing the Mijes says
they were quite naked, but that some wore round the
waist a white deer-skin dressed with human hearts. The
Lacandones, when going to wrar, wore on their shoulders
the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. The Quelenes wrapped
round their head a colored cloth, in the manner of a
turban, or garland of flowers. At present, the usual
dress of the Zapotecs is a pair of wide Mexican drawers,
and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat,
made of felt or straw — yet the Huaves and many of the
poorer class, still wear nothing but a breech-cloth. The
costume of the women is simple, and not without ele
gance. That of the Miztecs, Zapotecs, and others dwell
ing in the city of Tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton,
—sometimes of wool — that reaches nearly to the ankles,
prettily and often elaborately worked in various designs
and colors. The upper part of the body is covered
with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the
liuipil, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold
or silk threads. On the head is a white cotton cover
ing, made like a narrow sack or sleeve, which is drawn
on and hangs down over the back. In Tabasco, the
dress of the men differs little from that of the people
of Tehuantepec; the Tabascan women wear a cotton
petticoat or a few yards of calico wrapped round the
waist, and reaching below the knees. Over the petti-
36 'Es gente la de Yucatan de buenos cuerpos, bien hechos, y rezios'. . . .
The women ' bien hechas, y no feas. . . .no son blancas, sino de color bacjo.'
Herrera, Hist. Gen,, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv. See further: Dam-pier's Voy-
af/es, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Morclet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 148; Montanus, Nieuwe
Weereld, p. 258; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 291; Tylor's Anahuac, p. 16.
DBESS IN OAJACA AND YUCATAN. 649
cbat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving
the bosom and neck exposed. Children and boys go
naked ; indeed, whenever clothing to any extent is found
in this region, we may be sure that the foreign trader
is at the bottom of it.37
Both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in
the middle, and either permit it to hang in loose tresses
over the shoulders, or, binding it with gay colored rib
bons, loop it up on the back of the head, where it is
fastened with a large comb. On festive occasions they
interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with
it a species of shining beetle, called cucutto, which emits
a phosphorescent light, and produces a very pretty effect.
Among the Zoques who reside at San Miguel and Santa
Maria Chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the
head, a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to
themselves. Feather tufts and skins of green birds
were formerly much used for ornaments; they had also
necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and
amber beads. Nose and ears were pierced, and pieces
of stone or amber or gold rings or a bit of carved wood
inserted. Montanus describes a kind of snake called
ibobaca, which he says the inhabitants of Chiapas wore
round the neck.38 They also painted and stained the
face. When Fernandez de Cordova explored the north
ern coast of Yucatan, he found the people clad in cotton
garments, and at the present day this forms the princi
pal material from which their clothing is made. Men
now wear a cotton shirt or blouse, usually without
sleeves, and wide drawers; round the waist is tied a
37 Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 285; Montanus, Nieuwe Wee-
reld, p. 255; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 288; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. de Te-
huantepec, p. 194; Falacios, in Orozco y Berra, Geografia. p. 106; Leon, in Id.,
p. 162; Museo Hex. torn, ii., p. 555. ' Muchachos ya mayorcillos. Todos
desnudos en carries, conio nacierou de sus madres Tras ellos venian
inuchos Indies mayores, casi tan desnudos como sus hijos, con muchos sar-
tales de flores . . en la cabeza, rebuxada una toca de colores, como tocado
de Armenio.' Remesal, Hist. Chyapa, p. 292.
38 ' With their hair ty'd up in a Knot behind, they think themselves ex-
tream fine.' Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 114. ' Muy empenachados
y pintados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; Barnard's Tehuante*
pec, pp. 221-2, 226.
650 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO.
white or colored sash; for protection from the sun, a
straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of colored calico,
and their sandals are made from deer-skin. Instead of
drawers, they used to wear a broad cotton band passed
round the loins, the ends of which were arranged to
hang one in front and the other behind ; a cloak or man
tle of cotton called zugen was thrown over the shoulders.
Colonel Galindo mentions that they used the bark
of the India-rubber tree for making garments, and Co-
golludo says that when the Spaniards arrived at Ake, in
the year 1527, the army of natives were in a state of
nudity, with only their privy parts covered, and the
whole body besmeared with clay of different colors. The
women display considerable taste in the style of their
garments ; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles,
and prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress
with sleeves down to the elbow; the skirt is open at the
sides, and does not fall as low as the petticoat, so that
the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom of the
dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round
the neck it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in Tehuan-
tepec; the huipil (Aztec, vipitti) is also worn. In country
places women wear the petticoat alone, using the overskirt
or huipil only on special occasions. When out of doors,
they cover the head and part of the face with a piece of
cotton cloth.39 All permit the hair to attain to its full
length ; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head,
leaving a short end to hang down behind, while that of
the women hangs in dark masses over their shoulders,
or is neatly bound up behind and decorated with flowers
or feathers. Herrera states that it was customary to
scorch the faces of young children to prevent the growth
39 ' Their apparell was of Cotton in manifold fashions and colours.' Pur-
chas' His PUgrimes, vol. v., p. 885. The Maya woman's dress 'se reduce al
hipil que cubre la parte superior del cuerpo, y al fustan 6 enagua, de manta de
algodon.' Orozco y Berra, Geograf-ia, p. 158. Of the men 'un calzoncillo
ancho y largo hasta media pierna, y tal vez hasta cerca del tobillo, de la
misma manta, un cenidor bianco 6 de colores, un panuelo, y un sombrero
de paja, y a veces una alpargata de suela, con sus cordones de mecate.'
Registro Yuvateco, torn, i., pp. 177-8. See further: Hassel, Mex. Guat., p.
267; Galindo, in Lond.Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. iii., p. 59; Wilson's Amer. Hist.,
pp. 88, 114; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., pp. 147, 179.
ZAPOTEC BUILDINGS. 651
of their beards, and the men allowed the hair to grow
down over the eyebrows, making their heads and fore
heads flat on purpose. They pierced nose and ears,
ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits
of amber, and wore collars and bracelets of gold. Some
among them filed their teeth. They painted the face
and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using
white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves
from the waist upward with a variety of designs and
figures. When going to battle paint was much used, in
order to render their appearance more formidable ; men
tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber
with their pigments, which, when rubbed over the body,
emitted a perfume.40
The better class of Zapotecs of the present day build
their houses in a substantial manner of adobes ; the com
mon people construct a more simple dwelling with
branches arranged in a double row, and the space be
tween filled in with earth; they also make them of
wattled cane-work plastered with clay. Such dwellings
are cool and proof against the frequent earthquakes that
occur in their territory. Roofs are thatched with pal
metto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows
in the walls. The interior is divided into several com
partments, according to size and necessity.41 The Mijes
thatch their houses with bundles of coarse straw. The
Chinantecs, Chochos, and Chontales originally built no
houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where
they dwelt, or they located themselves in ravines and
40 ' Tons portaient les cheveux longs, et les Espagnols ont eu beaucoup de
peine a les leur faire couper; la chevelure longue est encore aujourd'hui le
signe distinctif des Indiens insoumis.' Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 40. 'Las
caras de bianco, negro, y Colorado pintadas, que llaman embijarse, y cierto
parecen demonios pintados.' Cogolludo, Hist, de Yucathan, p. 6. Compare
above with Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1843, torn, xcvii.,
p. 50; Helps' Span. Cong., vol. ii., p. 262.
41 ' The buildings of the lower class are thatched with palm-leaves, and
form but one piece, without window or chimney.' Hermesdorf, in Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 544. ' Cubrense las casas de vna cuchilla
que los Indies hazen de pajas muy espessas y bien assentad'as, que llaman en
esta tierra jacales.' Ddvila Padilla, Hist. Fvnd. Mex., p. 549. See also:
Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 554; Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 221, 225, with cut;
Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 252: Burgoa, Geog. D( scrip., torn, i., pt ii., fol. 197.
652 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
rocky parts, living in caverns or holes under the rocks ;
the Tzendales of Chiapas had many towns and painted
their houses; the Ahualulcos lived together in commu
nities, and had commodious, well-built houses of inter
woven cane, plastered on the inside with mud, the roof
thatched with palmetto.42
From the earliest times of which we have any record,
the natives of Oajaca and the isthmus of Tehuantepec
cultivated corn and vegetables, and likewise followed
the chase ; those who dwelt on the borders of the sea or
lakes applied themselves to fishing. The Zapotecs now
raise wheat, and build mills. It is asserted by an old
Spanish chronicler that this nation exceeded all others
in eating and drinking. As early as 1690, they gath
ered crops of maguey, maize, Spanish peas, chile,
potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry.
Of late they cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other trop
ical productions, as also do the inhabitants of Tehuante
pec. Primitive agriculture has undergone but little
alteration ; deer are caught by means of traps and nets.
The Miztecs, Mijes, and Cuicatecs have from the earliest
times been cultivators of the soil. The Mijes make a
coarse or impure sugar from sugar-cane ; their corn-fields
are often many miles distant from their dwellings. The
Huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders
of the lagoons on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, live mostly
on the proceeds of their fisheries, although they raise a
small supply of grain and fruit. Their fishing is almost
exclusively done with sweep-nets in shallow waters, and
during one month of the year they catch large schools of
shrimps in traps. The Zoques produce the small quan
tity of corn that they need, some achote, many very
fine oranges, and tobacco. They are fond of iguanas and
their eggs, and of parrots, killing the latter with stones.
The Chontales of Tabasco and Tehuantepec use maize
42 The Chochos and Chontales ' no tenian Pueblo fundado, si no cobachu-
elas estrechas en lo rnas escondido de los monies.' Burgoa, Geog. Descry?.,
torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 336. The Chinantecs lived 'en rancherias entre bar
rancas, y espessuras de arboles.' Burgoa, Palestra, Hist., pti., fol. 102; Char-
nay, Ruines Americaines, p. 438.
PREPARATION OF FOOD. 653
and cocoa as food. They eat flesh only upon great relig
ious festivals, marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond
of fish. In olden times they were cannibals, and An
tonio de Herrera, the chief chronicler of the Indies, ac
cused also the natives of Chiapas of being eaters of human
flesh. Since the conquest the natives have lived mostly
on corn and other vegetable productions, cultivated by
themselves. A large portion of the Mayas and of the
other aborigines of Yucatan are to-day engaged in the
cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic ani
mals as they need for themselves. They are very simple
and frugal in their eating/3 All the natives of this sec
tion of the Mexican republic grind their maize in the
same manner ; after first soaking it in lye or in lime and
water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone,
being wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste.
\Yith this they make their tortillas and other compounds,
both to eat and drink. To make tortillas the maize paste
is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of the hands and
cooked upon a flat clay pan. The totoposte is a smaller
cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. The dif
ference between them is in the manner of preparation ;
the totopostes are cooked one side only and laid near the
fire which makes them crisp, and require to be moistened
in order to render them eatable. Tamales are a favorite
dish and are made of pork, game, or poultry. The meat
is cut up in small pieces and washed ; a small quantity of
the maize paste seasoned with cinnamon, saffron, cloves,
pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red coloring mat
ter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a
pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a
thick gruel, it is removed, mixed with the meat, some
Jour., vol. iii., p. 59.
654 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
more lard and salt added, and the mass kneaded for a few
moments. It is then divided into small portions, which
are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. The tamales
thus prepared are covered with a banana-leaf or corn-
husk and placed in a pot or pan over which large leaves
are laid. They are allowed to boil from one hour and a
half to two hours. The posole is a nourishing drink
made of sour maize paste mixed with water ; sometimes
they add a little honey to it. They also prepare a drink
by parching corn and grinding it to powder on the nic
tate, and mixing it with water and a little achote. This
last drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys.44
The natives of Tehuantepec and especially those who
reside in the Goazacoalco district are neat and clean in
regard to their personal habits. They observe the custom
of bathing daily. In their ablutions they make use of a
plant called chintuk the root of which they mix with
water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aroma
tic odor. The same plant is used when they wash their
clothes, the scent from which remains on them for some
time. A pleasing feature in the appearance of these
people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton dresses
and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair.
The other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as
those of Chiapas are not so clean in their persons, and
as a consequence are much infested with vermin which
the women have a disgusting habit of eating when picked
from the heads of their children. The Mayas make fre
quent use of cold water, but this practice appears to be
more for pleasure than for cleansing purposes, as neither
in their persons nor in their dwellings do they present
an appearance of cleanliness.45
44 Tabasco: ' Comen a sus horas concertadas, carnes de vaca, puerco, y
aues, y beue vna beuida nmy sana, hecha de cacao, mayz, y especia de la
tierra, la qual Daman Zocolate.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. vii., cap.
iii. Tortillas, ' When they are baked brown, they are called " totoposti, ' ' and
taste like parched corn.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. The Chon-
tales, ' su alimento frecuente es el posole . . .rara vez comen la carne deres.'
Orozco y Berra, Geoyrafia, p. 161-2; Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., pp.
112-14; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 543-4.
4:> Sr Moro, speaking of the chintule, says: ' Una infusion de estas raices
comunica su fragancia al agua que los tehuantepecanos emplean como un
WEAPONS AND WAR. 655
The weapons of the Southern Mexicans were in most
respects similar to those used by the Central Mexicans,
namely, Sows and arrows, macanas, and lances, the latter
of great length and very strong. In Tabasco they carried
turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the
sun; they also had flint stones for lances and arrow-
points, but sometimes wreapon-points were made from
strong thorns and fish-bones. The hard wooden sword
of the Maya was a heavy and formidable wreapon, and
required the use of both hands to wield it ; the edge was
grooved for the purpose of inserting the sharp flint with
which it was armed. Slings were commonly used by
all these nations. In addition to shields the Mayas had
for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton
called escaupiles, which covered the body down to the
lower part of the thigh, and were considered impervious
to arrows. The flint knife of former days has now been
replaced by the machete which serves the purpose of
both cutlass and chopping- knife, and without it no native
ever goes into the woods.*6
When the Spaniards first arrived at Tabasco, they
encountered a people well-skilled in the art of war, with
a fair knowledge of military tactics, who defended their
country with much bravery; their towns and villages
were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and
strong towers and forts were built on such places as pre
sented the most favorable position for resisting attacks.
objeto de lujo sumamente apreciado, tanto para labar la ropa de uso, como
para las abluciones personales.' Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geoqrafia, p. 180.
' Toutes les parties de leur vetemeut sont toujours iiouvellement blanchies.
Les femmes se baignent au moins une fois par jour.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 24.
At Chiapas, ' Tons ces Indiens, mis on eu chemise, repandaientdans 1'atmos-
phere une odeur sui generis qui soulevait le coeur.' Charnay, Ruines Ameri-
caines, p. 457. The women are ' not very clean in their habits, eating the
insects from the bushy heads of their children.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. ' No son nmy limpias en sus personas, ni en
sus casas, conquanto se laban.' Herr era, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap.
iv. ; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 148.
46 < Peleauan con lan^as, armadas las puntas con espinas y huessos muy
agudos de pescados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi. ' Usaban
de lanzas de
desmesurado tamaiio para combatir.' Orozco y Berra,
p. 187. See also: Oimdo, Hist. Gen., torn. iii.,p. 461; Bunion, Geog. Descrip.,
torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 336; Cpcjolhido, Hist, de Yucathan, pp. 5-6, 11, 77; Navar-
rete, Col. -de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 58-59; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p, 179.
656 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
To their forts they retired when invaded by a superior
force, and from the walls they hurled large rocks with
damaging effect against their foes. Cortes found erected
on the bank of the Tabasco River, in front of one of
their towns, a strong wooden stockade, with loopholes
through which to discharge arrows; and subsequently,
during his march through their country, they frequently
set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his
troops. When advancing to battle they maintained a
regular formation, and they are described as having met
Francisco Montejo in good order, drawn up in three col
umns, the centre under the command of their chief,
accompanied by their chief priest. The combatants
rushed forward to the attack with loud shouts, cheered
on by the blowing of horns and beating of small drums
called tunJcules. Prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed
to their gods.47
The furniture of their houses is of the plainest de
scription, and limited to their absolute wants. Their
tables or benches are made of a few rough boards, and a
mat called petate, spread on the floor, serves for a bed,
while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering;
some few have small cane bedsteads. The natives of
Tabasco and Yucatan more commonly have a network
hamaca or hammock, suspended from two posts or trees.
Their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made
of earthenware, and gourds. The universal machete
carried by man and boy serves many purposes, such as
chopping firewood, killing animals, eating, and building-
houses. Burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make used
by the Zapotecs for catching game ; in the knots of the
net were fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other
47 ' Tienen enfrente deste Pueblo vn cerro altissimo, con vna punta que
descuella soberviamente, casi eutre la Kegion de las nubes, y coronase con
vna muy dilatada muralla de lossas de mas de vii estado de alto, y quentaii
de las pinturas de sus characteres historiales, que se retiraban alii, para de-
f endorse de sus enemigos.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii., fol. 167.
' Comenqaron luego a tocar las bozinas, pitos, trompetillas, y atabalejos de
gente de guerra.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and lib. iv.,
cap. xi. Also see Cogolludo, Hist, de Yucathan, pp. 5, 77-8; Navarrete. Col.
de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 60-3; Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 263. •
OAJACAN MANUFACTURES. 657
wild beasts of prey, and at intervals were fastened a cer
tain number of small stones; the object of such con
struction being probably to wound or disable the animal
when caught.48
The Zapotecs, Miztecs, Mayas, and others, since the
conquest, have long been justly celebrated for the manu
facture of cotton stuffs, a fact that is all the more
surprising when we consider the very imperfect imple
ments they possessed with which to perform the work.
Burgoa speaks of the excellence and rich quality of their
manufactures in cotton, silk, and gold thread, in 1670,
and Thomas Gage, writing about the same time, says
"it is rare to see what works those Indian women will
make in silk, such as might serve for patterns and sam
plers to many Schoolmistresses in England." All the
spinning and weaving is done by the women ; the cot
ton clothes they make are often interwoven with beau
tiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes
with gold and silk thread. A species of the agave
americana is extensively cultivated through the country,
from the fibres of which the natives spin a very strong
thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the
fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints.
The materials they have for dyeing are so good that
the colors never fade. The Zapotecs have also an in
timate knowledge of the process of tanning skins,
which they use for several domestic purposes.49
48 Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt i.,
fol. 110; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 196; Charnay, Ruines
Americaines, p. 454. ' Sobre vna estera si la tiene, que son muy pocos los
que duermen en alto, en tapescos de caiia. . . .ollas, o hornillos de tierra. . . .
casolones, 6 xicaras.' Burgoa, Geog. Dsscrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 294, 393.
49 ' Los zoques cultivan. . . .dos plantas pertenecientes a la familia de las
bromelias, de las curies sacan el ixtle y la pita cuyas hebras saben blanquear,
hilar y te.iir de varies colores. Sus hilados y las hamacas que tejen con
estas m.iterias, constituyen la parte principal de su industria y de su comer-
cio ' . . . .The Zapotecs, ' los tejidos de seda silvestre y de algodou que labran
las mugeres, soiiverdaderamente admirables.' Moro, in Orozco y Berra, Geo-
grafta, pp. 170, 180. Of the Miztecs it is said that ' las mugeres se han dado
a texer con primor panos, y huepiles, assi de algodon como de seda, y hilo
de oro, muy costosos.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii.j fol. 143, and
'
torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 400. Further reference in Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp.
., p. 459; Hutching.?' Col. Mag., vol.
ii., p. 394; Wappaus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163; Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., p. 40; Gage's
226-7; ChUton, in Hakluyt's Voy., vol. iii., p. 459; Hutching.?' Col. Mag.
New Survey, p. 236; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 198, 209.
VOL. I. 42
658 WILD TKIBES OF MEXICO.
Notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast,
and although their country is in many parts intersected
by rivers and lagoons, they have a surprisingly slight
knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with
which to venture into deep water. The inhabitants
of Tabasco, the Yucatan coast, and Cozumel island
possess some canoes made from the single trunk of a
mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen
sails and paddles. The H naves and others are in
complete ignorance of the management of any descrip
tion of boats.50
The Zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread
and superior hammocks, in which they have quite a
trade. In the neighborhood of Santa Maria they grow
excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the
neighboring towns. The Zapotecs have, many of them,
a considerable commerce in fruits, vegetables, and seeds.
In the city of Tehuantepec the business of buying and
selling is conducted exclusively by women in the mar
ket-place. The Ahualulcos are chiefly employed in
cutting planks and beams, with which they supply
many places on this isthmus; they also trade to some
extent in seeds and cotton cloths. Different kinds of
earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by
the natives of Chiapas, and by them exchanged for
salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments. The Mayas have
an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize
and poultry, they transport to several places along the
coast. Mr Stephens describes a small community of
the Maya nation, numbering about a hundred men
with their families, living at a place called Schawill,
who hold and work their lands in common. The
50 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii., lib. iv., eap.xi., Cor/olludo,
Hist, de Yucathan, p. 2; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., pp. 179, 214; Shufddt's
Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 123. ' Their canoes are formed out of the trunk of
a single mahogany or cedar tree.' .Dale's Notes, p. 24. When Grijalva was
at Cozumel 'vino una canoa.' Navarrde, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 56.
The Huaves ' no poseyendo embarcaciones propias para arriesgarse en aguas
de algun fondo, y desconociendo hasta el uso de los remos, no frecuentan
mas quo los puntos que por su poca profundidad no ofrecen mayor peligro.'
Moro, in Uaray, Reconocimiento, p. 90.
ZAPOTEC GOVERNMENT. 659
products of the soil are shared equally by all, and the
food for the whole settlement is prepared at one hut.
Each family contributes its quota of provisions, which,
when cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several
dwellings. Many of the natives of Tabasco earn a
livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees are captured
wild in the woods, and domesticated. The Huaves breed
cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat,
are prepared and exported by them and other tribes on
the isthmus of Tehuantepec. At the present day cochi
neal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and forms
an important article of commerce among the inhabi
tants. A rather remarkable propensity to the possession
of large numbers of mules is peculiar to the Mijes; such
property in no way benefits them, as they make no use
of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem
to prefer carrying the loads on their own backs.51
Formerly the Zapotecs were governed by a king,
under whom were caciques or governors who ruled over
certain districts. Their rank and power descended by
inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the
king, from whom they held their authority in fief. At
the time of the conquest the most powerful among them
was the Lord of Cuicatlan ; for the service of his house
hold, ten servants \vere furnished daily, and he was
treated with the greatest respect and homage. In later
years a cacique was elected annually by the people, and
under him officers were appointed for the different vil
lages. Once a week these sub-officers assembled to con
sult with and receive instructions from the cacique on
matters relating to the laws and regulations of their dis
tricts. In the towns of the Miztecs a municipal form of
government was established. Certain officials, elected
annually, appointed the work which was to be done by
the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers
51 Jl/IB's Hist. Mex., p. 158; Palacios, in Orozco y Berra, Qeograft'a, p. 166;
Herme.sdorf, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 547; JBrasseur de
Bourbourg,' Voy. Tehuantepec, p. 108; Hutchlngs' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 394;
Macgregor's Progress of America, vol. i., p. 849; Moro, in Garay, Reconoci-
miento, p. 93; Stephens' Yucatan, vol. ii., p. 14.
660 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
from the tops of the highest houses called the inhabi
tants to their allotted tasks. It was also the duty of
the town-criers to inflict the punishment imposed on all
who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform
their share of work. A somewhat similar system ap
pears to have prevailed in Chiapas, where the people
lived under a species of republican government.52 The
Mayas were at one time governed by a king who reigned
supreme over the whole of Yucatan. Internal dissen
sions and wars, however, caused their country to be
divided up into several provinces, which were ruled over
by lords or petty kings, who held complete sway, each
in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and
recognizing no authority outside of their own juris
diction. These lords appointed captains of towns, who
had to perform their duties subject to their lord's ap
proval. Disputes arising, the captains named umpires
to determine differences, whose decisions were final.
These people had also a code of criminal laws, and
when capital punishment was ordered, public execution
ers carried the sentence into effect. The crime of adul
tery in the man was punishable by death, but the injured
party could claim the right to have the adulterer de
livered to him, and he could kill or pardon him at
pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman.
The rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man
to death.53
52 'Les seigneurs de Cuicatlan etaient, au temps de la conquete tres-riches
et tres-puissants, et leurs descendants en ligne directe, decores encore du titre
de caciques.' Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338-9. At Etla ' Herren des Ortes waren
Caziken, welche ilin als eine Art von Mannlehen besassen, und dem Konige
einen gewissen Tribut bezahlen mussten. ' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt
i., p. 188. The Miztecs 'tenian senalados como pregoneros, officiates que
elegian por ano, para que todas las maiianas al despuntar el Sol, subidos en lo
mas alto de la casa de su Kepublica, con grandes vozes, llamasen, y exitasen
a todos, diziendo salid, salid a trabajar, a trabajar, y con rigor executive
castigaban al que faltaba de su tarea.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i., pt ii.,
fol. 151, also llerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.
53 < Estava sujeta a diuersos Senores,_ que como Reyezuelos dominaban
diuersos territories. . . .pero antes auia sido toda sujeta a vn Senior, y Key
Supremo, y asi gouernada con gouierno Monarquico.' Cogolludo, Hist, de Yu-
cathan, p. 60. ' En cada pueblo tenian senalados Capitanes a quienes obede-
cian.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-iv. For old customs and
new, compare above with Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 168, and Hassel, Hex.
Guat., p. 267.
SLAVERY AND MARRIAGE. 661
Slavery existed among the tribes of Goazacoalco and
Tabasco. Dona Marina was one of twenty female slaves
who were presented to Cortes by the cacique of the lat
ter place; and when her mother, who lived in the
province of Goazacoalco, gave her away to some travel
ing merchants, she, to conceal the act, pretended that
the corpse of one of her slaves who died at that time
was that of her own daughter.54
Among the Zapotecs and other nations who inhabit
the isthmus of Tehuantepec, marriages are contracted
at a very early age; it happens not unfrequently that
a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or twelve.
Polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection,
and frugality characterize the marital relations. Cer
tain superstitious ceremonies formerly attended the birth
of children which, to a modified extent, exist at the
present day. When a woman was about to be con
fined, the relatives assembled in the hut, and com
menced to draw on the floor figures of different animals,
rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed.
This operation continued till the moment of birth, and
the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground
was called the child's tona or second self. When the
child grew old enough, he procured the animal that
represented him and took care of it, as it was believed
that health and existence were bound up with that of
the animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur
simultaneously. Soon after the child was born, the
parents, accompanied by friends and relatives, carried
it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while
at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the
water to extend their protection to the child ; in like
manner they afterwards prayed for the favor of the
animals of the land. It is a noticeable trait, much to
the credit of the parents, that their children render to
them as well as to all aged people the greatest respect
and obedience. That the women are strictly moral can-
female
5* ' With other presents which they brought to the conqueror were twenty
lale slaves.' Helps' Span. Conq., vol. ii., p. 264.
662 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
not be asserted. Yoluptuous, with minds untrained, and
their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is
not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of
chastity among these women; yet few cases of conjugal
infidelity occur, and chastity is highly esteemed. Ille
gitimate children are not common, partly the result, per
haps, of early marriages.55 Among the Quelenes, when
a contract of marriage was made, the friends and rela
tives collected at the assembly-house common to every
village. The bride and bridegroom were then introduced
by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique and
priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty.
The bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had
connection with the bride or with other women, and
she, on her part, made a full confession of all her short
comings; this ended, the parents produced the presents,
which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which
they proceeded to array them ; they were then lifted up
and placed upon the shoulders of two old men and
women, who carried them to their future home, where
they laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left
them securely married.56 Among the Mayas early mar
riage was a duty imposed by the Spanish Fathers, and
if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen had not
chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or
55 'Vbo en esta juridicion grandes errores, y ritos con las paridas, y
ninos recien nacidos, lleuandolos a los rios, y sumergiendolos en el agua, ha-
zian deprecacion a todos los animales aquatiles, y luego a los de tierra le
fueran fauorables, y no le ofendieran.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt
ii., fol. 329. ' Conservase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida esta
unida a la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando este mu-
ere.' Musco Mex., torn, ii., pp. 554-5. 'Between husband and wife cases of
infidelity are rare To the credit of the Indians be it also said, that their
progeny is legitimate, and that the vows of marriage are as faithfully cher
ished as in the most enlightened and favored lands. Youthful marriages are
nevertheless of frequent occurrence.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 222. Women
of the Japateco race : ' their manners in regard to morals are most blame-
able.' Hermesdorf, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. Moro,
referring to the women of Jaltipan, says: 'Son de costumbres sumamente
libres: suele decirse ademas que los jaltipanos no soL> no las celan, sino que
Capul, que
para hazer casamientos, el Cazique, el Papa, los desposados, los parientes:
estando sentados el senor, y el Papa, llegauan los contrayentes, y el Papa les
amonestaua qne dixessen las cosas que auian hecho hasta aquella hora.'
Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.
WEDDINGS AND FATHERS-IN-LAW. 663
fortune and obliged them to marry. The usual presents
were dresses; and a banquet was prepared, of which all
present partook. During the feast the parents of the
parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the
occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the
priest, who then blessed the company and the ceremony
ended. Previous to the wedding-day the parents fasted
during three days. The young man built a house in
front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived
with his wife during the first years of his servitude, for
he was obliged to work for his father-in-law four or five
years. If he failed to perform faithful service, his
father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to
another. Widowers were exempt from this servitude,
and could choose whom they pleased for a wife without
the interference of relatives. It was forbidden a man
to marry a woman of the same name as his father.
They married but one wife, though the lords were per
mitted to make concubines of their slaves. Mr Stephens,
in his description of the inhabitants of the village of
Schawill, says: "Every member must marry within the
rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had
ever occurred. They said it was impossible; it could
not happen. They were in the habit of going to the
villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested
a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in
love with some village Indian, they said it might hap
pen ; there was no law against it ; but none could marry
out of the rancho. This was a thing so little appre
hended, that the punishment for it was not defined in
their penal code; but being questioned, after some con
sultations, they said that the offender, whether man or
womnn would be expelled. We remarked that in their
small community constant intermarriages must make
them all relatives, which they said was the case since
the reduction of their numbers by the cholera. They
were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was allowable for kins
folk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers and
sisters."
664 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
In divisions of property women could not inherit;
in default of direct male heirs the estate went to the
brothers or nearest male relatives. When the heir
was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed
guardian, until the days of his minority should have
passed, when the property was delivered up to him.
The Southern Mexicans were particular to keep a strict
chronology of their lineage. Young children underwent
a kind of baptismal ceremony. The Mayas believed
that ablution washed away all evil ; and previous to the
ceremony the parents fasted three days, and they were
particular to select for it what they considered a lucky
day. The age at which the rite was performed was be
tween three and twelve years, and no one could marry
until he had been baptized. Habits of industry as well
as respect for parents and aged people was strongly im
pressed upon the minds of the children.57
The Southern Mexicans are fond of singing and
dancing, though there is not much variety either in
their melancholy music or monotonous dances. Their
favorite instrument is the marimba, composed of pieces
of hard wood of different lengths stretched across a hol-
lowed-out canoe-shaped case. The pieces of wood or
keys are played upon with two short sticks, one held in
each hand. The sound produced is soft and pleasing,
and not unlike that of a piano. Another instrument is
the tunhul or drum, made of a hollow log with sheep
skin stretched over the end ; it is struck with the fingers
of the right hand, the performer holding it under his
left arm. Their movements during their dances are
slow and graceful. The men are addicted to intoxica
tion at their feasts, the liquor in common use among
them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit
made from the sugar-cane. Many of the natives have
a small still in their houses.58
w Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 114; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv.,
lib. x., cap. iv. ; Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, torn,
xcvii., p. 50; Stephens' Yucatan, vol., ii., pp. 15-16; Lad, Novus Orbis, p.
272; Dice. Univ., torn, iv., p. 256; Baeza, in Registro Yucateco, torn, i., p.
166.
58 ' Their amusements are scarcely worthy of note. . . .their liveliest songs
CUSTOMS IN OAJACA. 665
The Zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in
their common salutations, calling each other brother, and
to the descendants of their ancient caciques or lords the
utmost reverence is paid. It is related by a Mexican
writer that in a village not distant from the city of
Oajaca, whenever an aged man, the son of one of their
ancient lords was seen by the natives out walking, with
a majesty that well became his fine form, position, and
age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which
he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him
daade (father), and remained uncovered until he was
lost to sight. They are a theocratic people, much ad
dicted to their ancient religious belief and customs.
Those who live in the vicinity of Mitla entertain a
peculiar superstition ; they will run to the farthest vil
lages and pick up even the smallest stones that formed a
part of the mosaic work of that famous ruin, believing
that such stones will in their hands turn into gold.
Some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers
a buried or hidden treasure has no right to appropriate
to his own use any portion of it, and that if he does,
death will strike him down within the year, in punish
ment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the
person who hid or buried the treasure. One of the first
priests that lived among the Zapotecs says that after
they had entered the pale of the church, they still clung
to their old religious practices, and made offerings of
aromatic gums, and living animals ; and that when the
occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating
priest drew blood from the under part of his tongue,
and from the back part of his ears, with which he
sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and
used at the sacrifices. To warm themselves, the Cho-
chos, or Chuchones, of Oajaca used, in cold weather,
are sad. and their merriest music melancholy.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p.
222. ' Afectos a las bebidas embriagantes, couocen dos particulares, el cho-
rote, y el balche 6 guarapo, compuesto de agua, cana de azucar, palo-guarapo
y maiz quemado.' Orozco y tierra, Geogmfia, p. 162. See also: Fossey,
Mexique, pp. 343, 364; Dampier's Voyages, vol. ii., pt ii., p. 115; Stephens1
Yucatan, vol. i., pp. 144-5; Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 496-7.
6GG WILD TEIBES OF MEXICO.
towards the evening, to burn logs and dry leaves close to
the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into
their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old
and young, males and females, rushed in naked and
closed the entrance. The natives of Goazacoalco and
other -places practiced some of the Jewish rites, includ
ing a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed
to have derived from their forefathers; hence have
arisen innumerable analogies to prove the Jewish origin
of these peoples. The Huaves still preserve ancient
customs at their feasts. It is a remarkable fact that
although nearly all these people are fishermen, very few
of them can swim. The Mijes have a habit of speaking
in very loud tones ; this is attributed by some to their
haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in
the most rugged portion of the mountains. When bound
upon a journey, if they have no other load to carry,
they fill their tonates, or nets, with stones. This is gen
erally done by them on the return home from the mar
ket-place of Tehuantepec. These loads rest upon their
backs, and hang by a band from their foreheads. In
ancient times, when they were in search of a new coun
try to settle in, they subjected the places they had
devastated to the fire proof. This was done by putting
a firebrand over night into a hole, and if it was found
extinguished in the morning, they considered that the
Sun desired his children (that is themselves) to continue
their journey. They are much given, even at the pres
ent time, to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices,
on the Roman Catholic altar, of birds as offerings to the
false gods they worshiped before their partial conver
sion to Christianity. The natives attribute eclipses of
the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their sat
ellite, and to prevent the catastrophe make a frightful
uproar, employing therefor everything they can get hold
of.59
59 ' Provinciae Guazacualco atque Ylutse nee non et Cueztxatlae indiginse,
multas ceremonias ludoeorum usurpabant, iiam et circurncidebantur, more a
majoribus (ut ferebant) accepto, quod alibi in hi^ce regionibus ab Hispanis
DISEASES AND MEDICAL TBEATMENT. 667
The diseases most prevalent among the Southern
Mexicans are fevers, measles, and severe colds. All
these people possess an excellent knowledge of medicinal
herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and sick
ness. They still practice some of their mysterious cere
monies, and are inclined to attribute all complaints to
the evil influence of bewitchments. Father Baeza, in
the Registro Yucateco, says they consulted a crystal or
transparent stone called zalzun, by which they pretended
to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. When
suffering with fever or other disorders, the disease is
often much aggravated and death caused by injudicious
bathing in the rivers. In ancient times tobacco was
much used as a specific against pains arising from colds,
rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it
soothed the nerves and acted as a narcotic. They also
practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or fish-bone. The
Zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at
the same time invoking the assistance of the gods.60
When a death occurs the body is wrapped in a cotton
cloth, leaving the head and face uncovered, and in this
condition is placed in a grave. Very few of the ancient
funeral usages remain at the present day, though some
traces of superstitious ceremonies may still be observed
among them; such as placing food in the grave, or at
different spots in its immediate vicinity. Sometimes a
funeral is conducted with a certain degree of pomp, and
the corpse carried to its last resting-place followed by
hactenus non fuit observatum.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 261. 'They appear
to regard with horror and avoid with superstitious fear all those places
reputed to contain remains or evidences of their former religion.' Shufddt's
Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 125. See further: Museo Mex., torn, ii., pp. 551-5
Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 265, 286; Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn. ii.
pt ii., fol. 281-2, 290, 313, 332, 335-6, 397; Id., Palestra Hist., fol. 110
Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 90, 93; Dice. Univ., torn, iv., p. 257.
60 Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 329; Baeza, in Registro Yuca-
teco, torn, i., p. 168; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 313; Hermesdorf, in Lond.
Geog. Soc.t Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543. ' Ay en esta tierra mucha diuersidad
de yeruas medicinales, con que se curan los naturales.' Herrera, Hist. Gen.,
dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. The Maya ' sabe las virtudes de todas las
plantas como si hubiese estudiado botanica, conoce los venenos, los antido-
tos, y no se lo ocultan los calmantes.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 158,
162, 178.
668 WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO.
horn-blowers, and tunkul-drummers. As in the case of
the central Mexicans, a memorial day is observed, when
much respect is shown for the memory of the dead, at
which times fruits, bread, and cakes are placed upon the
graves.61
The character of the inhabitants of the Tehuantepec
isthmus and Yucatan is at the present day one of
docility and mildness. With a few exceptions they are
kind-hearted, confiding, and generous, and some few of
them evince a high degree of intelligence, although the
majority are ignorant, superstitious, of loose morality as
we esteem it, yet apparently unconscious of wrong.
Cayetano Moro says they are far superior to the average
American Indian. The Zapotecs are a bold and inde
pendent people, exhibit many intellectual qualities, and
are of an impatient disposition, though cheerful, gentle,
and inoffensive; they make good soldiers; they are
fanatical and superstitious like their neighbors. The
women are full of vivacity, of temperate and industri
ous habits, their manners are characterized by shyness
rather than modesty, and they are full of intrigue. To
this nation the Mijes present a complete contrast; of all
the tribes who inhabit the isthmus, they are the most
brutal, degraded, and idolatrous; they are grossly stu
pid, yet stubborn and ferocious. The Chontales and
Choles are barbarous, fierce, and quarrelsome, and greatly
addicted to witchcraft. The Cajonos and Nexitzas, of
Oajaca, are of a covetous and malicious nature, dishon
est in their dealings, and much inclined to thieving. The
Zoques are more rational in their behavior; although
they are ignorant and intemperate in their habits,
they are naturally kind and obliging, as well as patient
and enduring. The Huaves are deficient in intelli
gence, arrogant and inhospitable to strangers, and of a
reticent and perverse disposition. The Miztecs are
61 Ternaux-Compans, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1843, torn, xcvii., p.
51; Museo Mex., torn, ii., p. 554. 'En Tamiltepec, los indios usan de cere-
monias snpersticiosas en sus sepulturas. Se lesve hacer en los cementerios
pequefios montones de tierra, en los que mezclan viveres cada vez que en-
tierran alguno de ellos.' Berlandier y Thovel, Diario, p. 231.
CHARACTER OF SOUTHERN MEXICANS. 669
grave and steady; they exhibit many traits of inge
nuity, are industrious, hospitable, and affable in their
manners, and retain an ardent love for liberty.62 The
Mayas exhibit many distinguished characteristics. Al
though of limited intelligence, and more governed by
their senses than their reason, their good qualities
predominate. Formerly they were fierce and warlike,
but these characteristics have given place to timidity,
and they now appear patient, generous, and humane;
they are frugal and satisfied with little, being remark
ably free from avarice. Herrera describes them as
fierce and warlike, much given to drunkenness and other
sins, but generous and hospitable. Doctor Young, in
his History of Mexico, says: "They are not so intel
ligent or energetic, though far more virtuous and hu
mane than their brethren of the north." The women
are industrious, have pleasing manners, and are inclined
to shyness. To sum it all up, I may say that the
besetting vice of these nations is intemperance, but the
habit of drinking to excess is found to be much more
common among the mountain tribes than among the
inhabitants of the lowlands. Quarrels among them
selves seldom occur, and there is abundant evidence
to show that many of them possess excellent natural
qualifications both for common labor, and artistic indus
try ; and that there is no cause to prevent their becoming,
under favorable circumstances, useful citizens.63
62 The Miztecs c siempre de mayor reputacion, y mas polfticos.' Zapo-
tecs ' naturalmente apazibles, limpios, lucidos, y liberates.' Nexitzas 'astutos,
maliciosos, inclinados a robos, y desacatos, con otros Cerranos supersticiosos,
acostumbrados a aleuosias, y hechizeros.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., torn, i.,
pt ii., fol. 151, torn, ii., pt ii., fol. 202, 312, also fol. 204, 211, 228, 271, 282,
294. 335, 400. Choles, 'nacion. . . .feroz, guerrera e independiente.' Balbi,
in Orozco y Berra, Geografla, p. 167. ' Siendo los Indies Mixes de natural
feroz, barbaro, yduro, quequieren sertratados con aspereza, y rigor.' Ddvila,
Teatro Edes., torn, i., p. 224. See further: Burgoa, Palestra Hist., pt i., fol.
101; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 161-2, 186-7; Torres, in Id., p. 179; Mu-
seo Mex., torn, ii., pp. 554-5; Ternpsky's Mitla, p. 269; Hermesdorf, in Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 543; Barnard's Tehuantepec, pp. 220-7;
Charnay, Ruines Americaines, pp. 258-9, 287; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii.,
p. 439; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn. ii. , pt i., p. 200; Dampier's Voyages, vol.
ii., pt ii., pp. li5-16; Ldvila Padilla, Hist. Fvnd. Mex., p. 294; Laet, Novus
Orbis, p. 325.
63 ' Es el indio yucateco un monstruoso conjunto de religion e impiedad,
de virtudes y vicios, de sagacidad y estupidez. . . .tiene ideas exactas precisas
670 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
de lo bneno y de lo malo. . . .Es incapaz de robar nn peso, y roba cuatro
veces dos reales ... Siendo honrado en casi todas sus acciones . . . se puede
decir que el unico vicio que le domina es el de la embriaguez.' Registro
Yuc.ateco, torn, i., pp. 291-3; Baeza, in Id., torn, i., pp. 166-8, 174; Morelet,
, i., p. 14
Hist. Mex., p. 158; Moro, in Garay, Reconocimiento, pp. 89-94; Mutter, Reisen,
Voyage, torn, i., p. 148; Herrera, Hist., Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap.iv.; Mill's
Hist. Mex., p. 15
torn, ii., p. 371.
TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
Under the name WILD TRIBES OF MEXICO, I include all thp people
inhabiting the Mexican Territory from ocean to ocean, between latitude 23°
north and the Central American boundary line south, including Yucatan and
Tehuantepec. The southernmost point of this division touches the fifteenth
degree of north latitude. A subdivision of this group is made and the parts
are called the Central Mexicans, and the Southern Mexicans, respectively. In
the former I include the nations north of an imaginary line, drawn from the
port of Acapulco, on the Pacific coast, to Vera Cruz, on the Gulf of Mexico,
and in the latter all those south of this line.
Going to the fountain-head of Mexican history, I find mentioned certain
names, of which it is now impossible to determine whether they are differ
ent names applied to the same people or different peoples, or whether they
are mythical and apply to no really existing nations. Still less is it possible
to give these strange names any definite location; instance the Toltecs and
the Chichimecs, and indeed almost all early designations, very common
names used to denote very uncommon people. Sahagun is the only one of
the oldest writers who mentions the name of Toltecs, which in later years
was used by Ixtlilxochitl and Boturini, and after them bandied about more
freely by modern writers. After the conquest, the name Chichimecs was
applied to all uncivilized and unsettled people north of the valley of Mexico,
extending to the farthest discovered region. Of still other nations nothing
further can be said than that they occupied the cities to which their name
was applied; such were the Mexicans, or Aztecs, the Tlascaltecs, the Cholul-
tecs, and many others. Some general remarks respecting the location of the
principal civilized nations, will be found in vol. ii., chap, ii., of this work;
and all obtainable details concerning the many tribes that cannot be defi
nitely located here are given in volume v.
The Quinames or Giants are mentioned as the first inhabitants of Mexico.
'Los Quinametin, gigantes que vivian en esta rinconada, que se dice ahora
Nueva Espana.' Ixtiilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol.
ix., p. 322; Id., Hist. Chichimeca, in Id., p. 205. 'Los que hasta agora se
sabe, aver morado estas Estendidas, y Ampliadisimas Tierras. y Regiones,
de la Nueva Espana, fueron vnas Gentes mui crecidas de Cuerpo, que llama-
ron despues otros, Quinametin.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 34.
'Les Quinames, la plus ancienne des races connues de ces contrees, etaient
encore en possession de quelques localites de peu d 'importance pres des
villes de Huitzilapan, de Cuetlaxcohuapan et deTotomihuacan.' Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, i., p. 196. ' Sa domination s'etendait
sur les provinces interieures du Mexique et du Guatemala, et, a 1'epoque du
OLMECS AND XICALANCAS. 671
debarquement des Olmeques et des Xicalancas, les histoires nous la mon-
trent encore en possession du plateau azteque et des contrees voisines du
fleuve Tabasco.' Id., in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clviii., p. 258.
'Vivian hacia las riberas del rio Atoyac, entre la ciudad de Tlaxcala y la de
la Puebla de los Angeles.' Veytia, Hist. Ant. M?j., torn, i., pp. 28, 143-4.
The Olmecs and Xicalancas were ' los que poseian este Nuevo Mundo, en
esta tercera edad.' Ixtlilxochitt, Hist. Chichimeca, in Kingsborough's Mex.
Antiq., vol. ix., p. 205. ' Olmecas, Vixtoti, y Mixtecas. Estos tales asf llama-
dos, estan acia el nacimiento del sol, y llamanles tainbien tenime, porque
hablan 1'engua barbara, y dicen que son Taltecas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn,
iii., lib. x., p. 136. ' Estos poblaron, donde aora esta Edificada, yPobladala
Ciudad de los Angeles, y en Totomihuacan .... Los Xicalancas, f ueron tarn-
bien Poblando, acia Cuathazualco (que es acia la Costa del Norte) y adelante
en- la misma Costa, esta oi dia vn Pueblo, que se dice Xicalanco .... Otro
Pueblo ai del mismo Nombre, en la Proviucia de Maxcaltzinco, cerca del
Puerto de la Vera-Cruz, que parece averlo tambien Poblado los Xicalancas.'
Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 32. 'Atravesando los Puertos del Bol-
can, y Sierra-Nevada, y otros rodeandolos por la parte de el Mediodia, hasta
que venieroii a salir a vu Lugar, que de presente se llama Tochmilco. De
alii, pasaron a Atlixco, Calpan, y Huexotziiico, hasta llegar al parage, y Tier-
ras de la Provincia de Tlaxcallan; y haciendo asiento en el principio, y en-
trada de la dicha Tierra, hicieron su Fundacion en el Pueblo, que aora se
llama Nuestra Seuora de la Natividad (y en Lengua Mexicana Yancuictlal-
pan.) De alii, pasaron a otro Poblado, el referido, llamado Huapalcalco,
junto a vna Hermita, que llaman de Santa Cruz, al qual llamau los Naturales,
Texoloc, Mizco, y Xiloxuchitla, donde aora es la Hermita de San Vicente, y
el Cerro de la Xochitecatl, y Tenayacac, donde estan otras dos Hermitas,
a poco trecho vna de otra, que las llaman de San Miguel, y de San Fran
cisco, enmedio de las quales, pasa el Rio, que viene de la Sierra Nevada de
Huexotzinco. Y aqui en este Sitio, hicieron los Hulmecas, su Principal
asiento, y Poblaqon.' Id., p, 257; Mendieta, Hist. Ecles., pp. 145-6; Motolinia,
Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 7. ' Vlinecatlh poblo
tambien muchos lugares en aquella parte, a do agora esta la ciudad de los
Angeles. Y nombro los Totomiuacan, Vicilapan, Cuetlaxcoapan, y otros
assi. Xicalancatlh anduuo mas tierra, llego a la mar del norte, y en la costa
hizo muchos pueblos. Pero a los dos mas priucipales llamo de su mesmo
nombre. El vn Xicalanco esta en la prouiiicia de Maxcalcinco, que es cerca
de la Vera Cruz, y el otro Xicalanco esta cerca de Tauasco.' Gomara,
Conq. Mex., fol. 299. ' Hacia Atlisco y Itzucan los xicalancas: y en el ter-
ritorio de la Puebla, Chollolan y Tlaxcallan los ulmecas, cuya primitiva y
principal poblaciou dicen haber sido la ciudad de Chollolau.' Veytia, Hist.
Ant. Mej., torn, i., p. 153; Brasseur de JBourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn,
i., pp. 110-11, 196; Id., PopolVuh, introd., p. xxx; Orozco y Berra, Geografta,
p. 119; Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 374.
The Coras constitute the north-westernmost nation of the CENTRAL MEXI
CANS, inhabiting the district of ' Nayarit 6 reino de Nuevo Toledo . . . . Al Oeste
tieue los pueblos de la antigua provincia de Acaponeta ; al Este los de Colotlan,
672 TKIBAL BOUNDARIES.
y al Sur quieren algunos que se extienda hasta las orillas del rio Grande 6
Tololotlan . . .el Nayarit se extiende entre los 21° 20' y 23° de lat., y entrelos
5J y 6° de long, occidental de Mexico.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 279.
'En la Sierra del Nayarit.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 71. * Los indios
que viven en el centre de la sierra, llamados muutzizti . . . Los llamados tea-
kuaeitzizti viven en las f aldas de la sierra que mira al Poniente .... los coras
que viven a la orilla del rio Nayarit 6 de Jesus Maria, conocidos por Ateakari.'
Id., p. 83.
The Tecoxines ' tenian su principal asiento en el valle de Cactlan y se
extendian a la Magdalena, Analco, Hoxtotipaquillo y barrancas de 'Mochi-
tiltic.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 279.
The Cocotlanes were at the missions of ' Apozolco y en Comatlan.' Id.,
p. 280.
The Maraveres reside in Tlajomulco. Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, ii., p. 242.
The Thorames and Tzayaquecas dwell near the town of Zentipac. ' Dos
leguas apartado del mar, la nacion Thorama .... diez leguas de Zentipac habia
otros Indios de Nacion Tzayaqueca.' Padilla, Conq. N. Galida, MS., p. 62.
' La gran poblacion y Valle de Tzenticpac, cuyo pueblo principal esta situado
punto a la mar del Sur, dos leguas antes a orillas del rio grande, y que la
gente de esta provincia era de la nacion Totorame.' Beaumont, Cron. de Me-
choacon, MS, p. 197.
The Corarus ' habitaban hacia la parte del Norte, diez leguas del dicho
pueblo de Tzenticpac.' 76.
The Guicholas ' are settled in the village of San Sebastian, which lies
eighteen leagues to the westward of Bolanos.' Lyon's Journal, vol. i., p.
322; Nouvelks Annales des Voy., 1828, torn, xl., p. 239. ' En Santa Catarina,
S. Sebastian, S. Andres Coamiat, Soledad y Tezompan, pertenecientes a
Colotlan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 282.
The Coronados ' son los del pueblo de Tuito al Sur del valle de Banderas. '
Id., p. 278.
The Tlaxomultecs 'habitaban en Tlajomulco.' 'Estos tecuexes. . . .llaman
a los indios cocas de toda la provincia de Tonalan, que no eran de su len-
gua, tlaxomultecas.' Id., p. 278.
The Cocas and Tecuexes ' eran los de la provincia de Tonalan . . . Los
tecuexes pasaban del otro lado de Tololotlan hasta ocupar parte de Zacatecas,
derramandose por los pueblos de Tecpatitlan, Teocaltiche, Mitic, Jalostotit-
lan, Mesticatan, Yagualica, Tlacotlan, Teocaltitlan, Ixtlahuacan, Cuautla,
Ocotic y Acatic. Id., pp. 278-9.
The Mazapiles are ' al N. E. de la zacateca.' Ilervas, in Id., p. 11.
The Cazcanes 'habitan hasta la comarca de Zacatecas.' Herrera, Hist.
Gen., dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. xiii.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 281. ' Ocupaba el
terreno desde el rio Grande, confinando con los tecuexes y los tepecanos.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 284, 49.
The Mecos live in the pueblo Soledad de las Canoas, in the State of Que*
retaro. Alcedo, Dice., torn, iv., p. 567.
The Fames inhabit the state of Queretaro, ' treinta leguas distante de la
expresada Ciudad de Queretaro, y se estiende a cien leguas de largo, y treintu
de ancho, en cuyas brefias vivian los Indios de la Nacion Fame.' Fatoy-,
THE OTOMfS. 673
Vida de Junipero Serra, p. 23. 'En la mision de Cerro Prieto del Estado
de Mexico, se extiende principalmente por los pueblos de San Luis Potosi,
y tambien se le encuentra en Queretaro y en Guanajuato.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, pp. 48, 256, 262, 264. ' En San Luis de la Paz, territorio de la
Sierra Gorda .... en la ciudad del Maiz, Departamento de San Luis Potosi
en la Purisima Concepcion de Arnedo, en la Sierra Gorda.' Pimentel,
Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 265.
The Otomis are one of the most widely dispersed nations of Mexico.
' Todo lo alto de las montanas, 6 la mayor parte, a la redonda de Mexico,
estan llenas de ellos. La cabeza de su senorio creo que es Xilotepec, que es
una gran provincia, y las provincias de Tollan y Otompa casi todas son de
ellos, sin contar que en lo bueno de la Nueva Espana hay muchas pobla-
ciones de estos Otomies, de los quales proceden losOhichimecas.' Motolinia,
Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 9. The above is copied
by Torquemada, in his Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 32. 'Estos Teochichimecas
son los que aora se llaman Otomies. . . .Tlaixpan, es de los que hablan esta
Lengua Otomi.' Id., p. 261. ' La grandisima Provincia, 6 Reino de los Oto
mies, que coge a Tepexic, Tula, Xilotepec, Cabeqa de este Heyno, Chiapa,
Xiquipilco, Atocpan, y Queretaro, en cuio medio de estos Pueblos referidos,
ai otro inumerables, porque lo eran sus Gentes.' Id., p. 287. 'Xilotepeque
provincia Otomiis habitata.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 234. 'La Provincia
degli Otomiti cominciava nella parte settentrionale della Valle Messicana, e
si continuava per quelle montagne verso tramontana sino a novanta migliar
dalla Capitale. Sopra tutti i luoghi abitati, che v' erano ben molti, s' innal-
zava 1'antica e celebre Citta di Tollan [oggidi Tula,] e quella di Xilotepec.'
Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 31. In ancient times they
1 occuparono un tratto di terra di piii di trecento miglia dalle montagne
d'Izmiquilpan verso Maestro, confinando verso Levante, e verso Ponente con-
altre Nazioni parimente selvaggie.' Later: 'fondarono nel paese d'Ana-
huac, ed anche nella stessa Valle di Messico infiniti luoghi: la maggior parte
d'essi, e spezialmente i piu grandi, come quelli di Xilotopec e di Huitzapan
nelle vicinanze del paese, che innanzi occupavano : altri sparsi fra i Matlat-
zinchi, ed i Tlascallesi, ed in altre Provincie del Regno.' Id., p. 148. 'Loa-
indios de este pais (Queretaro) eran por la mayor parte otomites.' Akgre,
Hist. Comp. de Jesus, torn, ii., p. 163; Humboldt, Essai Pol., torn, i., p.
77. ' Sous le nom d' Othomis, on comprenait generalement les restes des
nations primitives, repandus dans les hautes vallees qui bornent 1'Ana-
huac a 1'occident.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p.
56. 'Les traditions les plus anciennes du Mexique nous montrent les
Othomis en possession des montagnes et de la vallee d'Anahuac, ainsii
que des vastes contrees qui s'etendent au dela, dans le Michoacan, jus-
qu'aux frontieres de Xalizco etde Tonalan; ils etaient egalement les maitres-
du plateau de Tlaxcallan.' Id., torn, i., p. 160. 'Us occupaient la plus
grande partie de la vallee d'Anahuac, avec ses contours jusqu'aux environs
de Cholullan, ainsi que les provinces que s'etendent au nord entre le Mi
choacan et Tullantzinco.' Id,, p. 196. 'Otompan, aujourd'hui Otumba, tut
leur capitale.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. xxx.. ex.
Queretaro ' f ue siempre domicilio de los esf orzados Othomites .... Tlerten
Vol. I. 43
674 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
poblado todo lo alto de las Montafias, que circundan a Mexico, siendo cat>e-
cera de toda la Provincia Othomi Xilotepec, que la hacen numerosa los
Pueblos de Tepexic, Tula, Huichiapan, Xiquilpo, Atocpan, el Mexquital, S.
Juan del Rio, y Queretaro.' Espinosa, Chron. Apostolica, pp. 1-2. The Otomt
language ' se le encuentra derramado por el Estado de Mexico, entra en San
Luis Potosi, abraza todo Queretaro y la mayor parte de Guanajuato, limi-
tandose al O. por los pueblos de los tarascos; reaparece confundido con el
tepehua cerca del totonaco, y salpicado aqui y alia se tropieza con el en
Puebla y en Veracruz.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 17, 216-7, 240, 255-6,
261-4, 272. ' En todo el Estado de Queretaro y en una parte de los de San
Luis, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Mexico, Puebla, Veracruz y Tlaxcala.' Pi
mentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 117. Concurrent authorities: Hassel, Mex., Gnat.,
p. 138; Delaporte, Eeisen, torn, x., p. 323; Ward's Mexico, vol. ii., p. 345;
Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt ii., p. 477; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp.
.36, 188, 196-7; Klemm, Cultur-Geschichte, torn, v., p. 193; Gallatin, in Amer.
Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 2; Gemelli Careri, in Churchill's Col. Voy
ages, torn, iv., p. 513. 'Habitait les bords du golfe du Mexique, depuis la
province de Panuco jusqu'au Nueces.' Domenech, Jour., p. 16.
The Mazahuas ' f urouo tempo fa parte della Nazione Otomita I prin-
cipali luoghi da .loro abitati erano sulle montagne occidentali della Valle
Messicana, e componevano la Provincia di Mazahuacan, appartenente alia
•Corona di Tacuba.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 149-50?
•copied in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 83. ' Mazahuar
Mazahui, Matzahua, Matlazahua, Mozahui, en Mexico y en Michoacan. En
tiempos del imperio azteca esta tribu pertenecia al reino de Tlacopan; sus
pueblos marcaban los limites entre su senorio y Michoacan.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 256. ' Parece que solo quedan algunos restos de la nacion
mazahua en eldistrito Ixtlahuaca, perteneciente al Departamento de Mexico.'
Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 193. ' Au nord ils etendaient leurs villages
jusqu'a peu de distance de 1'ancien Tollan.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist.
J¥at. Civ., torn, iii., p. 56.
The Huastecs, Huaxtecs, Guastecs, or Cuextecas inhabit portions of the
states of Vera Cruz and Tamaulipas. 'A los misnios llamaban Panteca 6
Panoteca, que quiere decir hombres del lugar pasadero, los cuales fueron
.asi llamados, y son los que viven en la provincia de Panuco, que propia-
mente se llaman Pantlan, 6 Panotlan.' Sahayun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x.,
p. 132. ' El Huaxtecapan se extendid de Veracruz a, San Luis Potosi, y
coma a lo largo de la costa del Golfo, hacia el Norte, prolongandose
probablemente muy adentro de Tamaulipas, por lugares en donde ahora no
;se encuentra ni vestigio suyo.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 206, 19.
' Cuando llegaron los espanoles, el lugar que ocupaban era la frontera Norte
• del reino de Texcoco, y parte de la del mexicano . . . .Hoy se conoce su pais con
el nombre de la Huaxteca: comprende la parte Norte del Estado de Veracruz
y una fraccion lindante del de San Luis, confmando, al Oriente, con el Golfo
de Mexico, desde la barra de Tuxpan hasta Tampico.' Pimentel, Cuadro,
torn, i., p. 5. Further mention in Chaves, Rapport, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy.,
Berie ii., torn, v., p. 298; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 46; Hassel,
Mex. Goat., p. 226; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 35-6; Squier'sCent. Amer.
p. 316; Villa-Senor, Theatro, torn, i., p. 122.
TOTONACS AND NAHUATLACS. 675
The Totonacs occupy the country east of the valley of Mexico down to
the sea-coast, and particularly the state of Veracruz and a portion of Puebla.
' Estos Totonaques estan poblados a la parte del norte, y se dice ser
guastemas.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., pp. 131-4. 'Totonachi.
Questa grande Provincia, ch'era per quella parte I'ultima dell' imperio,
si stendeva per ben centocinqunnta miglia, cominciando dalla frontiers
di Zacatlan. . . .e terminando nel Golfo Messicano. Oltre alia capitale Miz-
quihuacan, quindici miglia a Levante da Zacatlan, v' era la bella Citta di
Cempoallan sulla costa del Golfo.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i.,
p. 34. ' Raccontavano dunque, que essendosi eglino da principio per qual-
che tempo stabiliti su le rive del lago tezcucano, quindi si portarono a popo-
lare quelle montague, che da loro presero il nome di Totonacapan.' Id.,
torn, iv., p. 51. « En Puebla y en Veracruz. Los totonacos ocupan la parte
Norte del Departamento, formando un solo grupo con sus vecinos-de Vera
cruz; terminan sobre la costa del golfo, en toda la zona que se extiende entre
los rios de Chachalacasy de Cazones 6 S. Marcos.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
pp. 214, 216. ' Estan estendidos, y derramados por las Sierras, que le caen, al
Norte, a esta Ciudad de Mexico.' Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 278;
Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 223. 'In the districts of Zacatlan, State of
Puebla, and in the State of Vera Cruz.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 190; Villa-
Senor, Theatro, torn, i., p. 312; Muhlenpfordt, Mejlco, torn, i., p. 208; Galla-
tin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4.
The Meztitlanecs inhabited the region north of Tezcuco, between the Sierra
Madre and the territory occupied by the Huastecs. ' Al Norte de Tetzcoco
existia el senorio independiente de Meztitlan, que hoy corresponde al Estado
de Mexico .... Obedecian a Meztitlan, cabecera principal, las provincias de
Molango, Malila, Tlanchinolticpac, Ilamatlan, Atlihuetzian, Suchicoatlan,
Tiauguiztengo, Guazalingo, Yagualica. El senorio, pues, se extendia por
toda la sierra, hasta el li'mite con los huaxtecos: en Yahualica estaba la
guaruicion contra ellos, por ser la frontera, comenzando desde alii las llanuras
de Huaxtecapan. Xelitla era el punto mas avanzado al Oeste y confmaba con
los barbaros chichimecas : el termino al Sur era Zacualtipan y al Norte tenia
a los chichimecas.' Cliavez, Relation de Meztitlan, quoted in Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 246.
The Nahuatlacs ' se diuiden en siete linajes .... Los primeros f ueron los
Suchimilcos, que quiere dezir, gente de sementeras de flores. Estos pobla-
ron a la orilla de la gran laguna de Mexico hazia el Mediodia, y fundaron
vna ciudad de su nombre, y otros muchos lugares. Mucho despues llegaron
los del segundo linage llamados Chalcas, que significa gente de las bocas, y
tambien fundaron otra ciudad de su nombre, partiendo terminos con los
Suchimilcos. Los terceros f ueron los Tepanecas, que quiere dezir, gente
de la Puente. Y tambien poblaron en la orilla de la laguna al Occidente
La cabe^a de su provincia la llamaron Azcapuzalco. . . .Tras estos vinieron,
los que poblaron a Tezcuco, que son los de Culhua, que quiere dezir, gente
corua Y assi quedo la laguna cercada de estas quatro naciones, poblando
estos al Oriente, y los Tepanecas al Norte. . . .Despues llegaron los Tlatlui-
cas, que significa gente de la sierra. . . .Y como hallaron ocupados todos los
llanos en contorno de la laguna hasta las sierras, passaron de la otra parte de
676 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
la sierra. . . . Y a la cabe^a de suprouincia llamaron Quahunahuac que eor-
rompidamente nuestro vulgo llama Quernauaca, y aquella prouincia es, la que
oy se dize el Marquesado. Los de la sexta generacion, que son los Tlas-
caltecas, que quiere dezir gente de pan, passaron la serrania hazia el Oriente
atrauessando la sierra neuada, donde esta el famoso bolcan entre Mexico y
la ciudad de los Arigeles la cabeqa de suprouincia llamaron de su noinbre
Tlascala. . . .La septima cueua, o linage, que es la nacion Mexicana, la qual
como las otras, salio de las prouincias de Aztlan, y Teuculhuacan. ' Acosta,
Hist, de las Ynd., pp. 454-8. Repeated in Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii.,
lib. ii., cap. x. Also in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 151-2,
and in Heredia y Sarmiento, Sermon de Guadalupe, p. 85; Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, pp. 91-2.
The Acolhuas inhabited the kingdom of Acolhuacan. ' Su capital era
Tetzcoco, a la orilla del lago de su nombre La extension del reino era:
desde el mar del N. a la del Sur, con todo lo que se comprende a la banda del
Poniente hasta el puerto de la Veracruz, salvo la cuidad de Tlachcala y Hue-
xotzinco.' Pomar, Relation de Texcoco, quoted in Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
pp. 240-2. ' Juan B. Pomar fija los limites del reino con toda la exageracion
que puede infundir el orgullo de raza. Por nuestra parte, hemos leido con
cuidado las relaciones que a la monarqufa corresponden, y hemos estudiado
en el piano los lugares a que se refieren, y ni de las unas ni de los otros
llegamos a sacar jamas que los reyes de Aculhuacan mandaraii sobre las tri-
bus avecindadas en la costa del Pacffico, no ya a la misma altura de Mexico,
sino aun a menores latitudes.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 242-4. See
further: Motolinia, Hist. Indios, in Icazbalceta, Col. de Doc., torn, i., p. 11;
Ixtlilxochitl, Relaciones, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., p. 341.
The Ocuiltecs ' viven en el distrito deToluca, en tierrasy terminos suyos.'
Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 130.
The Macaoaquez ' viven en una comarca de Toluca, y estan poblados en el
pueblo de Xocotitlan. Ib.
The Tarascos dwell chiefly in the state of Michoacan. ' La provincia de
estos, es la madre de los pescados, que es Michoacan: llamase tambien
Quaochpanme.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 137. Repeated
in Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 148. Their territory is
bounded : ' Au nord-est, le royaume de Tonalan et le territoire maritime de
Colima en sont separes par le rio Pantla et le fleuve Coahuayana, auquel
s'unit cette riviere, dix lieues avant d'aller tomber dans la mer Pacifique, dont
le rivage continue ensuite a borner le Michoacan, au sud-ouest, jusqu'a Za-
catollan. La les courbes capricieuses du Mexcala lui constituent d'autres
limites, a Test et au sud, puis, a Test encore, les riches provinces de Cohu-
ixco et de Matlatzinco Plus au nord, c'etaient les Mazahuas, dont les
fertiles vallees, ainsi que celles des Matlatzincas, s'etendent dans les regions
les plus froides de la Cordillere; enfin le cour majestueux du Tololotlan et
les rives pittoresques du lac Chapala formaient une barriere naturelle entre
les Tarasques et les nombreuses populations othomies et chichimeques des
etatsde Guanaxuato et de Queretaro.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ.,
torn, iii., pp. 53, 56. ' El tarasco se habla en el Estado de Michoacan, excep-
tuando la parte Sur-Oeste que linda con el Pacffico donde se habla el mexi-
MATLALTZINCAS AND TLAPANECS. 677
cano, mm pequena parte al Nor-Este, donde se acostumbra el othomi 6 el
mazahua, y otra parte donde se usa el rnatlatzinca. Tambien se habla en el
Estado de Guanajuato, en la parte qtie linda con Michoacan y Guadalajara,
limitada al Oriente por una linea que puede comenzar en Acambaro, seguir
a Irapuato y terminar en San Felipe, es decir, en los limites con San Luis
PotosiV Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 271. 'En Michoacan, Guerrero, Gua
najuato y Jalisco.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 58, 238, 264, 271-2, 281.
Concurrent authorities: Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p.
4; Ludeicig's Ab. Lang., p. 182; Figuier's Hum. Race, p. 460; Ward's Mex
ico, vol. ii., p. 675.
The Matlaltzincas, Pirindas, or Tolucas inhabited the valley of Toluca,
situated between the valley of Mexico and Michoacan. ' La Provincia del
Matlatzinchi comprendeva, oltre la valle di Tolocan, tutto quello spazio,
che v'e infino a Tlaximaloyan (oggi Taximaroa) frontiera del regno di
Michuacan. . . .Nelle montagne circoiivicine v' erano gli stati di Xalatlauhco,
di Tzompahuacan, e di Malinalco; in non molta lontananza verso Levante
dalla valle quello d'Ocuillan, e verso Ponente quelli di Tozantla, e di Zol-
tepec.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., pp. 31-2, 150. 'Antigua-
mente en el valle de Toluca; pero hoy solo se usa en Charo, lugar pertene-
ciente al Estado de Michoacan.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 499. 'In the
district of that name, sixty miles south-west of Mexico.' Gallatin, in Amer.
Ethno. Soc., Transact., torn, i., p. 4. Also in Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist.
Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 56.
The Chumbias inhabit the pueblos Ciutla, Axalo, Ihuitlan, Vitalata, Gua-
guayutla and Coyuquilla in the State of Guerrero. Orozco y Berra, Geogra-
fia, p. 227.
The Tlapanecs, Coviscas, Yopes, Yopis, Jopes, Yopimes, Tenimes, Pino-
mes, Chinquimes, Chochontes, Pinotl-Chochons, Chochos, Chuchones, Po-
polocas, Tecos, Tecoxines, or Popolucas are one and the same people, who
by different writers are described under one or the other of these names.
' Estos Coviscas y Tlapanecas, son unos y estan poblados en Tepecuacuilco
y Tlachmalacac, y en la provincia de Chilapan.' ' Estos Yopimes y Tlapa
necas, son de los de la comarca de Yopitzinco, llamanles Yopes son los
que llaman propiamente tenimes, pinome, chinquime, chochonti.' Sahagun,
Hist. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. 135; quoted also in Orozco y Berra, Geo-
grafia, pp. 235-6, 217, 196. ' La provincia de los Yopes lindaba al Oeste
con los Cuitlateques, al Sur con el Pacifico, al Este con los Mixtecos
y al Norte con los Cohuixcas: la division por esta parte la representaria una
linea de Este a Oeste, al Sur de Xocolmani y de Amatlan, y comprendiera a
los actuales tlapanecos.' Montufar, in Id., pp. 235-6 ' Confinava colla costa
dei Cohuixchi quella dei Jopi, e con questa quella dei Mixtechi, conosciuta
ai nostri tempi col nome di Xicayan.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn,
i., p. 34; Gallatin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact., vol. i., p. 4. 'Tecama-
chalco era su poblacion principal, y se derramaban al Sur hasta tocar con los
mixtecos. Durante el siglo XVI se encontraban aun popolocos en Tlacote-
pec y en San Salvador (unidos con los otomies), pueblo sujeto a Quecholac.
Por la parte de Tehuacan, el li'mite de esta tribu se hallaba en Coxcat-
lan.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 217-18. The Chochos dwell in sixteen
pueblos in the department of Huajuapan in the state of Oajaca. I-\, p. 196.
678 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Cohuixcas dwelt in the province of the same name, which ' confinava
a Settentrione coi Matlatzinchi, e coi Tlahuichi, a Ponente coi Cuitlatechi, a
Levante coi Jopi e coi Mixtechi, ed a Mezzogiornio si stendeva infino al
Mar Pacifico per quella parte, dove presentemente vi sono il porto e la Citta
d'Acapulco.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 32. 'La provincia
comenzaba en Zacualpa, li'mite con los matlaltzincas, y que, por ultimo, los
confines de esa porcion antigua del imperio Mexicano, eran al Norte los
matlaltzinques y los tlahuiques, al Este los mixtecos y los tlapanecos, al Sur
los yopes, y al Oeste los cuitlateques.' Orozco y Berra, Gcografia, pp. 227-32.
Their country lies 'between Tesitzlan and Chilapan.' Ker's Travels, p. 233.
The Cuitlatecs inhabit the country between the Cohuixcas and the Pacific
Coast. ' I Cuitlatechi abitavano un paese, che si stendeva piu di dugento
miglia da Maestro a Scirocco dal regno di Michuacan infino al mar Pacifico.
La loro capitale era la grande e popolosa citta di Mexcaltepec sulla costa,
della quale appena sussistono le rovine.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico,
torn, i., p. 32. ' En Ajuchitlan, San Cristobal y Poliutla en la municipalidad
de Ajuchitlan, distrito del mismo nombre, y en Atoyac, distrito y munici
palidad de Tecpan. La provincia de los cuitlateques 6 cuitlatecos, sujeta en
lo antiguo a los emperadores de Mexico, quedaba comprendida entre las de
Zacatula y de los cohuixques.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 233-4.
Proceeding southward, among the SOUTHEEN MEXICANS, we first encoun
ter the Miztecs, whose province, Miztecapan, was in the present states of Oa-
jaca and Guerrero. ' La Mixtecapan, o sia Provincia dei Mixtechi si stendeva
da Acatlan, luogo lontano cento venti miglia dalla corte verso Scirocco, infino
al Mar Pacifico, e conteneva piu Citta e villaggj ben popolati, e di considera-
bile commercio.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p.- 32, 'Le
Mixtecapan comprenait les regions occidentales de 1'etat d'Oaxaca, depuis la
frontiere septentrionale d'Acatlan, qui le separait des principautes des Tlahui-
cas et de Mazatlan, jusque sur le rivage de 1'ocean Pacifique. Elles se
divisaient en haute et basse Mixteque, 1'une et 1'autre egalement fertiles, la
premiere resserree entre les montagnes qui lui donnaient son nom ; la seconde,
occupant les riches territoires des bords de la mer, ayant pour capitale la
ville de Tututepec (a 1'embouchure du rio Verde).' Brasseur de Bourbourg,
Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 4. * Les Mixteques donnaient eux-memesaleur
pays le nom de Gnudzavui-Gnuhu, Terre de pluie, pour le haute Mixteque,
et Gnuundaa, Cote de la mer, a la basse.' Id., pp. 5-6. ' En la antigua pro
vincia de este nombre, situada sobre la costa del mar Pacifico, que com-
prende actualmente, hacia el Norte, una fraccion del Estado de Puebla;
hacia el Este, una del de Oajaca, y al Oeste, parte del Estado de Guerrero.
Dividese la Mixteca en alta y baja, estando la primera en la serrania, y la
segunda en las llanuras contiguas a la costa.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p.
37. ' Westlich der Zapotecos, bei San Francisco Huizo im Norden und bei
Santa Cruz Miztepec im Siiden des grossen Thales von Oajaca beginnen die
Misteken, welche den ganzen westlichen Theil des Staats einnehmen, und
siidlich bis an die Kuste des Austral-Oceans bei Jamiltepec und Tututepec
hinabreichen.' Milhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pti., pp.142, 187, 192-6, 198-
9, 201-2. Also in Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 163.
ZAPOTECS AND MIJES. 679
(The Zapotecs occupy the large valley of Oajaca. 'Fue la Zapotecapan
Senora, y tan apoderada de las demas de su Orizonte, que ambiciosos sus
Reyes, rompieron los terminos de su mando, y se entraron ferozes, y valientes,
por Chontales, Mijes, y tierras maritimas de ambos mares del Sur, y del Norte
y venciendo, hasta Senorear los fertiles llanos de Teguantepeque, y cor-
riendo hasta Xoconusco.' Burgoa, Geog. Descrip., tom.i., ptii., fol. 196, torn,
ii., fol. 362. ' Hasta Tepeiac, Techamachalco, Quecholac y Teohuacan, que
por aqui dicen que hicieron sus poblaciones los zapotecas.' Veytia, Hist.
Ant. Mej., torn, i., p. 153. 'A Levante de' Mixtechi erauo i Zapotechi, cosi
chiamati dalla loro capitale Teotzapotlan. Nel loro distretto era la Valle di
Huaxyacac, dagli Spagnuoli detta Oaxaca o Guaxaca.' Clavigero, Storia Ant.
del Messico, torn. i. p. 32. ' En una parte del Estado de Oajaca, liinitada al
Sur por el Pacifico, exceptuando una pequena fraccion de terreno ocupada
por los chontales.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, i., p. 319. See also: Orozco y
Berra, Geografia, pp. 177-87: Murguia y Galardi, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin,
torn, vii., pp. 245-6. ' The Zapotecs constitute the greater part of the popu
lation of the southern division of the Isthmus (of Tehuantepec).' Barnard's
Tehuantepec, p. 226. ' Inhabit the Pacific plains and the elevated table-lands
fromTarifatoPetapa.' Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, pp. 125, 133-4; Garay's
Tehuantepec, p. 59; Fossey, Mexique, pp. 338, 470. 'Zapotecos, welche die
Mitte des Staates, das grosse Thai von Oajaca bewohnen, sich im Osten iiber
die Gebirge von Huixazo, Iztlan und Tanetze und die Thaler Los Cajdnos
ausbreiten, und im Siiden, im Partido Quiechapa (Depart. Tehuantepec)
mit den Mijes, im Partido von Pochutla (Depart. Ejutla) aber niit den Chon
tales, Nachbaren jener, granzen.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp.
141, 170, 173-6, 183-6, 189, 191, 199, 212-13; Wappfius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 162.
' Les Zapoteques appelaient leur pays Lachea.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist.
Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 38; Macgregor's Progress of America, p. 848.
The Mijes dwell in the mountains of southern Oajaca and in a small por
tion of Tehuantepec. ' Anterieurement a la ruine de 1 'empire tolteque les
Mijes occupaient tout le territoire de 1'isthme de Tehuantepec, d'une mer a
1'autre.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Voy. Tehuantepec, pp. 138-9. ' Toute cette re
gion, comprenant, a 1'est, les cimes de la Sierra de Macuilapa que domine le
village actuel de Zanatepec et les montagnes qui s'etendent, du cote oppose,
vers Lachixila, baignees par la riviere de Tehuantepec, au sud, et, au
nord, par celle de la Villa-Alta, jusqu'aux savanes, ou roulent les affluents
de 1'Alvarado et du G-uazacoalco, appartenait a la meme nation des Mixi ou
Mijes. . . les Mijes vaincus demeurerent soumis des lors aux rois de la Mixteque
et du Zapotecapan, a 1'exception d'un petit nombre qui, jusqu'a 1'epoque
espagrole, continuerent dans leur resistance dans les cantons austeres qui
environnent le Cempoaltepec. Ce qui reste de cette nation snr 1'isthme Je
Tehuantepec est dissemine actuellement en divers villages de la montagne.
Entre les plus importants est celui de Guichicovi que j'avais laisse a ma
droite en venant de la plaine de Xochiapa au Barrio.' Id., pp. 105-7.
' Les Mixi avaient possede anciennement la plus grande partie des royaumes
de Tehuantepec, de Soconusco et du Zapotecapan; peut-etre meme lesrivages
de Tututepec leur devaient-ils leur premiere civilisation.' Id., Hist. Nat.
Civ., torn, iii., pp. 34-5. 'En algunos lugares del Departamento de Oajaca.
680 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
como Juquila, Quezaltepec y Atilan.' Pimentel, Cuadro, tom.ii., p. 173. 'Lea
Indians mijes habitent une contree montagneuse, au sud-ouest du Goatza-
coalco et au nord-ouest de Tehuantepec De la chaine des monts Mijes
descend la riviere de Sarrabia, qui traverse la belle plaine de Boca-del-
Monte.' Fossey, Mexique, p. 49. 'The Mijes, once a powerful tribe, inhab
it the mountains to the west, in the central division of the Isthmus, and
are now confined to the town of San Juan Guichicovi.' Barnard's Tehuan
tepec, p. 224; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 225; Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii, p. 547. ' The Mijes constituted formerly a powerful
nation, and they still occupy the land from the Sierra, north of Tehuante
pec, to the district of Chiapas. In the Isthmus they only inhabit the village
of Guichicovi, and a small portion of the Sierra, which is never visited.'
Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 60. Also Macgregor's Progress of America, p. 849;
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 176-7.
IheHuaves, Huavi, Huabi, Huabes, Guavi,Wabi, etc., live on the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec. ' Les Wabi avaient ete, dans les siecles passes, possesseurs
de la province de Tehuantepec .... Us avaient ete les maitres du riche terri-
toire de Soconusco (autrefois Xoconochco . . . . espece de nopal), et avaient
etendu leurs conquetes jusqu'au sein meme des montagnes, ou ils avaient
fonde ou accru la ville de Xalapala Grande (Xalapa-del-Marques).' Brasseur
de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, in., p. 3. 'The Huaves are in all little
more than three thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called
SanMateo, Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' Garay's Tehuaw
tepee, p. 59. ' Scattered over the sandy peninsulas formed by the lakes and
the Pacific. At present they occupy the four villages of San Mateo, Santa Ma
ria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco.' Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 227. 'San
Francisco Istaltepec is the last village, inhabited by the descendants of a
tribe called Huaves.' Hermesdorf, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p.
546. ' Habitent les villages du bord de la mer au sud de Guichicovi.' Fos
sey, Mexique, p. 467. Shufddt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126; Muhlenpfordi,
Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 141. ' Se extienden en Tehuantepec, desde las
playas del Paci'fico hasta la cordillera interior.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia,
pp. 173-6.
The Beni-Xonos ' cornposaient une province nombreuse, occupant en par-
tie les routes qui conduisaient au Mexique et aux montagnes des Mixi
Leur ville principale, depuis la conquete, s'appelait San-Francisco, a 15 1.
N. O. de la cite d'Oaxaca.' 'Habitant sur les confins des Mixi et des Zapo-
teques.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., pp. 42-3 'Les
Beni-Xono sont appeles aussi Nexicha et Cajones.' Ib.
The Mazatecs live in the state of Oajaca, near the Puebla boundary. ' A
Tramontana dei Mixtechi v'era la Provincia di Mazatlan, e a Tramontana, e
a Levante dei Zapotechi quella di Chinantla colle loro capitali dello stesso
nome, onde furono i loro abitanti Mazatechi e Chinantechi appellati.' Clavi-
gero, Storia Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 33. ' In den Partidos Teutitlan und
Teutfla, Departement Teutitlan del Camino.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii.,
pti., pp. 141, 206, 210. 'En el Departamento de Teotitlan, formando una
pequefia fraccion en el li'mite con el Estado de Veracruz.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 188.
TRIBES OF OAJACA AND CHIAPAS. 681
The Cuicalecs dwell ' en una pequena fraccion del Departamento de
Oajaca.' Pitnentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 259. 'In den Partidos Teutitlan und
Teutila, Departement Teutitlan del Camfno.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii.,
pti., p. 141; repeated in Orozco y Berra, Geografia, pp. 188-9; Wappdus,
Geog. u. Stat., p. 163.
The Pabucos live in the 'pueblo de Elotepec, Departamento del Centro.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 197; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p.
187.
The Soltecs are in the pueblo de Sola. Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 197.
The Pintos are a people inhabiting small portions of Guerrero and Te-
huantepec. ' A 1'ouest, sur le versant des Cordilleres, une grande partie de la
cote baignee par le Pacifique, habitee par les Indiens Pintos.' Keratry, in
Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1866, p. 453. ' On trouve deja dans la
plaine de Tehuantepec quelques echantillons de cette race toute particuliere
auMexique, appelee pinto, qui appartient principalement a 1'etat de Guerrero.'
Charnay, Ruines Americaines, p. 502.
The Chiapanecs inhabit the interior of the state of Chiapas. ' Dans 1'in-
terieur des provinces bordant les rives du Chiapan, a sa sortie des gouffres
d'oii il s'elance, en descendant du plateau de Zacatlan.' (Guatemalan name
for Chiapas,) and they extended over the whole province, later on. Brasseur
de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 87. ' A 1'ouest de ce plateau, entre
les Zotziles ou Quelenes du sud et les Zoqui du nord, habitaient les Chiapa-
neques.' Id., Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 157, 199. Also inLaet, Novus Orbis, p.
325; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 39. 'En Acala, distrito del Centro, y en la
villa de Chiapa y en Suchiapa, distrito del Oeste,' Orozco y Berra, Geogra
fia, p. 172. ' Le principali Citta dei Chiapanechi erano Teochiapan, (chia-
mata dagli Spagnuoli Chiapa de Indios), Tochtla, Chamolla, e Tzinacantla. '
Clavigero, Sloria Ant. del Messico, torn, i., p. 33.
The Tzendalesare in Chiapas. 'De 1'Etat de Chiapas.' Brasseur de Bour
bourg, Popol Vuh, p. 364. ' The province called Zeldales lyeth behind this
of the Zoques, from the North Sea within the continent, running up towards
Chiapa and reaches in some parts near to the borders of Comitlan, north
westward.' Gage's New Survey, p. 236. Also in Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 193;
Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 235; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 169; Herrera,
Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325.
The Zotziles inhabit a small district in Chiapas. ' La ciudad de Tzina-
cantlan, que en mexicano significa "lugar de murcielagos, " fue la capital
de los quelenes, y despues de los tzotziles quienes la llamaban Zotzilha, que
significa lo mismo; de zotzil, murcielago.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 245.
Tzinac^ntan (Quiche Zotzilha) ' doit avoir ete le berceau de la nation zotzil,
I'line des nombreuses populations du Chiapas.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist.
Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 88.
The Chatinos live in the ' Departamentos del Centro y de Jamiltepec.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 189; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp.
196-9.
The Chinantecs, or Tenez, are in the ' Departamento de Teotitlan.' Orozco
y Berra, Geografia, p. 187; Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., p. 214. 'In
the partidos of Quiechapa, Jalalog, and Chuapan.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 40.
682 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Ahualulcos inhabit San Francisco de Ocuapa which ' es la Cabeza de
Partido de los Indies Ahualulcos.' Alcedo, Diccionario, torn, iii., p. 366.
The Quelenes occupied a district in Chiapas near the Guatemala boundary
line. ' La nation des Quelenes, dont la capitale etait Comitan, occupait la
frontiere guatemalienne.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii.,
p. 4. * Au temps de la conquete, la ville principale des Quelenes etait Co-
panahuaztlan. ' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., p. 157. 'Eta-
blies entre le haut plateau de Ghovel ou de Ciudad-Real et les montagnes
de Soconusco au midi.' Ib.; and Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 271.
The Zoques are scattered over portions of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oajaca, and
Tehuantepec. 'Se encuentran derramados en Chiapas, Tabasco y Oaxaca;
tienen al Norte el mexicano y el chontal, al Este el tzendal, el tzotzil y el
chiapaneco, al Sur el mexicano, y al Oeste el huave, el zapoteco y el mixe.'
Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 170. ' Occupy the mountain towns of Santa
Maria and San Miguel, and number altogether about two thousand souls.'
Shufeldt's Explor. Tehuantepec, p. 126. ' Les Zotziles et les Zoqui, confinant,
au sud-est, avec les Mixi rnontagnards, au nord avec les Nonohualcas,
et les Xicalancas, qui habitaient les territoires fertiles de Tabasco.' Brasseur
de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 5. ' Quorum prsecipuum Tecpat-
lan.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 325. 'The Soques, who came originally from
Chiapas, inhabit in the Isthmus only the villages of San Miguel and
Santa Maria Chimalapa, ' Garay's Tehuantepec, p. 60. ' La mayor de ellas
esta situada a tres leguas de Tacotalpa, aguas arriba del rio de la Sierra.
Ocupa un pequeno valle causado por el descenso de varies cerros y
colinas que lacircuyen.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., pp. 236-8; Muhlenpfordt,
Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 181-2; Macgregor's Progress of America, pp. 849-
50. ' The Zoques inhabit the mountainous region to the east, from the valley
of the Chiapa on the south, to the Rio del Corte on the north. Originally
occupying a small province lying on the confines of Tabasco, they were sub
jugated by the expedition to Chiapas under Luis Marin. At present they
are confined to the villages of San Miguel and Santa Maria Chimalapa.'
Barnard's Tehuantepec, p. 225. ' Near the Arroyo de Otates, on the road
from Tarifa to Santa Maria, stands a new settlement, composed of a few
shanties, inhabited by Zoques, which is called Tierra Blanca.' Hermesdorf,
in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 546.
The Choles, Blanches, and Mopanes are scattered through small portions of
Chiapas and Vera Paz in Guatemala. ' 23 leagues from Cahboii, in the midst
of inaccessible mountains and morasses, dwell the Chdls and Manches.'
Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 94-5. Residen en la ' Pro-
vincia del Manche.' Alcedo, Dice., torn, iii., p. 452. Also in Boyle's Ride,
vol. i., preface, p. 14; Dunlop's Cent. Amer., p. 196; Gavarrete, in Pa
nama Star and Herald, Dec. 19, 1867. ' Los Choles forman una tribu esta-
blecida desde tiempos remotos en Guatemala; dividos en dos fracciones
... .la una se encuentra al Este de Chiapas, y la otra rnuy retirada en la
Verapaz.' Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 167. ' Tenia por el Sur la Provincia
del Choi: Por la Parte del Oriente, y de el Norte, de igual modo, las
Naciones de los Itzaex Petenes: Y por el Poniente, las de los Lacandones,
y Xoquinoes.' Villagutierre, Hist. Conq. Itza, pp. 278-9. 'The nation of
MAYAS AND ITZAS. 683
the Choi Indians is settled in a country about 25 or 30 leagues distant
from Cahabon, the last village in Verapaz, and far removed from the Man-
ches.' Juarros1 Hist. Guat., p. 275.
The Mayas inhabit the peninsula of Yucatan. ' Avant la conquete des
Espagnols, les Mayas occupaient toute la presque'ile d' Yucatan, y compris
les districts de Peten, le Honduras anglais, et la partie orientale de Tabasco
La seule portion de pure race restant de cette grande nation, se reduit a
quelques tribus eparses, habitant principalement les bords des rivieres Usu-
masinta, San Pedro et Pacaitun; la totalite de leur territoire fait, politique-
ment parlant, partie du Peten.' Galindo, in Nouvelles Annales desVoy., 1834,
torn. Ixiii., pp. 148-9, and in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., torn, iii., p. 59. ' En
todo el Estado de Yucatan, Isla del Carmen, pueblo de Montecristo en Ta
basco, y del Palenque en Chiapas.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., p. 3; Crowe's
Cent. America, pp. 46-7; Mutter, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 453; Miihlen-
pfordt, Mejico, torn, i., p. 208; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 142-3.
The Itzas occupy a like-named district in the centre of Yucatan. ' Los que
poblaron a Chicheniza, se Hainan los Yzaes.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv.,
lib. x., cap. ii. « Tienen por la parte del Mediodia, la Provincia de la Vera-
Paz, y Reyno de Guatimala; por el Norte, las Provincias de Yucatan; por la
parte del Oriente, el Mar; por la de el Occidente, la Provincia de Chiapa;
y al Sueste, la Tierra, y Provincia de Honduras.' Villagutierre, Hist. Conq.
Itza, p. 489.
CHAPTER VII.
WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY AND CLIMATE — THREE GKOUPAL DIVISIONS; FIRST, THE
NATIONS OF YUCATAN, GUATEMALA, SALVADOR, WESTERN HONDURAS, AND
NICARAGUA; SECOND, THE MOSQUITOS OP HONDURAS; THIRD, THE NA
TIONS or COSTA RIGA AND THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA — THE POPOLI/CAS,
PIPILES, AND CHONTALES — THE DESCENDANTS OF THE MAYA-QUICHE RACES
— THE NATIVES OF NICARAGUA — THE MOSQUITOS, POYAS, RAMAS, LEN-
CAS, TOWKAS, WOOLWAS, AND XlCAQUES, OF HONDURAS — THE GUATUSOS
OF THE Rio FRIO — THE CAIMANES, BAYAMOS, DORACHOS, GOAJIROS, MAN-
DINGOS, SAVANERICS, SAYRONES, VISCITAS, AND OTHERS LIVING IN COSTA RICA
AND ON THE ISTHMUS.
Of the WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, which ter
ritorial group completes the line of our Pacific States
seaboard, I make three divisions following modern geo
graphical boundaries, namely, the aborigines of Guate
mala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, which I call Guatemalans •
the people of the Mosquito Coast and Honduras, Mos-
quitos ; and the nations of Costa Rica and the isthmus of
Darien, or Panama, Isthmians.
The territory occupied by this group of nations lies
between the eighteenth and the seventh parallels of north
latitude, that is to say, between the northern boundary
of the Central American states, and the river Atrato,
which stream nearly severs the Isthmus from the South
American continent. This continental tract is a narrow,
irregular, indented coast-country of volcanic character,
in which Guatemala and Honduras alone present any
(684)
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 685
considerable breadth. The two Cordilleras, running
through Mexico and meeting on the isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec, continue their course through Guatemala, where
they form a broken table-land studded with elevations, of
less height than the plateaux of Mexico. After sinking
considerably at the isthmus formed by the gulf of Hon
duras, this mountain range takes a fresh start and offers
a formidable barrier along the Pacific coast, which sends
a number of transverse ranges into the interior of Hon
duras, and gives rise to countless rivers, chiefly emptying
into the Atlantic. The chain passes at a diminished alti
tude through Nicaragua, where it forms a large basin, which
holds the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua ; but on reaching
Costa Rica it again becomes a bold, rugged range, capped
by the volcano of Cartago. Seemingly exhausted by its
wild contortions, it dwindles into a series of low ridges
on entering Veragua, and passes in this form through the
isthmus of Panama, until it unites with the South Ameri
can Andes. The scenery of this region is extremely
varied, uniting that of most countries of the globe ; lakes,
rivers, plains, valleys, and bays abound in all forms
and sizes. The north-east trade winds blow the greater
part of the year, and, meeting the high ranges, deposit
their superabundant moisture upon the eastern side,
which is damp, overgrown with rank vegetation, filled
with marshes, and unhealthful. The summer here, is
hot and fever-breeding. Relieved of their moisture, and
cooled by the mountains, the trade winds continue their
course through the gaps left here and there, and tend
materially to refresh the atmosphere of the Pacific slope
for a part of the year ; while the south-west winds, blow
ing from May to October, for a few hours at a time, bring
short rains to temper what would otherwise be the hot
season on this coast. Dew falls everywhere, except in
the more elevated regions, and keeps vegetation fresh.
Palms, plantains, mahogany, and dye-woods abound in
the hot district ; maize flourishes best in the temperate
parts, while cedars, pines, and hardier growths find a
home in the tierra fria. The animal kingdom is best
686 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
represented on the Atlantic side, for here the puma, the
tiger-cat, and the deer, startled only by the climbing
opossum or the chattering monkey, find a more secure
retreat. Birds of brilliant plumage fill the forests
with their songs, while the buzz of insects everywhere
is heard as they swarm over sweltering alligators,
lizards, and snakes. The manifold productions, and varied
features of the country have had, no doubt, a great in
fluence in shaping the destiny of the inhabitants. The
fine climate, good soil, and scarcity of game on the Pacific
side must have contributed to the allurements of a settled
life and assisted in the progress of nations who had for
centuries before the conquest lived in the enjoyment of a
high culture. It is hard to say what might have been the
present condition of a people so happily situated, but the
advent of the white race, bent only upon the acquirement
of present riches by means of oppression, checked the
advancement of a civilization which struck even the in
vaders with admiration. Crossing to the Atlantic side we
find an over-abundant vegetation, whose dark recesses
serve as a fitting shelter for the wild beast. Here man,
imbibing the wildness of his surroundings, and oppressed
by a feverish climate, seems content to remain in a savage
state depending upon natural fruits, the chase, and fish
ing for his subsistence. Of a roaming disposition, he
objects to the restraint imposed by government and forms.
The natives of Costa Rica and the isthmus of Darien
escaped the civilizing influence of foreign intercourse,
— thanks to their geographical isolation, — and remain on
about the same level of culture as in their primitive
days.
Under the name of GUATEMALANS, I include the na
tives of Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua. I have
already pointed out the favorable features of the region
inhabited by them. The only sultry portion of Guate
mala is a narrow strip along the Pacific ; it is occupied by
a few planters and fishermen, who find most of their re
quirements supplied by the palms that grow here in the
greatest luxuriance. The chief part of the population is
CENTRAL AMERICAN NATIONS. 687
concentrated round the various lakes and rivers of the
table-land above, where maize, indigo, cochineal, and
sugar-cane are staple products. In the altos, the banana
is displaced by hardier fruits sheltered under the lofty
cedar, and here we find a thrifty and less humble people
who pay some attention to manufactures. Salvador
presents less abrupt variation in its features. Although
outside of the higher range of mountains, it still possesses
a considerable elevation running through its entire length,
which breaks out at frequent intervals into volcanic peaks,
and gives rise to an abundant and well-spread water
system. Such favorable conditions have not failed to
gather a population which is not only the most numerous
comparatively, but also the most industrious in Central
America. Northern Nicaragua is a continuation of Sal
vador in its features and inhabitants; but the central
and southern parts are low and have more the character
of the Guatemalan coast, the climate being hot, yet not
unhealthful. Its Atlantic coast region, however, par
takes of the generally unfavorable condition described
above.
The Spanish rulers naturally exercised a great influ
ence upon the natives, and their ancient civilization was
lost in the stream of Caucasian progress, a stream which,
in this region, itself flowed but slowly in later times.
Oppressed and despised, a sullen indifference has set
tled upon the race, and caused it to neglect even its
traditions. The greater portion still endeavor to keep
up tribal distinctions and certain customs; certain
tribes of lesser culture, as the cognate Manches and La-
candoneSj retired before the Spaniards to the north and
north-east, where they still live in a certain isolation
and independence. The name Lacandones has been
applied to a number of tribes, of which the eastern are
described to be quite harmless as compared with the
western. The Quiches, a people living in the altos,
have also surrounded themselves with a certain reserve,
and are truer to their ancient customs than the Zsutu-
gils, CakchiquelSj and many others related by language
688 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA.
to the Quiches surrounding them. The Pipiles, mean
ing children, according to Molina, are the chief people
in Salvador, where their villages are scattered over a
large extent of territory. In Nicaragua we find several
distinct peoples. The aboriginal inhabitants seem to
have been the different peoples known as Chorotegans,
who occupy the country lying between the bay of Fon-
seca and lake Nicaragua. The Chontaks (strangers, or
barbarians) live to the north-east of the lakes, and
assimilate more to the barbarous tribes of the Mosquito
country adjoining them. The Cholutecs inhabit the
north from the gulf of Fonseca towards Honduras. The
Orotinans occupy the country south of the lake of Nica
ragua and around the gulf of Nicoya. Further informa
tion about the location of the different nations and tribes
of this family will be found at the end of this chapter.1
The GUATEMALANS, that is to say the aborigines of
Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua, are rather below
the middle size, square and tough, with a finely devel
oped physique. Their hue is yellow-brown, in some
parts coppery, varying in shade according to locality,
but lighter than that of the standard American type.
The full round face has a mild expression ; the forehead
is low and retiring, the cheek-bones protruding, chin and
nose short, the latter thick and flat, lips full, eyes black
and small, turned upwards at the temples, with a stoical,
i The Lacandones are of one stock with the Manches, and very numer
ous. They were highly civilized only one hundred and fifty years ago.
Boyle's Ride, vol. i., preface, pp. 14-17. ' The old Chontals were certainly in
a condition more civilised.' Id., pp. 286-95, 265-70. 'Die Chontales werden
auch Caraiben genaunt.' Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 243-8, 265, 283-90,
311, 321, 326, 330, 335. It seems there existed in Nicaragua: Chorotegans,
_ p.
Amerika, torn, i., pp. 285-92; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrals, p. 69;
Benzoni, Hist, del Mondo Nuovo, fol. 104; MaUe-Brun, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1858, torn, clviii., p. 200; Berendt, in Smithsonian Rept., 1867, p. 425;
Crowe's Cent. Amer., p. 40; Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 357-8, 370: Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 18-19; Morelet, Voyage, torn i., pp. 202,
208, 272, torn, ii., pp. 49, 125, 313; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ.,
torn, ii., pp. 79, 110-11; Valois, Mexique, pp. 288, 299-300; Escobar, inLond.
' i. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 89-97.
PHYSIQUE AND DBESS. 689
distrustful look. The cranium is slightly conical ; hair
long, smooth, and black, fine but strong, retaining its
color well as old age approaches, though sometimes turn
ing white. Although the beard is scanty, natives may
be seen who have quite a respectable moustache. The
limbs are muscular, the calf of the leg being especially
large; hands and feet small; a high instep, which, no
doubt, partly accounts for their great endurance in
walking. The women are not devoid of good looks,
especially in Nicaragua, where, in some districts, they
are said to be stronger and better formed than the men.
The custom of carrying pitchers of water upon the head,
gives to the women an erect carriage and a firm step.
The constitution of the males is good, and, as a rule,
they reach a ripe old age; the females are less long-lived.
Deformed persons are extremely rare. Guatemala, with
its varied geographical aspects, presents striking differ
ences in physique ; the highlanders being lighter in com
plexion, and finer in form and features than the
inhabitants of the lowlands.2
Intercourse with Spaniards seems to have produced
little change in the dress of the Guatemalans, which is
pretty much the same as that of the Mexicans. The
poorer class wear a waist-cloth of white cotton, or of pita,
which is a kind of white hemp, or a long shirt of the
same material, with short sleeves, partly open at the
sides, the ends of which are passed between the legs,
and fastened at the waist; a strip of cotton round the
2 Crowe's Cent. Amer., pp. 40-1; Squier's Nicaragua, pp. 268, 278-9; Froe-
bel's Cent. Amer., pp. 33-4; Dunn's Guatemala, pp. 277-8; Reichardt, Nicara
gua, pp. 106-7; 3Iontanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 272; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i.,
p. 338; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 260, torn, ii., pp. 126, 197; Andagoya, in
Navarrete, Col. deViages, torn, iii., p. 414; Belly, Nicaragua, tom.i., pp. 200-1;
Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp. 52-3; Foote's Cent. Amer., p. 104. Round Leon
' hay mas indios tuertos . . . . y es la causa el coiitfnuo polvo.' Oviedo, Hist.
Gen., torn, iv., p. 64. In Guatemala, 'los hombres muy gruessos.' Herrera,.
Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. v., caps, xi., xii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv.
' Ceux de la tierra fria sont petits, trapus, bien membres, susceptibles de
grandes fatigues . . . ceux de la tierra caliente sont grands, ' maigres, pares-
seux.' I) oil f us and Mont- S err at, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47, 21. 'Kurze Schen-
kel, laugen Oberleib, kurze Stirne und langes struppiges Haar. ' Billow,
Nicaragua, p. 78. 'The disproportionate size of the head, the coarse harsh
hair, and the dwarfish stature,' of the Masayas. Boyle's Ride, vol. ii., pp.
8-9.
vol. i: u
690 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
head, surmounted by a dark-colored hat of straw or
palm-leaves, with a very wide brim, completes the attire.
This cotton cap or turban is an indispensable article of
dress to the highlander, who passes suddenly from the
cold air of the hilly country, to the burning plains below.
Sumptuary regulations here obtain, as aboriginally the
lower classes were not allowed to wear anything better
than pita clothing, cotton being reserved for the nobles.
The primitive dress of the nobility is a colored waist-
cloth, and a mantle ornamented and embroidered with
figures of birds, tigers, and other designs, and, although
they have adopted much of the Spanish dress, the rich
and fanciful stitchings on the shirt, still distinguish them
from their inferiors. On feast-days, and when travel
ing, a kind of blanket, commonly known as serape, manga,
.or poncho, is added to the ordinary dress. The serape,
which differs in style according to locality, is closer in
texture than the ordinary blanket and colored, checked,
.figured, or fringed, to suit the taste. It has an opening
in the centre, through which the head is passed, and
hanging in loose folds over the body it forms a very
picturesque attire. Some fasten it with a knot on one
shoulder, leaving it to fall over the side from the other.
The serape also serves for rain-coat and wrapper, and,
.at night, it is wound round the head and body, serving
for bed as well as covering, the other portion of the dress
being made into a pillow. The carriers of Guatemala
use a rain -proof palm-leaf called suyacal. Shepherds
are distinguished by a black and white checked apron,
somewhat resembling the Scotch kilt. The hair, which,
before the conquest of Guatemala, was worn long, and
hung in braids down the back, is now cut short, except
in the remote mountain districts, where long loose hair
is still the fashion. In Salvador and Nicaragua, on the
other hand, the front part of the hair used to be shaved
off, the brave often appearing perfectly bald. Most
natives go bare-footed, except when traveling; they then
put on sandals, which consist of a piece of hide fastened
by thongs. The women, when at home, content them-
GUATEMALAN DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 691
selves with a waist-cloth, generally blue-checked, secured
by a twisted knot; but, on going abroad, they put on
the huipil, which is a piece of white cotton, having an
opening in the middle for the head, and covering the
breast and back, as far as the waist. Some huipils are
sewed together at the sides and have short sleeves. On
this part of their dress the women — who, for that matter,
attend to the manufacture and dyeing of all the clothing
—expend their best efforts. They embroider, or dye,
the neck and shoulders with various designs, whose out
lines and coloring often do great credit to their taste.
In Guatemala, the colors and designs are distinct for
different villages, so that it may at once be seen to which
tribe the wearer belongs. The hair is plaited into one
or two braids, interlaced with bright-colored ribbons,
and usually wreathed turban- fashion round the head.
The Quiches, whose red turban-dress is more pronounced
than others, sometimes vary it by adding yellow bands
and tassels to the braids, which are permitted to hang
down to the heels. Thomas Gage, who lived in Guatemala
from about 1627 to 1638, relates that on gala-days the
fair natives were arrayed in cotton veils reaching to the
ground. The ancient custom of painting, and of pierc
ing the ears and lip, to hold pendants, is now restricted
to the remote hill country, and ornaments are limited to
to a few strings of beads, shells, and metal for the arms
and neck, with an occasional pair of ear-rings; the
women add flowers and garlands to their head-dress,
especially on feast-days. Some mountain tribes of
Guatemala wear red feathers in their cotton turbans —
the nobles and chiefs using green ones — and paint the
body black: the paint being, no doubt, intended for a
protection against mosquitos. The apron worn by the
women is made of bark, which, after being soaked and
beaten, assumes the appearance of chamois leather. The
Lacandones also wore cotton sacks adorned with tassels,
and the women had bracelets of cords with tassels. In
Nicaragua, tattooing seems to have been practiced, for
Oviedo says that the natives cut their faces and arms
692 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMEEICA.
with flint knives, and rubbed a black powder obtained
from pine gum into the scars. Children wear no other
dress than that provided by nature : here and there, how
ever, the girls are furnished with a strip of cotton for
the waist.3
The conquerors have left numerous records of large
cities with splendid palaces and temples of stone, but
these exist now only in their ruins. The masses had,
doubtless, no better houses than those we see at present.
Their huts are made of wooden posts and rafters sup
porting a thatched roof of straw or palm-leaves, the
side being stockaded with cane, bamboo, or rush, so as
to allow a free passage to the air. Generally they have
but one room ; two or three stones in the centre of the
hut compose the fireplace, and the only egress for the
smoke is through the door. The room is scantily fur
nished with a few mats, a hammock, and some earthen
ware. Their villages are generally situated upon rising
ground, <and, owing to the houses being so scattered,
they often extend over a league, which gives some
foundation to the statements of the conquerors reporting
the existence of towns of enormous size. The better
kind of villages have regular streets, a thing not to be
seen in the ordinary hamlets; and the houses, which are
often of adobes (sun-burnt bricks), or of cane plastered
over, containing two or three rooms and a loft, are sur
rounded by neatly kept gardens, enclosed within hedges.
3 Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 407, 414. In
Salvador, the women's ' only garment being a long straight piece of cotton
cloth without a seam.' Foote's Cent. Amer., pp. 103-4. The Nicaraguans
' se rasent la barbe, les cheueux, et tout le poil du corps, et ne laissent que
quelques cheueux sur le sommet de la teste. . . .Us portent des gabans, et
des chemises sans manches.' D'Avity, L'Amerique, torn, ii., p. 93. 'The
custom of tattooing, it seems, was practiced to a certain extent, at least so
far as to designate, by peculiarities in the marks, the several tribes or cazi-
ques ...they flattened their heads.' Squier's Nicaragua, vol. ii., pp. 341,
345; Id., Nicaragua, pp. 273-4; Valenzuela, in Id., Cent. Amer, p. 566; Tempsky's
Mitla, pp. 363-5, 368; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 19-20,
46-9, 59-60; Juarros' Hist. Guat., pp. 193-5; Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 302-5;
Valois, Mexique, pp. 278-9; Gage's New Survey, pp. 316-8; Montgomery's
Guatemala, pp. 98-9; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Morekt,
Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 102, 126, 145, 171, 227, 245, 253; Galindo, in Nouvelles
Annales des Voy., 1834, torn. Ixiii., p. 149; Orozco y Berra, Geografia, p. 166;
Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 263.
GUATEMALAN DWELLINGS. 693
When a Guatemalan wishes to build a hut, or repair
one, he notifies the chief, who summons the tribe to
bring straw and other needful materials, and the work
is finished in a few hours; after which the owner sup
plies the company with chocolate. Some of the Yera
Paz tribes are of a roaming disposition. They will take
great trouble in clearing and preparing a piece of ground
for sowing, and, after one or two harvests, will leave for
another locality. Their dwellings, which are often
grouped in hamlets, are therefore of a more temporary
character, the walls being of maize-stalks and sugar-cane,
surmounted by a slight palm-leaf roof. During an ex
pedition into the country of the Lacandones, the Spaniards
found a town of over one hundred houses, better con
structed than the villages on the Guatemalan plateau.
In the centre of the place stood three large buildings, one
a temple, and the other two assembly houses, for men and
women respectively. All were enclosed with fences
excellently varnished. The ISTicaraguan villages seem
to be the neatest; the houses are chiefly of plaited cane
or bamboo frame-work, raised a few feet from the
ground, and standing in the midst of well-arranged flow
ers and shrubbery. Dollfus describes a simple but in
genious method used by the Guatemalans to cross deep
rivers. A stout cable of aloe-fibres is passed over the
stream, and fixed to the banks at a sufficient height
from the surface of the water. To this rope bridge,
called garucha, is attached a running strap, which the
traveler passes round his body, and is pulled across by
men stationed on the opposite side.4
4 The Lacandones have ' floating gardens which can navigate the lagoons
like bolsas,' and are often inhabited. They have stone sepulchres highly
sculptured. Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 7, 1862. ' In these ancient Chon-
tales villages the houses were in the centre, and the tombs, placed in a circle
around .... The Indians who before the Spanish conquest inhabited Nicaragua
did not construct any large temples or other stone buildings.' Pirn and See-
mami's Dottings, pp. 126-7. They live like their forefathers 'in buildings
precisely similar. . . .some huts of a single room will monopolise an acre of
land.' Boyle's Ride, vol. ii., pp. 6-8; Game's New Survey, pp. 318-19; Scher-
zer, Wanderungen, pp. 75, 430, 496; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrale,
pp. 69-70; Valois, Mexique, p. 278; Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 86,
1U2; Froebel's Cent. Amer., pp. 89, 96; Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geo-
694= WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
These natives are essentially agricultural, but, like all
who inhabit the warm zone, desire to live with the least
possible labor. Most of them are content with a small
patch of ground round their huts, on which they culti
vate, in the same manner as did their forefathers, the lit
tle maize, beans, and the banana and plantain trees neces
sary for their subsistence. There are, however, a number
of small farmers, who raise cochineal, cacao, indigo, and
cotton, thereby adding to their own and their country's
prosperity. In the more thinly settled districts, hunting
enables them to increase the variety of their food with
the flesh of wild hogs, deer, and other game, which are
generally brought down with stone -headed arrows.
When hunting the wild hog, they stretch a strong net,
with large meshes, in some part of the woods, and drive
the animals towards it. These rush headlong into the
meshes, and are entangled, enabling their pursuers to
dispatch them with ease.
Beans, and tortillas of maize, with the inevitable chile
for seasoning, and plantains or bananas are their chief
food. To these may be added meat in small quantities,
fish, eggs, honey, turtle, fowl, and a variety of fruit and
roots. Salt is obtained by boiling the soil gathered on
the sea-shore. Maize is prepared in several ways. When
young and tender, the ears are boiled, and eaten with
salt and pepper; or a portion of them are pressed, and
the remainder boiled with the juice thus extracted.
When ripe, the fruit is soaked and then dried between
the hands, previous to being crushed to flour between
two stones. It is usually made into tortillas, which are
eaten hot, with a strong sprinkling of pepper and occa
sionally a slight addition of fat. Tamales is the name
for balls of cooked maize mixed with beef and chile, and
rolled in leaves. A favorite dish is a dumpling made of
maize and frijoles. The frijoles, or beans, of which a stock
is always kept, are boiled a short time with chile ; they
logique, pp. 19, 55; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Berendt,
in Smithsonian Kept., 1867, p. 425; West und Ost Indischer Lustgart, pt ii., pp.
380, 390; Valenzuela, in Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 566.
FOOD OF THE GUATEMALANS. 695
are then mixed with maize, and again put into the pot
until thoroughly cooked, when they are eaten with a
sauce made of salt, chile, and water. There are a num
ber of fluid and solid preparations made chiefly from
maize, and known as atole, to which name various pre
fixes are added to denote the other ingredients used.
Meat, which is usually kept jerked, is a feast-day food.
Grage describes the jerking process as follows: Fresh
meat is cut into long strips, salted, and hung between
posts to dry in the sun for a week. The strips are then
smoked for another week, rolled up in bundles, which
become quite hard, and are called tassajo or cesina.
Another mode of preparing meat is described by the
same author: When a deer has been shot, the body is
left until decay and maggots render it appetizing; it is
then brought home and parboiled with a certain herb
until the flesh becomes sweet and white. The joint is
afterwards again boiled, and eaten with chile. The La-
candones preserve meat as follows : A large hole is made
in the ground, and lined with stones. After the hole has
been heated, the meat is thrown in, and the top covered
with leaves and earth, upon which a fire is kept burn
ing. The meat takes four hours to cook, and can be
preserved for eight or ten days. Cacao forms an im
portant article of food, both as a drink and as bread.
The kernel is picked when ripe, dried on a mat, and
roasted in an earthen pan, previous to being ground to
flour. Formerly, cacao was reserved for the higher
classes, and even now the poor endeavor to economize it
by adding sapuyal, the kernel of the sapote. They ob
serve no regularity in their meals, but eat and drink at
pleasure. When traveling, some roasted maize .paste
called totoposte, crumbled in boiling water with an addi
tion of salt and pepper, and a cup of warm water, suffice
for a repast. Fire is obtained in the usual primitive
manner, by rubbing two sticks together.5
5 They ' vivent le plus souvent de fruits et deracines.' Dollfusand Mont-
Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47, 20-2, 69. 'Tout en faisant niaigre chere, ils
mangent et boivent continuellement, comme les animaux.' Morelet, Voyage,
696 WILD TBIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
Most authorities agree that they are clean in their
habits, and that frequent bathing is the rule, yet it is
hinted that leprosy is caused partially by uncleanliness.6
Since the Spaniards assumed control of the country,
weapons, as applied to war, have fallen into disuse, and
it is only in the mountain districts that we meet the
hunter armed with bow and spear, and slung over his
shoulder a quiver full of reed arrows, pointed with stone.
In Salvador and Nicaragua, the natives are still very ex
pert in the use of the sling, game often being brought
down by it.7
I find no record of any wars among the aborigines
since the conquest, and the only information relating to
their war customs, gathered from the account of skir
mishes which the Spaniards have had with some of the
tribes in eastern Guatemala, is, that the natives kept in
the back-ground, hidden by rocks or trees, waiting for
the enemy to approach. As soon as the soldiers came
close enough, a cloud of arrows came whizzing among
them, and the warriors appeared, shouting with all their
might. The Lacandones occasionally retaliate upon the
planters on their borders for ill-treatment received at
their hands. A number of warriors set out at night
with faggots of dry sticks and grass, which are lighted as
they approach the plantation, and thrown into the enemy's
camp; during the confusion that ensues, the proposed
torn, ii., pp. 104, 92, 102, 132, 134, 145, 240, torn, i., pp. 205-6. Nicaraguans
'essen auch Menschenfleisch. . . .alle Tag machet nur ein Nachbar em
Fewer an, clabei sie alle kochen, vnd dann ein anderer.' West und Ost Tn-
discher Lustgart, pt i., p. 390. ' Perritos pequenos que tambien los comian.
y muchos venados y pesquerfas.' Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages,
torn, iii., pp. 413-14, 407. Hunting alligators: a man dives under, and
fastens a noose round the leg of the sleeping monster; his companions then
haul it on shore and kill it. Sivers, Mittdamerika, pp. 139, 130. Compare
further: Findlay's Directory, vol. i., p. 253; Gage's New Survey, pp. 319-23;
Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp. 412-13, 494; Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol.
103-4; Juarros' Hist. Guat., pp. 196-7; Ilerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii.,
cap. vii-ix., lib. x., cap. xiv. ; Escobar, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p.
Ui; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 320; Waldeck, Voy. Pitt., pp. 42-3.
6 Dunlop's Cent. Amer., p. 337; Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 173.
7 The Lacandones ' emploient des fleches de canne ayant des tetes de cail-
loux.' Galindo, in Antiq. Mex., torn, i., div. ii., p. 67. See also, Billow, Nica
ragua, pp. 79-80; Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 305; Juarros' Hist. Guat., pp. 195,
278; Sctierzer, Wanderungen, pp. 413, 430; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, i., p.
358.
WAR, WEAPONS, AND IMPLEMENTS. 697
reprisal is made. One writer gives a brief description of
the ceremonies preceding and following their expedi
tions. In front of the temple are burning braziers filled
with odoriferous resin ; round this the warriors assemble
in full dress, their arms being placed behind them. A
smaller brazier of incense blazes in front of each warrior,
before which he prostrates himself, imploring the aid of
the Great Spirit in his enterprise. On their return,
they again assemble, disguised in the heads of various
animals, and go through a war dance before the chief
and his council. Sentinels are always pacing the sum
mit of the hills, and give notice to one another, by trum
pet blast, of the approach of any stranger. If it is an
enemy, they speedily form ambuscades to entrap him.8
I have already referred to the bare interior of their
dwellings: a few mats, a hammock, and some earthen
ware being the only apology for furniture. The mats
are plaited .of bark or other fibres, and serve, among
other purposes, as a bed for the children, the grown
persons generally sleeping in hammocks attached to the
rafters. Scattered over the floor may be seen the
earthen jar which the women so gracefully balance on
their head when bringing it full of water from the
well; the earthen pot for boiling plantains, with its
folded banana-leaf cover; cups made from clay, cala
bash, cocoa-nut, or wacal shells, with their stands, often
polished and bearing the marks of native sculpture ; the
metate for grinding the family flour; the comal, a clay
plate upon which the tortilla is baked. A banana-leaf
serves for a plate, and a fir-stick does the duty of a
candle. Their hunting or bag nets are made of pita or
bark-fibres. The steel machete and the knife have en
tirely displaced their ancient silex tools, of which some
relics may still be found among the Lacandones. Ya-
lenzuela mentions that in the meeting-house of this
tribe, the conquerors found two hundred hariging seats.9
« Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 31; Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer, Nov. 7, 14, 1862.
9 Valois, Mexique, pp. 278, 287; Sivers, Mlttelamerika, p. 130; Scherzer,
Wanderungen, p. 430; Mbntanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 279; Squier's Nicaragua,
698 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMEEICA.
These natives still excel in the manufacture of pottery,
and produce, without the aid of tools, specimens that
are as remarkable for their fanciful forms, as for their
elegance and coloring. Water-jars are made sufficiently
porous to allow the water to percolate and keep the con
tents cool; other earthenware is glazed by rubbing the
heated vessel with a resinous gum. Nor are they behind
hand in the art of weaving, for most of the fabrics used
in the country are of native make. The aboriginal
spinning machine is not yet wholly displaced, and con
sists, according to Squier, of a thin spindle of wood,
fifteen or sixteen inches in length, which is passed
through a wheel of hard, heavy wood, six inches in di
ameter, and resembles a gigantic top. When used, it is
placed in a hollowed piece of wood, to prevent it from
toppling over. A thread is attached to the spindle just
above the wheel, and it is then twirled rapidly between
the thumb and forefinger. The momentum of the wheel
keeps it in motion for half a minute, and meantime the
thread is drawn out by the operator from the pile of
prepared cotton in her lap. Their mode of weaving is
the same as that of the Mexicans, and the fabrics are
not only durable, but tastefully designed and colored to
suit the quality and price. The dyes used are, indigo
for blue, cochineal for red, and indigo mixed with lemon
juice for black. The Nicaraguans obtain a highly prized
purple by pressing the valve of a shell-fish found on the
sea-shore. Baily says that they take the material to
the seaside, and, after procuring a quantity of fresh
coloring matter, dip each thread singly into it, and lay
it aside to dry. From the aloe, and pita, or silk-grass,
which are very strong and can easily be bleached, they
pp. 272-3; Valenzu'ela, in Id., Cent. Amer., p. 567. The Lacandon hut con
tained ' des metiers a tisser, des sarbacanes, des baches et d'autres outils en
silex.' Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 79, 104, 197, 211. ' Duermen en vna
red, que se les entra por las costillas, o en vn canizo, y por cabecera vn ma-
dero: ya se alumbran con teas.' Iterrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap.
xiv., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. At Masaya, « Leur mobilier se compose de
nattes par terre, de hamacs suspendus, d'un lit de cuir et d'une caisse en
cedre, quelquefois ornee d'incrustations de cuivre.' Belly, Nicaragua, torn.
i., pp., 197-8.
GUATEMALAN CANOES. 699
obtain a very fine thread, suitable for the finest weaving.
Reeds and bark give material for coarser stuff, such as
ropes and nets. Mats and hammocks, which are made
from any of the last-mentioned fibres, are often inter
woven with gray colors and rich designs. Some idea
may be formed of the patient industry of the native
when we learn that he will work for months upon one
of the highly prized hats made from the fibre of the
half-formed carludovica palmata leaf. They drill holes
in stones, for pipes and other objects, by twirling a stick
rapidly between the hands in some sand and water placed
upon the stone.10
Canoes are the usual i dug-outs,' made from a single
cedar or mahogany log, cedar being liked for its light
ness, mahogany for its durability. They are frequent
enough on the coast, and even the north-eastern Guate
malans used to muster fleets of several hundred canoes
on their lakes and rivers, using them for trade as well as
war. Pirn, when at Grey town, particularly observed
the hollowed-out boats, some upwards of fifty feet in
length, and straight as an arrow. He says that they are
very skillfully handled, and may be seen off the harbor
in any weather. The paddles, which are used both for
steering and propelling, are of light mahogany, four feet
long, with very broad blades, and a cross at the handle.11
Their wealth, which, since the conquest, mostly consists
of household goods, is the product of their farms and in
dustry mentioned under food, implements, and manu
factures. The coast tribes, in Salvador, have a source of
wealth not yet referred to — balsam — and they are very
jealous of their knowledge of obtaining it. The process,
10 ' Le principe colorant est fixe au moyen d'une substance grasse que Ton
obtient par 1'ebullition d'un insecte nomme age.' Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii.,
pp. 130, 197. Consult further, Squler's Nicaragua, pp. 269-73; Bailyjs Cent.
Amer., pp. 124-5; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii., ix., lib.
x., cap. xiv.; Crowe's Cent. Amer., pp. 44; Squier, in Hist. Mag., vol. v.,
p. 215; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, p. 47; Dunlop's Cent. Amer.,
p. 338; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 274.
11 Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, pp. 241-2; Lafond, Voyages, torn, i., p.
317; Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 31; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologi
que, pp. 47-8. In their trade, the Lacandones ' are said to have employed
not less than 424 canoes.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 271.
700 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA.
as described by Dollfus. is to make several deep incisions
in the trunk of the balsam-tree, and stuff the holes
with cotton rags. When these have absorbed sufficient
balm, they are placed in jars of water , and submitted
to a moderate heat. The heat separates the substance
from the rags, and the balsam rises to the surface to be
skimmed and placed in well-closed jars for shipment.
These people possess no written records to establish own
ership to their property, but hold it by ancient rights
transmitted from father to son, which are transferable.
The right of first discovery, as applied to fruit-trees and
the like, is respected, and can be transmitted. Goods
and lands are equally divided among the sons. There
is a general interchange of products on a small scale,
and as soon as the farm yield is ready, or a sufficient
quantity of hammocks, mats, hats, and cups have been
prepared, the native will start on a short trading- tour,
with the load on his back — for they use no other mode
of transport. The ancient custom of holding frequent
markets in all towns of any importance has not quite
disappeared, for Masaya, among other places, continues
to keep a daily tianguez. Cacao-beans, which were for
merly the chief currency, are still used for that purpose
to a certain extent, and make up a large item in their
wealth. The Lacandones at one time drove a brisk
trade on the rio de la Pasion, employing several hun
dred canoes, but this has now greatly diminished, and
they seem to grow less and less inclined to intercourse.
Hardcastle relates that two shy mountain tribes of Gua
temala " exchange dogs and a species of very sharp red
pepper, by leaving them on the top of the mountain,
and going to the spot in turn."12
The native's aptitude for art is well illustrated by the
various products of his industry, decorated as they are
12 The Quiches ' portent jusqu'au Nicaragua des hamacs en fil d'agave.'
Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 145, 92, 130-1, 198, torn, i., pp. 260, 318, 320;
Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, Voy. Ge'ologique, pp. 18, 60; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.
iii./lib. v., cap. xii.; Juarros' Hist.'Guat., pp. 68, 271, 475; Wappaus, Geog.
u. Stat., pp. 248, 345; Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 319; Hardcastle, in Hist. Mag.,
vol. vi., p. 153; Gage's New Survey, p. 319.
ART AND GOVERNMENT. 701
with fanciful designs, carvings, and coloring. The cala
bash cups are widely circulated, and the artistic carving
of leaves, curious lines, and figures of all descriptions, in
relief, with which the outside is ornamented, has been
much admired. No less esteemed are the small Guate
malan earthen figures, painted in natural colors, repre
senting the various trades and occupations of the people,
which may be said to rival European productions of the
same character. The ornaments on their pottery bear
some resemblance to the Etruscan. They are equally
advanced in painting, for many of the altar-pieces in
Central America are from the native brush, and their
dishes are often richly colored in various designs. Ori
ginal lyric poetry seems to flourish among them, and is
not wanting in grace, although the rendering of it may
not be exactly operatic. The subject generally refers to
victorious encounters with monsters, but contains also
sarcasms on government and society.13
A reverential respect for authority is innate with these
people, and the chief, usually a descendant of the ancient
caciques, who is also the head of the municipal govern
ment introduced among them by the Spaniards, receives
the homage paid him with imperturbable gravity.
These chiefs form a proud and powerful noblesse, who
rule with an iron hand over their submissive followers.
Although governed to all appearance by the code of the
country, they have their own laws based on custom and
common sense, which are applied to civil as well as
criminal cases. Among the Lacandones, the chief is
elected by a council of old men, when death, misconduct,
or the superior abilities of some one else call for such a
step. Pontelli adds that the new chief is invested with
lion-skins and a collar of human teeth to represent his
13 Among the Nahuatls ' mechanical arts are little understood, and, of
course, the fine arts still less practiced.' Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 320; Id.,
Nicaragua, pp. 270-3. The Masayans have ' une caisse en cedre, quelque-
fois ornee d'incrustations de cu'ivre.' Belly, Nicaragua, pp. 197-8. See
also, Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 130; Puydt, Eapport, in Amerique Centraie,
p. 134; Gage's New Survey, p. 329; Valois, Mexique, pp. 287, 420-6; Sivtrs,
Mittelamerika, pp. 127, 295; Funnell's Voy., p. 113; Dunn's Guatemala, p.
281; Pontelli, in CaL Farmer, Nov. 7, 1862.
702 WILD TKIBES OF CENTBAL AMEKICA.
victories ; a crown of feathers or a lion-skin is his usual
distinctive head-dress. The wife of the chief is required
to possess some rare qualities. These people are very
strict in executing the law ; the offender is brought be
fore the old men, and if the crime is serious his relatives
have often to share in his punishment. The people of
Salvador, according to Dollfus, have frequent reunions
in their council-house at night. The hall is then lighted
up by a large fire, and the people sit with uncovered
heads, listening respectfully to the observations and deci
sions of the ahuales — men over forty years of age, who
have occupied public positions, or distinguished them
selves in some way. Gage makes a curious statement
concerning the rio Lempa that may be based upon some
ancient law. Any man who committed a heinous crime
on the one side of the river, and succeeded in escaping
to the other, was allowed to go unmolested, provided
he did not return.14
Marriages take place at an early age. often before pu
berty, and usually within the tribe. When the boy, in
Guatemala and Salvador, has attained the age of nine,
his parents begin to look around for a bride for him, the
mother having a good deal to say in this matter. Pres
ents are made to the parents of the girl chosen, and she
is transferred to the house of her future father-in-law,
where she is treated as a daughter, and assists in the
household duties, until she is old enough to marry. It
sometimes happens that she has by this time become dis
tasteful to the affianced husband, and is returned to her
parents. The presents given for her are then demanded
back, a refusal naturally follows, and feuds result, last
ing for generations. Gage states that when the parties
to the betrothal are of different tribes, the chiefs are
notified, and meet in solemn conclave to consult about
the expediency of the alliance. The consultations often
i* Dollfus and Mont-Serrat, \roy. Geolorjique, pp. 20, 49-51; Pnyclt, Pap-
port, in Ainerique Centrale, p. 134; Ilassd, Mex. tiuat., p. 398; Gaye's New
Survey, pp. 318-9, 417; Fontelli, in Cal. Farnur, Nov. 7, 1802. ' Chaotm
d'eux vint ensuite baiser la main du chef, hommuge qu'il re^nt avec une dig-
uitu imperturbable.' Moreld, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 245-6, 134.
MARRIAGE AND CHILDBIRTH. 703
extend over a period of several months, during which
the parents of the boy supply the council with refresh
ments, and make presents to the girl's family for her
purchase. If the council disagree, the presents are re
turned, and the matter drops. When the youth has
reached his sixteenth or eighteenth year, and the maid
her fourteenth, they are considered able to take care of
themselves; a house is accordingly built, and the father
gives his son a start in life. The cacique and relations
are summoned to witness the marriage ceremony, now
performed by the priest, after which the pair are carried
upon the shoulders of their friends to the new house,
placed in a room, and shut in. The bride brings no
dowry, but presents are made by the friends of the
families. Several tribes in Guatemala are strictly op
posed to marriages outside of the tribe, and destroy the
progeny left by a stranger. The Lacandones still prac
tice polygamy, each wife having a separate house and
field for her support. In Nicaragua, where women are
more independent, and fewer of the ancient marriage cus
toms have been retained than elsewhere, the ceremony is
often quickly disposed of, the husband and wife return
ing to their avocations immediately after. The life of
the woman is one of drudgery; household duties, weav
ing, and the care of children keeping her constantly
busy, while the husband is occupied in dolce far niente ;
yet their married life is not unhappy. Although the
female dresses scantily and is not over shy when bathing,
she is by no means immodest or unchaste, but bears rather
a better character than women of the superior race.
Childbirth is not attended with any difficulties, for it
sometimes happens that the woman, after being delivered
on the road, will wash the child and herself in the
nearest stream, and proceed on her journey, as if noth
ing had occurred. The Quiches, among others, still call
in the sorcerer to take the horoscope of the new-born,
and to appeal to the gods in its behalf. He also gives
the infant the name of some animal, which becomes
its guardian spirit for life. Belly states that more boys
704 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
are born to the natives, while the whites have more
girls. The mother invariably nurses the child herself
until its third year, and, when at work, carries it on
her back in a cloth passed round her body ; the move
ments of the mother in washing or kneading tending
to rock the infant to sleep. Otherwise the child is
little cared for, and has to lie on the bare ground,
or, at most, with a mat under it. As the boy grows
older the father will take him into the field and forest,
suiting the work to his strength, and instructing him in
the use of tools, while the mother takes charge of the
girl, teaching her to cook, spin, and weave. Respect
for parents and older people is inculcated, and children
never presume to speak before a grown person unless
first addressed. They remain under the parents' roof
until married, and frequently after, several generations
often living together in one house under the rule of
the eldest. The native is fond of home, for here he
escapes from the contempt of the other races, and reigns
supreme over a family which is taught to respect him:
patriotism has been replaced by love of home among
this oppressed people.15
Their amusements are less common and varied than
among the whites, and are generally reserved for special
occasions, when they are indulged in to excess. Still,
they have orderly gatherings round the hearth, at which
wondrous and amusing stories form the chief part of the
entertainment. Songs follow in natural order, and are
loudly applauded by the listeners, who join in repeating
the last words of the verse. The subject, as given by
some local poet, or transmitted from an ancient bard, is
pleasing enough, but the rendering is in a plaintive, dis-
15 'Leur dernier-ne suspendu a leurs flancs.' Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp.
198, 126, torn, i., pp. 204-5, 318. In Salvador, the 'bridegroom makes his
wife's trousseau himself, the women, strange to say, being entirely ignorant
of needlework.' Foote's Cent. Amer., p. 103. Further reference in Valois,
Mexique, pp. 280, 288; Belly, Nicaragua, pp. 200-1, 253; Hassel, Mex. Guat.,
pp. 303-4; Revue Brit., 1825, in Amerique Centrale, p. 23; Billow, Nicaragua,
p. 80; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p. 272; Gage's New Survey, p. 319; Juar-
ros' Hist. Guat., pp. 195-6; Tempsky's Mitla, p. 365; Doll/us and Mont-Serrat,
Voy. Ge'ologique, pp. 20, 47; Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 66; Id., Die Indianer
von Istlavacan, p. 11.
GUATEMALAN MUSIC. 705
agreeable monotone. Their instrumental music is an
improvement on the vocal, in some respects, and prac
tice has enabled the player to execute pieces from
memory with precision and accord. The marimba, a
favorite instrument, consists of a series of vertical tubes
of different length but equal diameter, fastened together
in a line by bark fibre, and held firm between two pieces
of wood. The tubes have a lateral opening at the base
covered with a membrane, and the upper end is closed
by a small, moveable elastic plate, upon which the per
former strikes with light drumsticks. The play of the
plates causes a compression of air in the tube, and a
consequent vibration of the membrane, which produces
a sound differing in character according to the length of
the tube. All the parts are of wood, the tube being,
however, occasionally of terra-cotta, or replaced by cala
bash-shells. The marimba of usual size is over a yard in
length, and consists of twenty- two tubes ranging from
four to sixteen inches in length, forming three complete
octaves. The pitch is regulated by a coating of wax on
the key-plates. Some drumsticks are forked to strike
two plates at once. Occasionally, several persons join
in executing an air upon the instrument, or two marim
bas are played in perfect accord with some song. Their
usual drum is called tepanabaz, described by Gage as a
smooth hollow trunk with two or three clefts on the
upper side and holes at the ends. It is beaten with two
sticks, and produces a dull heavy sound. Other drums
covered with wild goat skin, tortoise-shells, pipes, small
bells, and rattles, are chiefly used at dances. The Lacan-
dones possess a kind of mandolin, a double-necked, trun
cated cone, with one string, made to pass four times
over the bridge ; also a clarionet-like instrument named
chirimiya; their drum is called tepanahuaste. A dance
is generally a grand affair with the native, combining as
it does dress with dramatic and saltatory exhibitions.
At the tocontin dance, in Guatemala, from twenty to forty
persons dressed in white clothes richly embroidered,
and bedecked with gaudy bands, colored feathers in
VOL. I. 45
706 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
gilt frames fastened on the back, fanciful helmets topped
with feathers, and feathers, again, on their legs, in form
of wings. The conductor stands in the centre beating
time on the tepanabaz, while the dancers circle round
him, one following the other, sometimes straight, some
times turning half-way, at other times fully round, and
bending the body to the ground, all the time shouting
the fame of some hero. This continues for several hours,
and is often repeated in one house after another. In
another dance they disguise themselves with skins of
different animals, acting up to the character assumed,
and running in and out of the circle formed round the
musicians, striking, shrieking, and hotly pursuing some
particular performer. There are also several dances like
those of the Mexicans, in which men dress in women's
clothes and other disguises. The Nicaraguan dances
vary but little from the above. Several hundred people
will gather in some well-cleared spot, their arms and
legs ornamented with strings of shells, their heads with
feathers, and with fans in their hands. The leader,
walking backwards, commences some movements to be
imitated by the dancers, who follow in threes and fours,
turning round, intermingling, and again uniting. The
musicians beat drums and sing songs to which the leader
responds, the dancers taking up the refrain in their turn,
and shaking their calabash rattles. After a while they
pass round each other and perform the most curious
antics and grimaces, crying, laughing, posturing, acting
lame, blind, and so on. Drinking is inseparable from
these reunions, and they do not usually break up until
all have attained the climax of their wishes — becom
ing helplessly drunk. The principal drinks are, atole
made from maize, but which assumes different prefixes,
according to the additional ingredients used, as istatole,
jocoatok, etc. ; pulque, chiefly used in the highlands; and,
not least, chicha, made from maize and various fruits
and roots, fermented with honey of sugar-cane juice.
Gage states that tobacco-leaves and toads were added to
increase the flavor. The Nicaraguans make their favorite
CUSTOMS IN GUATEMALA AND NICAKAGUA. 707
drink from a wild red cherry. It takes several weeks
to prepare these liquors, but by the generous aid of
friends the stock is often consumed at one carousal.16
Ignorant and oppressed as they are, superstition is
naturally strong among them, the evil eye, ominous im
port of animals and the like being firmly believed in.
Nicaraguans gave as a reason for speaking in whis
pers at night, that loud talking attracts mosquitos.
The Quiches, of Istlavacan, among others, believe in
certain evil and certain good days, and arrange their
undertakings accordingly. When meeting a stranger,
they present the forehead to be touched, thinking that
a beneficial power is imparted to them by this means.
They still adhere to their sorcerers, who are called in
upon all important occasions, to predict the future, exor
cise evil spirits and the like, with the aid of various
decoctions and incantations. The Chontales have diviners
who, with the aid of drugs, taken after a fast, fall into
a trance, during which they prophesy. They form a
sort of guild, and live alone in the mountains with a
few pupils, who support them in return for the instruc
tion received. Although idolatry proper is abolished,
some ancient practices still live, blended with their
Christian worship, and it is said that tribes inhabiting
the remote mountain regions still keep up their old rites
in secret. Dollfus is apparently inclined to believe that
the songs he heard the natives chant every morning and
evening may be the relic of some ancient religious cere
mony. The Itzas hold deer saered, and these animals
were consequently quite familiar with man, before the
conquerors subdued the country. The Lacandones are
said to have been the last who publicly worshiped in their
is Gage's New Survey, pp. 323, 347-50; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de
Viages, torn, iii., p. 415; Valois, Mtxique, pp. 279-80, 420-6; Dollfus and
Mont-Serrat, Voy. Gvologique, p. 48; Froebd's Cent . Amer., pp. 78-81; Dapper,
Neue Welt, pp. "306, 312; Valenzuela, in Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 567; Juar-
ros' Hist. Gnat., pp. 447-9; Coreal, Voyages, torn, i., pp. 8,8-9; Arricivlta,
Cronica Serdfica, p. 34; Lad, Novus Orbis, p. 320-2; Pontelli, in Cal. Farmer,
Nov. 14, 1862. 'Les Indiens ne fument pas.' Bdly, Nicaragua, p. 164. ' Ihr
gewohnliches Getranke ist Wasser.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 304. 'Je n'ai
entendu qu'a Flores, pendant le cours de mon voyage, des choeurs executes
avec justesse.' Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 42-4, 325, torn. L, p. 196.
708 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
temple, and whose priests sacrificed animals to idols.
By the side of the temple stood two other large build
ings used as meeting-houses, one for men, the other for
women. Dogs and tame parrots formed part of their
domestic establishment. The native is very taciturn
before strangers, but on paying a visit to friends he will
deliver long harangues full of repetition. It is almost
impossible to obtain a direct answer from him to any
question. ^ Another peculiarity with many is to hoard
money at* the expense of bodily comfort. It is buried
in some secret place, and the owner dies without even
caring to inform his kin of the whereabouts of his
treasures. The favorite occupation of the people is
to act as porters, and Guatemala certainly possesses
the most excellent carriers, who are trained for the
business from an early age. They usually go in files,
headed by a chief, all armed with long staffs and water
proof palm-leaf mats, and travel from twenty to thirty
miles a day, for days in succession, without suffering any
inconvenience. The weight varies from one hundred
to two hundred and fifty pounds, according to road and
distance, and is carried on the back, supported by straps
passed over the forehead and shoulders. They are very
moderate in eating, and never drink cold water if they
can avoid it; when tired, they stretch themselves at
full length on the ground, and are speedily refreshed.
Women are also accustomed to carry burdens, and may
frequently be seen taking several filled pitchers to mar
ket in nets suspended from their forehead and shoulders.
Water they usually bring in jars balanced on the head.17
The ruling diseases are small- pox, which makes yearly
havoc; dysentery, which is also not uncommon in the
17 The Lacandon chief received me with ' the emblem of friendship
(which is a leaf of the fan-palm).' Pontelli, in Gal. Farmer, Nov. 14, 1862.
See Tempsky's Mitla, pp. 364-5; Vctiois, Mexique, pp. 407-8; Escobar, in Land.
Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 91; Thummel, Mexiko, p. 394; Junrros' Hist.
Guat., p. 197; Foote's Cent. Amer., p. 122; Dollfus^ and Mont-Serrat, Voy.
Ge'ologique, pp. 48-9; Scherzer, Die Indianer von fstldvacan, pp. 7-15; Reich-
ardt,' Nicaragua, pp. 106, 234; Valenzuela, in Squier's Cent. Amer., pp.
556-7; Morelet, Voyage, torn, i., p. 206, torn, ii., pp. 58, 101-2, 104, 197;
BoyWs Ride, vol. i., pp, 293-4, vol ii., pp, 11-12, 48,
MEDICAL PKACTICE. 709
highlands during the summer; and leprosy, manifested
by wounds and eruptions, and caused by filth, immoral
habits, and bad food. In some parts of Nicaragua, the
latter disease breaks out in horny excrescences, similar
in appearance to the tips of cow-horns. Rheumatism
and chest diseases are rare, in spite of their rough life.
Superstitious practices and empirical recipes transmitted
from their ancestors are the remedies resorted to. Hot
bathing is the favorite treatment. They are skillful at
blood-letting, making very small punctures, and apply
ing a pinch of salt to them after the operation is ended.
Cauterizing wounds to prevent inflammation is not un
common, and does not affect the patient much. The
principal remedy of the Chorotegans consists of a decoc
tion from various herbs injected by means of a tube.
Some tribes of the highlands call in sorcerers to knead
and suck the suffering part. After performing a variety
of antics and grimaces, the wise man produces a black
substance from the mouth, which he announces as the
cause of the sickness; the friends of the patient take
this matter and trample it to pieces amidst noisy demon
strations.18
Their dead are washed, and dressed in a fresh suit;
friends then assemble to express their regard and sorrow
by burning copal and performing a wild dance round the
corpse, which is buried with all its belongings, as well
as food for sustenance on the long journey. The Itzas,
inhabiting the islands in the lake Peten, are said to have
thrown their dead into the lake, for want of room.19
The character of the Guatemalans exhibits a number
of excellent traits. They have always been a gentle
18 At Masaya, 'The death-rate among children is said to be excessive.'
Boyle's Ride, vol. ii., p. 10. 'Alle Glieder der Familie batten ein ausserst
ungesundes Aussehen und namentlich die Kinder, im Gesicht bleich und
mager, batten dicke, aufgeschwollene Bauche,' caused by yucca-roots.
Scherzer, Wanderunyen, pp. 494, 173-4; MoreM, Voyage, torn, ii., pp. 109-10,
152; Gage's New Survey, p. 318; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrvle, p. 49;
Froebel, *Aus Amerika, torn, i., pp. 345-6; Hassel, Mex. Guat, pp. 302, 398;
Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 91; Scherzer, Die Indianervon
Istldvacan, pp. 10-11.
19 Scherzer, Die Indianer von Istldvacan, pp. 11-12; Morelet, Voyage, torn,
ii., p. 63; Vulois, Mexique, p, 408.
710 WILD TEIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA.
race, and easily led by kindness, but centuries of oppres
sion have thrown over them a timid, brooding spirit,
Far from warlike, they have nevertheless proved them
selves efficient soldiers during the late civil wars. Their
honesty and faithfulness to a trust or engagement is uni
versally admitted, and every traveler bears witness to
their hospitality and obliging disposition. Although
taciturn before strangers, whom they naturally distrust,
they are quite voluble and merry among themselves,
especially the women; their mirth, however, wants the
ring of true happiness. Looking at the darker side,
it is found that drunkenness stands preeminent, and
if the native is not oftener drunk, it is because the
means for carousing are wanting. Surrounded by a
bountiful nature, he is naturally lazy and improvident,
whole days being passed in dreamy inaction, without a
symptom of ennui. He is obstinate, and clings to ancient
customs, yet he will not dispute with you, but tacitly
forms his own opinion. Taught to be humble, he does
not possess much manliness, has a certain cunning, will
weep at trifles, and is apt to be vindictive, especially if
his jealousy is aroused. The highlanders form an ex
ception to these general characteristics in many respects.
The purer air of the mountain has infused in them a
certain independent energy, and industry. Nor are the
women to be classed as lazy, for their position is rather
that of slaves than of wives, yet they are vivacious and
not devoid of coquetry, but of undisputed modesty.
Many of the remoter tribes are brave, and the Manches,
for instance, behaved lately in so spirited a manner as
to compel the government to treat with them. The
Itzas are said to have been warlike and cruel, but their
neighbors the Lacandones are not so ferocious as sup
posed. The Quiches bear a high character for indus
try, and intelligence, while those of Rabinal excel in
truthfulness, honesty, and morality. The Vera Paz
tribes are less active and industrious than those of
the plateau; this applies especially to the eastern
nations who are also more stupid than the western.
THE MOSQUITOS. 711
The Salvador people are noted for their phlegmatic
temperament, and the provoked stranger who seeks
to hurry them, is merely laughed at; otherwise they,
as well as the Nicaraguans. are more docile and indus
trious than the Guatemalans, but also more superstitious.
Scherzer thinks that they have all the inclination for
becoming robbers, but want the energy. The Aztec rem
nants in Nicaragua are particularly patient and thrifty,
but extremely shy and brooding. The Chontales, on
the other hand, are said to have been a savage and de
based race, while the Cholutecs were brave and cruel
but subject to petticoat rule. Opinions concerning the
intelligence of the natives and their prospect of ad
vancement are varied, some affirming that they are dull
and spiritless, incapable of making any progress, while
others assign them a high character and intelligence,
which, properly directed, would give them a prominent
position.20
The MOSQUITOS, the second division of the Central
American group, are at the present day composed in
part of an incongruous mixture of Carib colonists and
negro importations, and in part of a pure native element.
Owing to the independent spirit of the tribes along the
central chain of mountains, which successfully resisted
20 ' La sorame des peines est done limitee comme celle des jouissances; ils
ne ressentent ni les lines ni les autres avec beaucoup de vivacite.' Morelet,
Voyage, torn, i., pp. 2J5-7, 196, torn, ii., pp. 104, 132, 198, 200, 253.
'When aroused, however, they are fierce, cruel, and implacable. . . .shrewd
....cringing servility and low cunning. .. .extreme tt-achableness.' Crowe's
Cent. Anter., pp. 42-3. ' Melancholy . . .silent. . . .pusillanimous. . . .timid.'
Dunn's Guatemala, p. 278. ' Imperturbability of the North American Indian,
but are a gentler and less warlike race.' Foote's Cent. Amer., pp. 104-5.
Nicaragnans ' are singularly docile and industrious . . . not warlike but brave.'
Squier's Nicaragua, p. 268. For further reference concerning these people
see Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 555; Biilow, Nicaragua, pp. 79-81; Juarros'
Hist. Gnat., pp. 197-8; Belli/, Nicaragua, pp. 109', 160; Puydt, Rapport, in
Ame'rique Centrale, pp. 70, 135-6; T'Kint, in Id., pp. 157-8; Fossey, Mexique,
p. 471; Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pref., p. xiv., and p. 75; Gage's New Survey,
pp. 311-12, 333; Valois, Mexique, pp. 238-9, 277, 288, 299,' 43,0; Doll/us and
Mont-Serrat, Voy. Geologique, pp. 47-9, 69; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 35;
Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; Scherzer, Wanderungen, pp.
53, 61, 455, 464-5; Dunlop's Cent. Amer., pp. 211, 337-8. The Lacandones
are very laconic, sober, temperate and strict. Pontelli, in Cal . Farmer, Nov.
7, 1862.
712 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
the attempts of Spaniards to penetrate the territory, and
to the unhealthy climate of the coast, this country, with
the exception of the northern part of Honduras, has as
yet escaped subjection to the white race. The country,
aside from the sea-shore, possesses many attractive
features. The transverse ranges, radiating from the
principal chain, form a series of terraces which gradually
lessen in elevation, until they disappear in a low coast
region. Between them innumerable rivers, fed by the
moisture-laden sea-winds, now rushing boisterously from
heavily wooded heights, now sluggishly wending their
way through luxuriant prairie-land, flow through a region
of most pleasing variety, and at last empty into vast
lagoons bordering the ocean. The aborigines still form
the greater part of the population, and are composed of
a large number of tribes which, while practicing agri
culture to a limited extent, subsist chiefly on natural
fruits and on the products of the chase. Excepting the
small tribes of the eastern Mosquito country, Mr Squier,
who has given much patient research to their lan
guages, includes the natives of this sub-division among
the Lenca family, at the head of which stand the Gua-
jiqueros in western Honduras, essentially an agricultural
people. East of these are the Xicaques, and Poyas,
names given to a collection of closely related tribes,
some of which have been brought under the subjugat
ing influences of the missionary Fathers, while others
still keep their ancient customs intact. The Secos on
Black lliver are included by some writers with the
Poyas. South and west of these are the Moscos, and in
the western part of the Mosquito coast, the Woolwas,
who still cherish a tradition of their emigration from
the north-west. East of the latter live the Towkas and
Cookras, who extend to Blewfields, and speak dialects
varying little from the Woolwa tongue, but stand lower
in the scale of humanity. Bell states that the Towkas
are merely a branch of the Smoos, who have many points
in common with the Poyas, though differing from them
in language. Among other aborigines may be men-
MOSQUITO NATIONS. 713
tioned the AJbatidnas, Talmas, Panamekas, Jaras, Taos,
G-aufas, Itziles, Motucas, and the Ramas on the Blewfields
lagoon; of several others the names are either lost
or unknown. Following the coast southward we meet
the Caribs, a strong, hardy, but crude race at. present,
of varied negro admixture, chiefly descended from the
turbulent natives of San Vicente island, whom the Eng
lish transported in 1796 to the island of Roatan, whence
they were brought over to Honduras. The Caribs, who
have within a few decades spread from a small colony
over the whole northern coast, driving other nations into
the interior and southward, appear to be superseding
the aborigines, now fast disappearing under the anni
hilating effect of drink and disease. South of the
Caribs round cape Gracias a Dios are the Sambos, or
Mosquitos proper, said to have sprung from the union of
native women with negro slaves wrecked on the coast
during the seventeenth century. Owing to their geo
graphical position they were brought in contact with the
buccaneers, and placed in a position to gain ascendancy
over other tribes from the Foyas southward, but were
at the same time inoculated with the degrading vices
and disorders which are now so rapidly bringing about
their extinction. Elated by their position as masters of
the coast, they assumed the proud title of Waiknas, or
men, in which conceit they have been imitated by the
subjected tribes, which are gradually adopting the Sambo
tongue. Adjacent to them are the Toonglas, a not very
numerous offshoot of Siiioos and Sambos.21
21 The name Mosquito is generally supposed to have arisen from the
numerous mosquito insects to be found in the country; others think that the
small islands off the coasts, "which lie as thick as mosquitoes," may have
caused the appellation; while a third opinion is that the name is a corruption
of an aboriginal term, and to substantiate this opinion it is said that the
natives c:ill themselves distinctly Misskitos. Mosqultoland, Berlcht, pp. 134,
19-23. The Carib name is pronounced " Kharibees " on the coast. Mac-
gregor's Pn&tenof America, vol. i., pp. 770, 775. 'II existe chez eux des
langues tras diff.'rentes, et nous avons reinarque qu'acent lieues de distance
ils ne se comprennent plus les uns les autres.' Varnhagen, Prem. Voy. de
Amrlgo Vespucci, p. 40. See further: Stout's Nicaragua, p. 113; Squler's
Nicaragua, vol. ii., p. 308; Id., Cent. Amer., pp. 241, 244-7, 252-3; Billow,
Nicaragua, p. 77; Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 346; Gallndo, in Land. Geoq. 8oc.,
Jour., vol. iii., p. 290; Bell, in Id., vol. xxxii., pp. 258-9; Bard's Walfaia,
714 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
Race-mixtures in certain localites have almost oblit
erated aboriginal types, which are portrayed as of medium
stature, regular form, and varying in color from light
brown to dark coppery. The people about cape Gracias
a Dios are represented by the first voyagers to have been
nearly as dark as negroes. The face is rather flat and
oval, the head smaller than among Europeans; forehead
high and cheek-bones not very prominent; hair long,
straight, coarse, and black; beard scanty; nose very
small, thin, and usually aquiline among the coast peo
ple, but larger and broader toward the interior. The
iris of the eye is generally black, but often verges
toward brown; mouth broad, with thin lips and regular
teeth. The women present a full bust and abdomen;
they are called pretty, but early marriages soon make
them old. It is suspected that infant murder has
something to do with the rarity of deformed people.
The Towkas and Ramas present the finest pure-blooded
type, the former being very fair, while the latter are
large, athletic, and stern-looking. The Poyas are cop
per-colored, short, but muscular, broad-faced, with large
forehead, bent nose, and small, mild eyes. The Toon-
glas are duskier; the Smoos approach the fair Towkas
in hue, though they have a flatter head, accompanied
by a stolid look. The darkest of all are the Woolwas,
whose color seems a mixture of yellow ochre and
India ink. Proceeding to Honduras, we meet the
Caribs, whose varied admixture of negro blood sep
arates them into yellow and black Caribs. The former
are distinguished by a somewhat ruddy hue, with a
hooked nose; while his duskier brother is taller, hardier,
and longer-lived; with a nose inclining to aquiline.
Children are prettier as they approach the negro type.
The hair varies in curl and gloss according to purity
of blood. The Mosquitos proper are more uniform in
appearance, and buccaneers have no doubt assisted
pp. 123, 201-2, 243; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, pp. 335-6; Young's
Narrative, pp. 33, 86; Wapp'ius, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 243-7, 333, 347-50; Hen
derson's Honduras, p. 216; Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pp. xii-xiii., 269, 287; Sivers,
Mttelamerika, pp. 179-80, 287-8.
MOSQUITO PHYSIQUE AND DRESS. 715
in bringing out many of the characteristics that have
obtained for the Sambo race the leading position on
the coast. They are all well-built, raw-boned, nimble,
and of a dull, dark, copper color. The face is oval, with
a coarse, lustful expression, the hair rough, wavy, and
black, eyes bright and remarkably strong ; women pretty,
with large eyes, and small feet and ankles.22
A piece of cloth fastened at the waist in a twist or by
a cord, and reaching to the knee, constitutes the native
male costume in these parts, that of the women being
somewhat shorter. This cloth is either of cotton, some
times woven with down, or of fibres from the inner bark
of the caoutchouc tree, beaten on stones till they become
soft, and is often large enough to serve for a covering at
night. Some are quite fanciful in color and design, and
formerly they were painted. Those of the Woolwas are
usually six feet long by three broad, striped blue and
yellow ; they are passed between the legs and fastened at
the waist by a thong. The Xicaques, on the contrary,
wear the cloth ser ape -fashion, by passing the head
through a slit in the centre, and tying the folds round
the waist. Even this scanty covering is often reduced
to the smallest apron, and is dispensed with altogether
in some parts, for modern travelers speak of natives
in a naked state. Women occasionally wear a small
square cloth, having an opening for the head, one part
of which covers the breast, the other the back. In
some parts chiefs are distinguished by a cotton cap,
22 « Die Backenknochen treten nicht, wie bei andern amerikanischen
Stammen, auff.dlend liervor. . . .starke Oberlippe.' Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp.
134-6, 59, 70, 151. Consult also: Squier's Cent. Amer., pp. 230, 251, 597-8;
Hassel, Mex. Gwd., pp. 388-9; Froebel, Aus Amerika, torn, i., pp. 397-8;
Varnhagen, Prem. Voy. de Amerigo Vespucci, pp. 40-1. The pure type has
' schlichte, grobere, schwarze Haar undfeinere Lippen.' Sivers, Mittelamerika,
pp. 74, 177, 180, 287-8; Fount's Narrative, pp. 26, 28-9, 72, 75, 79, 82, 87,
123; Uring's Hist. Voy., p. 226; Bell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii.,
pp. 256-9; Plman-l Seemctnn's Dottings, pp. 248, 305, 403; Colon, Hist. Almi-
rante, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i'., p. 104; Bard's Waikna, pp. 127, 298,
317; Strangeways' Mosquito Shore, p. 329. The natives of Corn island are ' of
a dark copper-colour, black Hair, full round Faces, small black Eyes, their
Eye-brows hanging over their Eyes, low Foreheads, short thick Noses, not
high, but flattish; full Lips, and short Chins.' Dampier's Voyages, vol. i.,
pp. 31-2, 7-8.
716 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
and a long sleeveless robe, open in front and often nicely
ornamented ; in other places men of rank wear turbans
decorated with plumes and feathers, and dress in skins
of eagles, tigers, and other animals ; these are also used
by the common people on festive occasions. The Smoos'
head-dress is especially pretty, with its embroidery and
feather- work. Ordinarily the long loose hair is deemed
sufficient to protect the head, and is kept sleek and shin
ing by palm-oil, which they say furthers its growth.
The women have longer hair than the men, and often
dress it in ringlets, seldom in a knot or wreath. The
people of northern Honduras wear a lock hanging over
the forehead ; some highland chieftains, on the contrary,
shave the front of the head, but allow the back hair to
grow long, while the Poyas part theirs in the middle,
keeping it in position with a band. That of the religious
men reaches to the waist, and generally falls in braids
behind. In mourning, both sides of the head are shaved,
a bushy comb being left along the middle. For
merly all hair except that on the head, even eyebrows
and lashes, was pulled out, because it was thought fit for
animals only to have hair on the body. All go bare
footed, and it is only where the native has to travel
over a rough road that he puts on alpamyats, or sandals
of bark, wood, or skin, which are fastened by thongs
round the foot. Whatever is wanting in actual dress,
however, is made up by paint and ornaments, of which
both sexes are equally fond. The face and upper part
of the body are either uniformly daubed over or tattooed
with rays, fanciful lines, and designs representing animals
and the like, chiefly in red and black. Taste is not
wanting in this adornment, for the tint is often delicate,
and the black circles round the eyes indicate that they
understand effect, increasing as they do the lustre of the
orbs. Esquemelin states that when visitors were ex
pected, the men combed the hair, and smeared the face
with an ointment of oil and black powder, the women
using a red admixture. Tattooing figures on the body
by cauterization, as seen by Columbus on the Mosquito
MOSQUITO HEAD-FLATTENING. 717
Coast, is still practiced in certain parts of the interior.
Aboriginal Mosquitos also perforated ears, lips, and
cheeks, to hold pendants offish-bones and green stones;
the holes in the ears being as large as eggs. The natives of
Corn island not only carried large pieces of wood in the
ears, but gradually enlarged the hole in the lower lip;
at fifteen years of age the wood was removed and a tor
toise-shell inserted. Women wore a tight bandage round
the ankle to increase the size of their calves. Strings
of tastefully arranged beads, bones, shells, and stones,
and gaily colored bandages, were worn round the neck
and wrist; the women adorning the legs and ankles in
a similar manner, and also using feathers and flowers.
Certain interior tribes, as the Smoos, esteem a round
forehead as a reproach, and hence the head is flattened,
the effect of which would be more noticeable, were it
not for the thick bushy hair. This head-flattening
fashion here appears for the first time since we left the
Columbian group; we shall see it once again further
south, and that is all. The process here is essentially
similar to that of the Columbians. When the infant is
a month old, it is tied to a board, and a flat piece of
wood, kept firm by bands, is placed upon the forehead.
The child remains in this painful position for several
months, the pressure increasing as the head grows.23
Towns there are none, except in certain parts ; seldom
do more than foux or five houses stand in a group ; the
locality being changed at intervals for sanitary or super
stitious purposes. A few upright posts planted in par
allel lines, or in a circle, and occasionally interwoven
with cane or leaves, support what may be called the hut
23 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Es-
quemelin, Zee-Roovers, pp. 150-1; Squier, in Harper's Mag., vol. xix., p. 614;
Id., in Nouvdles Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., p. 134; Martin's Brit. Col,
vol. ii., p. 412; Pirn and Seemann's DoUings, pp. 248-50; 280, 308, 403,
415; Macgregor's Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 772; Dampier's Voyages, vol.
i., pp. 11, 32; Bard's Waikna, pp. 127, 253-6, 298; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp.
116-17, 136-7; Bell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 256-60;
Young's Narrative, pp. 12, 26, 29, 32, 72, 77, 83,122, 133. 'Alcuni vsano
certe camiciuole com'quelle, che vsiamo noi, lunghe sino al belico, e senza
manche. Portano le braccia, e il corpo lauorati di lauori moreschi, fatti col
fuoco,' Colombo, Hist, del Ammiraglio, pp. 403-5.
718 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
proper, which is a sharply sloping, well- thatched palm-
leaf roof with projecting eaves, reaching to within three
or four feet of the ground. There is usually but one
apartment, the floor of which is often coated with clay,
and raised a little to avoid dampness. In the center is
the fireplace, surrounded by household ware and cack
ling hens, and all round may be seen hammocks and nets
suspended from the bamboo rafters. Some sleep on a
frame- work of bamboo placed upon posts. The better class
of houses contain partitions for the several families occu
pying it, and stand in fields enclosed by stalk fences. A
village with many of the interior tribes consists of one large
building, often one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide.
The front and end of these structures are open, but the
back is partitioned off into small closets with the bark of
the cabbage-palms, each serving as a bedroom for a mar
ried couple, or for unmarried women. A platform imme
diately under the roof is used as a sleeping-place for the
boys, and an apartment at the end of the hut is set apart
for women about to be confined. Some of the Guajique-
ro villages contain over a hundred substantial huts of
mud, or of cane plastered over and whitewashed. The
Toonglas and Cookras, erect temporary sheds near the
streams, during the summer, but seek more secure huts
in the winter. Carib dwellings are the neatest of all ;
some are of cane, others of frame-work filled with mud.
Cockburn relates that, during his journey through Hon
duras, he came across a bridge made of a net-work of
cane, which was suspended between trees so that the
centre hung forty feet above the surface of the stream.
He found it very old and shaky, and concluded that it
belonged to the remote past.24
Redundant nature here leaves man so little to do,
as scarcely to afford an opportunity for development.
24 StrongeUKtya* Mosquito Shore, p. 334; Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 185; Squier's
Cent. Amer., p. 660; Id., in Harper's Mag., vol. xix., p. 613; Id., in Nouvelles
Annaks des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., p. 134; Young's Narrative, pp. 13, 77, 98-
9, 125; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings. pp. 279, 295, 415-6; Bell,iu Land. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii.,pp. 258-9; Bard's Waikna, pp. 293-4, 318-9; Mosqui-
toland, Bericht, pp. 20, 137-9; Sivers, Mittelamerika, pp. 167, 178; Cockburn' s
Journey, pp. 23, 55-7.
FOOD IN HONDURAS. 719
The people of northern Honduras, according to Herrera,
cleared the ground with stone axes, and turned the sod
by main strength with a forked pole or with sharp wooden
spades, and by this means secured two or three yields every
year; but the present occupants scarcely take so much
trouble. On marrying, the men prepare a small field
for a few beds of yams, beans, cassava, and squash, some
pepper, and pine-apples, besides twenty to thirty plan
tain and cocoa-nut trees, leaving their wives to give it
such further care as may be required. Where maize is
cultivated it is either sown two or three grains in holes
two feet apart, or thrown broadcast over fresh wood
land a little before the rainy season. The Poyas are
the only people who cultivate respectable farms. Fish
ing is the favorite occupation of the coast tribes, and
their dexterity with the spear and harpoon is quite re
markable. The proper time for catching the larger
species of fish, such as the tarpom and palpa, is at night,
when a fleet of pitpans, each with a pitch-pine torch in
the bow, may be seen on the lagoon intermingling in
picturesque confusion. One or two paddlers propel the
boat, another holds the torch, wrhile the harpooneer stands
at the bow with a waisko-dusa, or staff, having a loosely
fitting, barbed harpoon at one end, and a piece of light
wood at the other. A short line attached to the harpoon,
passes along the staff, and is rolled round this float for
convenience. The glare of the torch attracts the fish
and enables the bowman to spy his prey, which is imme
diately transfixed by the harpoon. Away it darts, but
the float retards its progress, and points out its where-
•Joouts to the boatmen, who again seize the line, and
drag it to the shore. Occasionally the tarpom is taken
in strong nets, the meshes of which require to be six
inches square in order to entangle it. Manatees or sea-
cows are caught in the early morning, and to get within
striking distance of the wary animal, it is necessary to
deck the canoe with bushes and leaves, giving it the ap
pearance of a floating tree. The line attached to the
harpoon is in this case payed out from the canoe, which
720 WILD TBIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
is often trailed by the manatee in a lively manner. It
generally takes several harpoons as well as lances to kill
it. Smaller harpoons, without barb, with merely quad
rangular points an inch and a half long and nearly as
wide, are used for catching turtles so that the shell may
not be damaged. As the canoe approaches, the turtle
slides under the water; the bowman signalizes the oars
man how to steer, and when the turtle rises to breathe,
it is speared dragged into the canoes, and placed on its
back. Some fishermen will jump into the water after
the animal, and bring it up in their hands, but this
feat is attended with danger, from bites and sharp
coral. The hawk-bill turtle is set free after the shell
has been stripped of its scales, but the green species
is eaten, and its eggs, which are esteemed a dainty,
are sought for in the sand by poking suspected places
with a stick. Smaller fish are speared with the sinnockj
a long pole with a fixed point. The river people
take less pleasure in fishing, and resort thereto only
as driven by necessity. Weirs of branches and clay
are constructed, with a small outlet in the middle,
where men are stationed to catch the passing fish
with nets and spears. The Poyas employ a still surer
method. The water is beaten with sticks for some dis
tance above the weir, so as to drive the fish together; a
quantity of juice extracted from a wild vine called
pequine, which has a stupefying effect, is thrown into the
water, and the men have merely to select the best look
ing, the smaller ones being allowed to float away and
recover in the unadulterated waters below. The preserv
ing offish is the work of women, who cut them in slices, — .
sometimes rubbing them with salt, — and place the pieces
on a framework of cane over the fire to be smoke-dried ;
after which they are exposed to the sun for. a day or two.
Part of the fish is cooked, or baked in oil, and eaten at
once. If we except the Smoos and Xicaques, who fol
low game with true precision and patience, the usual
mode of hunting is as primitive as weir-fishing. A
number of men assemble and set fire to the grass, whicfe
MOSQUITO COOKEKY. 721
drives the terrified animals into a corner, where they
are shot or struck down, or the game is entrapped in
holes partly filled with water. The wild hog. the tapir,
and deer supply most of the meat, which is cured in the
same way as fish : some cutting the meat in strips, and
curing it on the buccan, or grate of sticks, while others
prefer the barbecue method which is to smoke-dry the
whole animal. Certain old writers state that human
flesh was eaten, but this is discredited by others, who
think that the error arose from seeing the natives feast
on monkeys, which, skinned, have much the appear
ance of humans. The statement of their ea,ting raw
fish may also be wrong, for the natives of the present
day are very careful about thoroughly cooking their food,
and even avoid fruit not fully ripened. A well-known
article of food is the Carib bread, a sort of white hard
biscuit made from cassava or mandioc roots, which are
skinned, washed, and grated on a board set with sharp
stones. The pulp is rinsed in water to extract the
poisonous juice, and when it is sufficiently whitened by
this means, the water is carefully pressed out, and the
substance set to dry in the sun. The sifted flour
is made into large round thin cakes, which, after
being exposed to the sun for a while, are slowly
baked over the fire. The Poyas make large rolls, which
are wrapped in leaves and baked in the ashes. These
soon become sour, and are then eaten with a relish.
Others grind cassava or maize on the metate, and bake
tortillas. A gruel is also made of the flour, and eaten
with salt and chile, or syrup. One of their dainties is
bisbire, the name given to plantains kept in leaves till
putrid, and eaten boiled. Scalding hot cacao mixed
with chile is the favorite stimulant, of which large quan
tities are imbibed, until the perspiration starts from every
pore. Cacao-fruit is also eaten roasted. Notwithstand
ing the richness of the soil an& the variety of its pro
ductions, the natives are accused of resorting to insects
for food, and of eating their own vermin. The coast
people have the greater selection, but trust mostly to
TOL. I. 46
722 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
fishing, while the interior tribes after natural products
depend upon the chase. The Cookras subsist chiefly on
the cabbage-palm. Sambo girls have a peculiar fancy
for eating charcoal and sand, believing that their charms
are improved thereby. No regularity is observed in
eating, but food is taken at any hour, and with voracity ;
nor will they take the trouble to procure more, until the
whole stock is consumed, arid hunger drives them from
their hammocks. The Poyas and Guajiqueros seem to be
the only tribes who have any idea of providing for the
future ; the latter laying up a common reserve.25
Frequent bathing is the rule, yet the Sambos, who
have a better opportunity for this, perhaps, than other
tribes, are described as dirty in their surroundings, and,
when warmed by motion, emit a disagreeable odor,
arising from the use of ointments and powders. The
Poyas, Xicaques, Secos, and especially the Caribs are,
on the contrary, very cleanly in their habits.26
The bow and arrow figures as the chief weapon of
the Mosquitos, the former being usually of iron-wood,
spanned with twisted mahoe-bark, and often six feet in
length; the latter of reed or wood, hardened in fire,
and pointed with hard wood, 'flint, fish-bones, or teeth.
They not only handle the bow well, but some are ex
pert in the art of defense. To attain this dexterity,
children are taught to turn aside, with a stick, the blunt
darts thrown at them, and in time they become suffi
ciently expert to ward off arrows in the same manner.
They also fight with cane lances about nine feet long,
with oblong diamond points, javelins, clubs, and heavy
sharp -pointed swords made of a poisonous wood, a
splinter from which causes first madness and then
25 TIerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii-v.; Macgregor's Progress
The Woolwas had fish 'which had been shot with arrows.' Pirn and See-
mann's Dottings, pp. 403, 248-50, 300-1, 407, 412-13; Dampier's Voyages, vol.
i., pp. 9-13, 35-7.
26 Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pref., p. 18; Young's Narrative, pp. 76, 99, 133;
Torquemada, Monarq. Ind.t tom. i., p. 335.
MOSQUITO WEAPONS AND WAR. 723
death. The milky juice of the manzanilla-tree is used
to poison arrows and darts. Blowpipes, whose light
arrows surely and silently bring down birds at a hundred
feet and over, are in great favor with the youth. Armor
is made of plaited reeds covered with tiger-skins, and
ornamented with feathers; besides which, the northern
Mosquitos employ a breastplate of twisted cotton, like
that of the Mexicans. Mosquito women are said to be
as good archers as the men.27
Aboriginal wars were continually waged in Hondu
ras without any other object than to avenge the death
of an ancestor, or to retaliate on those who had carried
away friends into slavery. Neighboring tribes, how
ever, agreed to a truce at certain times, to allow the
interchange of goods. Previous to starting on an ex
pedition, turkeys, dogs, and even human beings were
sacrificed to influence the gods; blood was drawn from
tongue and ears, and dreams carefully noted, and their
import determined. Ambassadors were sent to challenge
the enemy to a pitched battle, and, if they were not re
sponded to, the country was ravaged. When prisoners were
taken they were usually held as slaves, after having the
nose cut off. Forty thousand men sometimes composed
an expedition, operating without chief or order, devising
ambushes and stratagems as it suited them, and accom
panied by women to act as porters. Mosquito warriors
blacken the face, and place themselves under the tem
porary command of the bravest and most experienced.
The coast people are bold and unyielding, and usually
kill their prisoners. When the Sambos confederate with
their neighbors, they expect their allies to pay for friends
lost in battle.28
27 Of the people of Las Pertas islands it is said; ' Aen't endt van haer
geweer een hay-tandt, schieten met geen boogh.' Esquemelin, Zee-Roovers,
pp. 71, 150. Also see: Colon. Hist. Almirante, in Barcia, Historiadores,
torn, i., p. 105; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. ix., cap. x., and dec. iv.,
lib. viii., cap. iii.; Dampier's Voyages, vol. i., pp. 7-8; Card's Waikna, pp.
120, 128.
28 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.; Esquemelin, Zee-Roovers,
p. 153; Dampier's Voyages, vol. i., p. 8; Delaporte, Reisen, torn, x., p. 406;
Strangeways' Mosquito Shore, p, 331.
724 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
Domestic utensils in the homes of the Mosquitos con
sist of stones for grinding grain and roots, clay pots and
plates for cooking purposes, and gourds, calabashes, and
nets for holding food and liquids. The stone hatchet,
which is fast becoming a relic, is ten inches long, four
broad, and three thick, sharp at both ends, with a
groove to hold the handle which is firmly twisted round
its centre. Besides the implements already referred to
under fishing and weapons, may be mentioned the lasso,
in the use of which they are very expert, and the paia-
pee, a pretty water-tight basket that the Caribs plait of
reeds. The men usually sleep in hammocks, or on mats
spread on the ground near the fire, with a stick for a
pillow, while the women prefer a platform of cane raised
a few feet from the ground, and covered with a mat or
a skin.29
Fibres of mahoe and ule bark, pisang-leaves and silk-
grass furnish material for ropes, nets, mats, and coarse
fabrics. Most of the Mosquitos grow a little cotton,
which the women spin on a rude wheel, like that of the
Guatemalans, and weave on a frame loom into strong
and neat cloths. The favorite blue color for dj^eing is
obtained from the jiquilite plant; the yellow from the
achiolt tree. Pottery is a very ancient art among them,
as may be seen from the fine specimens discovered in
the graves and ruins of Honduras. Their red cooking-
pots are very light but strong, and the water-jars, which
are only slightly burnt to permit percolation, show con
siderable taste in design.30
Nowhere do we find more daring and expert boat
men than the Mosquitos, who will venture out upon the
roughest sea in a boat barely large enough to hold a man
29 'Hammocks, made of a Sort of Rushes.' Cockburn's Journey, pp. 64,
23. ' El almohada vu palo, o vna piedra: los cofres son cestillos, aforrados
en cueros de venados.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v. Con
sult also: Young's Narrative, pp. 76-7; Dampier's Voyages, vol. i., p. 85;
Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 660; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 100, 116, 123, 138,
173.
so Sivers, Mittelamerika, p. 167; Bard's Waikna, pp. 127,298-9. ' Auf
irgend eine Zubereitung (of skins) verstehen sich die Indianer nicht.' Mps-
quitoland, Bericht, pp. 190, 148. ' They make large Jars here, one of which
will hold ten Gallons, and not weigh one Pound.' Cockburn's Journey, p. 83.
BOATS AND FISHERIES. 725
and a boy. If the boat capsize it is at once righted,
bailed out, and the voyage resumed, and seldom is any
part of the cargo lost. The dory, or ordinary sea-boat
is a hollowed-out tree, often twenty-five to fifty feet long,
four to six wide, and four to five deep, round-bottomed,
buoyant, and with good handling safe. The best are
made by the up-river tribes, especially the Towkas, who
prepare them roughly with axe and fire, and sell them
to the coast people to be finished according to fancy.
After the dug-out has been trimmed, it is often soaked
in water for a time, so that the sides may be stretched
and secured with knees. Thefitpan, which is used on
rivers and lagoons, differs from the dory in being flat-
bottomed, with broad and gradually rounded ends, and
of less depth and width. Cedar is chiefly used for pit-
pans on account of its lightness, and the stronger mahog
any for dories: but the latter are, however, soon injured
by worms if kept in the water. Small boats are pro
pelled by a single broad-bladed paddle; sails also are
employed with the crean or keeled canoe.31
Harpoon and canoe are the basis of the Mosquito's
wealth, for with them he obtains his food and the tortoise-
shell, the principal article of traffic. The season for
catching hawk-bill turtles is from April to August, when
fleets of canoes, each manned by about twelve men, pro
ceed to different parts of the coast, as far south as Chiri-
qui, and bring home ten thousand pounds of shell on an
average. Green turtles, which are caught near reefs,
also find a good market in Blewfields and elsewhere.
All keep hogs, the Caribs more than others; many pos
sess cattle and horses, which are allowed to run wild
over the prairies, the horses being lassoed whenever
required for riding. Their manner of breaking them is
unique. One man leads the horse with the lasso into
water, to a depth of three or four feet, when another
31 Young's Narrative, pp. 11, 19, 76, 160-1; Martin's West Indies, vol.i., pp.
155-6; Lam-pier's Voyages, vol. i., pp. 35, 85. ' Der Tuberose tree der Eng-
lander liefert die starksten Baumstamme, deren die Indianer sich zur Anfer-
tigting ihrer grossten Wasserfahrzeuge bedienen.' Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp.
116, 70, 147.
726 WILD TBIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
jumps upon his back, and responds to buckings and skit-
tishness with blows on the head, until in about half an
hour the exhausted animal surrenders. A line of bark-
fibre serves for reins, and a few plaited palm- leaves for
saddle. Preservation of wealth is little thought of, for
cattle are most recklessly slaughtered at feasts and for
offences, and fruit-trees, as well as other property are,
as a rule, destroyed on the death of the owner. Quite
a trade is carried on in these parts, the inland tribes
bringing rough canoes, calabashes, skins, cloth, honey,
and cacao to the coast people, and receiving therefor tur
tles, salt, English fancy and useful articles ; while many
of the latter undertake lengthy coast trips to dispose of
the bartered produce, as well as their own. The Wan-
kees deal heavily in bisbire, or decomposed plantains,
while sarsaparilla and honey are the staple articles of
the Secos and Poyas. A mixture of shrewdness and
simplicity characterizes their dealings. A party wishing
to dispose of hides, for instance, first produces the worst
ones, which are thrown aside by the buyer until those
of the standard quality are brought out ; a sum is then
offered for the whole, which is often unhesitatingly ac
cepted by the native who is too dazzled by the apparently
high price to consider the amount of produce given for
it. Very little value is placed upon labor, for canoes,
which have taken a considerable time to prepare, are
often bartered for a mere trifle. The people of Hondu
ras have always a stock of cloth and honey to pay taxes
with, and set a high value on colored feathers obtained
from Yucatec coast traders, who take cacao for return
cargoes.32
Although versatile enough in handicrafts, their men
tal faculties are exceedingly crude. With the aid of
fingers and toes the Sambo is able to count to twenty,
but anything beyond that confuses him. Time is reck-
32 The Mosquitos have ' little trade except in tortoise-shells and sarsapa
rilla.' Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 659. Compare Bard's Waikna, p. 317; Hell,
in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 252; Strangeways' Mosquito Shore,
p. 337; Young's Narrative, pp. 16, 82, 86-7, 91, 126; Herrera, Hist. Gen.,
dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 148, 171-4, 190.
MOSQUITO CALENDAR AND ART. 727
oned by kates, or moons, thirteen of which make a mani,
or year. When asked to fix the date of an event, he
will say that it occurred so many sleeps or moons ago ;
but when the time exceeds a year or two, the answer is
given in the rather indefinite term of "many, many
years;" consequently he is unable to tell his age. His
ideas of cosmology are equally vague; thus, stars are
held to be glowing stones. The people of Honduras call
the year iolar, and divide it in the same manner as the
Mexicans, by whom the system has, no doubt, been in
troduced. They reckon time by so many nights or twi
lights, not by days, and determine the hour by the
height of the sun. The song-language of the Mosquitos
differs greatly from that employed in conversation, a
quaint old-time style being apparently preserved in their
lyrics.33
The art of extracting and melting gold has long been
known to them, but, although they wear a few orna
ments of this metal, they do not seem to prize it very
highly. At the time of Cockburn's visit to Honduras,
dams were used in mining, and instruments of cane to
sift the gold. The mode employed by the Poyas to
separate gold from sand is the one known in California
as panning, and is thus described by Squier: "Scooping
up some of the sand in his bowl, and then filling it with
water, he whirled it rapidly, so that a feathery stream
of mingled sand and water flew constantly over its edge.
He continued this operation until the sand was nearly
exhausted, and then filled the bowl again. After repeat
ing this process several times, he grew more careful,
balancing the bowl skillfully, and stopping occasionally
to pick out the pebbles .... after the process was com
plete, the Foyer showed me a little deposit of gold, in
33 The Mosquitos ' divisaient 1'annee en 18 mois de 20 jours, et ils appel-
laient les mois loalar.' Malte-Brun, Precis de la Ge'og., torn, vi., p. 472.
'Dit konense reeckenen by de Maen, daer van sy vyftien "voor een jaer
reeckenen.' Exquemdin, Zee-Roovers, p. 152. 'Fiir die Berechnnng der Jahre
existirt keine Aera. Daher weiss Niemand sein Alter.' Mosquitoland, Bericht,
pp. 142, 267-8. See also Bard's Waikrta, pp. 244-5; Young's Narrative, p.
76; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vi.
728 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
grains, at the bottom of the calabash." The gold dust
passes into the hands of the white trader.34
The Mosquitos proper are ruled by a hereditary king,
who claims sovereignty over the interior tribes of the
Mosquito Coast, which, in many cases, is merely nomi
nal. Before the English made their influence felt, this
monarch, who, in these latter degenerate days, does not
possess many prerogatives, seems to have had but a small
extent of territory, for among the earlier travelers some
assert that the inhabitants of this coast lived under a
republican rule, while others observed no form of gov
ernment. Each village or community has a principal
man, or judge, selected from the eldest and ablest, who
settles minor grievances, referring weightier matters to
the king, and superintends the contribution of canoes,
tortoise-shells, and produce for the support of the mon
arch and chiefs — for regular taxes are not collected.
Among the Poyas, the old men, who are highly re
spected by their juniors, assemble every evening to
deliberate upon the duties of the following day; all
members of the tribe take part in the work, and share
alike in the results. According to Young, the Mos
quitos had an officer, in whom was vested certain
authority. The Caribs are also ruled by elders, dig
nified by the title of captains. Their laws are in some
respects harsh : for instance, a woman who has had in
tercourse with a man of another race is whipped slowly
to death. Sambos are less particular in this matter,
the adulterer being merely mulcted in a cow. If the
decision of a chief be not satisfactory, the contestants
resort to trial by combat. The Xicaques live in com
munities of from seventy to one hundred persons ruled
by chiefs elected for life. The insignia of a judge or
ruler in Honduras are a white staff, often elaborately
ornamented with a golden head and tassels. Formerly
34 Sard's Waikna, pp. 292-3; Cockburn's Journey, p. 37; Gomara, Hist.
Ind., fol. 63. The natives of Honduras had ' peda<jos de Tierra, llamada
Calcide, con la qual se funde el Metal.' Colon, Hist. Almirante, in Barcia,
Historiadores, torn, i., p. 104.
GOVERNMENT, SLAVERY, POLYGAMY. 729
each town or province was ruled by an hereditary cacique,
who administered justice with four nobles as counselors.
Theft was punished by confiscation of property, and in
graver cases the ears and hands of the culprit were
cut off; the adulterer caught in the act had his ear-rings
forcibly torn out; then he was whipped by the relatives
of the injured, and deprived of his possessions. The
woman went free on the supposition that she, as the
weaker party, was not responsible.35
One principal object of war among the ancient nations
of Honduras was to make slaves, but the Mosquito
Coast was free from this scourge, according to all
accounts.36
Polygamy obtains, some men having six wives each,
and the king yet more. The first wife, who as a rule,
is betrothed from early infancy, is mistress command
ing; her marriage is attended with festivities, and later
additions to the harem are subject to her. The custom
is to marry early, often before puberty, and it is not un
usual to see a girl of thirteen with an offspring in her
arms ; but the marriage tie is not very binding, for the
wife may be discarded or sold at will, on the slightest
pretence, especially if children do not follow the
union. The interior tribes, which are less given to plu
rality of waves, bear a pretty good character for female
chastity. The cacique 'of ancient Honduras married
among his own class. On behalf of a suitor not pre
viously engaged, an old man was dispatched with
presents to the father of the chosen girl, before whom
he made a long harangue on the ancestry and qualities
35 IJerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v. ; Cock-burn's Journey, p.
45; Dampier's Voyac/es, vol. i., pp. 10-11; Esquemelin, Zee-Eoovers, p. 150;
p.
134; Young's Narrative, pp. 71, 98; Mosquitoland, Berichi, pp. 171-2.
steben unter eignen Kaziken, die ihre Anfiihrer im Kriege machen und
welchen sie unbedingt gehorchen.' Poyas, ' Ihre Regierungsform ist aristo-
kratisch.' Hassel, Mex. Gnat., pp. 388, 390. Mosquito ' conjurers are in fact
the priests, the lawyers and the judges the king is a despotic monarch.'
Bonny castle's Span. Amer., vol. i., p. 174.
36 Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., p. 335.
730 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
of the youth. If this proved satisfactory, the pres
ents were accepted, and Bacchanalia followed. Next
morning the bride was closely wrapped in a gorgeously
painted cloth, and, seated upon the shoulder of a man,
was conveyed to the bridegroom, a number of friends
accompanying her, dancing and singing along the road,
drinking out of every rivulet, and feasting at every
stopping - place. On arrival, she was received by the
female friends of the groom, and subjected to a cleaning
and perfuming process, lasting three days, during which
the friends of the two families held a grand feast to
celebrate the approaching union. She wras then deliv
ered to the husband, who kept her three nights at his
home, and then proceeded to the house of his father-in-
law, where the couple remained three other nights, after
which they returned to their own house and renewed
festivities. These were the ceremonies attending the mar
riage of nobles only. An old woman acted as messenger
for common swains, and brought a present of cacao to
the bride's parents, which was consumed at the pre
liminary feast. The girl was then delivered to the old
woman, together with a return present of cacao to serve
for two feasts, one taking place at the house of the
bridegroom, the other at the bride's. Relationship was
no impediment to marriage, and widows were received
among the wives of the late husband's brother. Im
morality ruled, and the most lascivious performances
prevailed at their festivals. On the islands in the
gulf of Honduras and on the Belize coast, the suitor had
to undergo a preliminary examination by the proposed
father-in-law as to his ability to perform the duties of
husband ; if satisfactory, a bow and arrow were handed
him, and he at once presented himself before the ob
ject of his affection with a garland of leaves and
flowers, which she placed upon her head instead of
the wreath always worn by a virgin. Friends there
upon met at the home of the bride to discuss the
prospects of the couple, and to witness the act of giving
her to the bridegroom, partaking, meanwhile, of some
MOSQUITO MAEKIAGE CUSTOMS. 731
cheering liquid. The next day the bride appeared be
fore the mother, and tore oft' her garland with much
lamentation. Among the Sambos the betrothed suitor
must give presents of food and other articles to the
parents of his intended, as payment for their care of
her until she attains the marriageable age, when he
comes to claim her. Should the parents then refuse to
give up the girl, they are bound to refund the value of
the presents twice or thrice told. The usual price paid
for a wife is a cow or its equivalent, which is also
exacted from any man infringing on the marital right,
while the female for such offence is merely beaten.
Esquemelin adds that when the young man came to
claim his bride, he was questioned as to his ability to
make nets and arrows, and if all went well, the daughter
was summoned to bring a calabash of wine, which the
three drained between them in token of the new rela
tionship. The widow was bound to supply the grave
of her husband with provisions for a year, after which
she took up the bones and carried them with her for
another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her
house, and then only was she allowed to marry again.
The Carib must provide a separate house and field for
each of his wdves, where she not only supports her
self, her children, and her husband, but can, if she
pleases, accumulate property. The husband is expected
to spend his time equally between his wives, but not to
assist in providing necessities after the marriage day;
should his help be required, the wife must pay him the
customary rate of wages. The several wives compete
jealously with each other to provide the best for their
husband, and are comparatively well-behaved, owing,
perhaps, to the severe punishment of infidelity. Among
the Smoos, wives of one husband generally live together,
each wife bringing her share to make up her lord's
dinner. Widows are the property of the relatives of
the husband, to whom 'widow-money' must be paid
before they are allowed to marry again. The method
of courtship among the Woolwas is to place a deer's
732 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
carcass and some firewood at the door of the intended ;
if accepted, marriage ensues. Each wife has usually
a separate establishment. The Towkas, who are more
inclined to monogamy, have an interesting marriage
ceremony, of which Squier gives a long account. On
the betrothal of children a corresponding cotton band
is fastened above the elbow or below the knee of
each. These bands are selected by the old men so
as to be distinct from others in color, and are re
newed when worn out. They also wear necklaces to )
which a shell or bead is added every year, and when the
boy has ten added to his string, he is called muhasal, or
ten, signifying half a man; when the twentieth and final
shell is added, he is considered a full man, and is called
#//, meaning twenty. If his intended has by this time
attained her fifteenth year, preparations are at once made
for the marriage. A general holiday is taken by the
villagers, who clear from grass a circular piece of ground,
which is defined by a ring of stones, and trampled smooth ;
a little hut is then erected in the centre having a small
opening at the top, and another at the side facing the
east. Within the hut, the entrance of which is covered
with a mat, is a heap of copal-twigs, and without, at the
edge of the circle, a canoe filled with palrn-wine is
placed, having a large pile of white calabashes by its
side. At noon the villagers proceed to the home of the
bridegroom, who is addressed in turn by the old men ;
they then start with the youth for the house of the bride
where the young man seats himself before the closed en
trance on a bundle of presents intended for the bride.
The father raps at the door which is partly opened by
an old woman wrho asks his business, but the reply does
not seem satisfactory, for the door is slammed in his
face. The old men try their power of persuasion with the
same result, and at last determine to call Orpheus to
their aid. Music hath charms! the door is seen to open,
and a female peeps timidly out : louder swells the music,
and the bridegroom hastens to unroll his bundle contain
ing beads and other articles. The door opens wider and
MOSQUITO COUKTSHIP. 733
wider as each present is handed in by the father, until
it is entirely thrown back, revealing the bride arrayed
in her prettiest, seated on a crickery, in the remotest
corner. While all are absorbed in examining the pres
ents, the bridegroom dashes in, shoulders the girl like
a sack, and trots off for the mystic circle, which, urged
on by the frantic cries of the women, he reaches before
the crowd can rescue her. The females, who cannot
pass the ring, stand outside giving vent to their despair
ing shrieks, while the men squat within the circle in
rows, facing outward. The old men alone remain stand
ing, and one of them hands a lighted stick to the couple
inside the hut, with a short speech. Soon an aromatic
smoke curls up from the copal pile, whereat the women
grow silent, but when it subsides, a sudden gayety takes
possession of them, and the music is again heard. The
reason for this is that the bridegroom, if he has any ob
jections to the girl, may expel her while the gum is
burning, but if it burns out quietly, the groom is sup
posed to be satisfied and the marriage complete. The
women now pass filled calabashes to the men, who soon
become excited and start a dance which increases in
wildness with each additional cup, and does not end till
most of them have bitten the dust. After dark the
crowd proceeds with lighted torches to the hut, which is
torn down, disclosing the married pair sitting demurely
side by side. The husband shoulders his new baggage
and is escorted to his home. The following day every
body presents a gift of some kind, so as to place the
couple on an equal footing with the rest of the villagers.37
The position of a wife is not an enviable one, as the care
of the household, the farm, and all hard and degrading
work fall to her share, while her liege lord spends most
of his time in idling. When about to be confined, she
37 Bard's Waikna, pp. 127, 129-30, 202-11, 236, 243, 299-300, 321-3;
Store,
, iii., p.
they live till death separates them.
Strangeways' Mosquito Shore, pp. 332, 336; Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 137;
Oviedp, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 216. 'They marry but one Wife, with whom
hem.' Damjner's Voyages, vol. i., p. 9. 'Doch
besitzen in der That die meisten Manner nur ein Weib.' Mosquitoland, Bericht,
pp. 1M-6, 136-9; Salazar y Olarte, Hist. Conq. Mex., torn, ii., p. 312.
734 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
proceeds to a hut erected for this purpose in the forest, a
short distance from the village, where she remains from a
week to two months, according to the custom of the tribe,
attended by female friends who supply all her wants,
since she is not allowed to handle food herself. No one
must pass to the windward of the hut, because an obstruc
tion of the air might cause the death of the mother and
child, and for thus offending the guilty party must pay
the damages. In such seclusion it is easy to dispose of
deformed children, and it is believed that this is done to
avoid the disgrace of a nickname, which might otherwise
attach to the family. At the expiration of the period of
purification, the mother returns to the village carrying the
infant tied to her back in a cloth. The village witch
has in the meantime fastened round its neck, a peiv or
charm, consisting of a bag of small seeds with which to
pay old Charon for ferriage across the river, in case of
an early death. The child is suckled for about two years ;
yucca- root pap also forms a great part of its food in some
parts, but otherwise it receives little care. The mother
delivers herself, cutting the navel-string with her own
hand ; she also washes the infant's clothes, for it
is believed that the child will die if this is done
by another ; after washing herself and suckling the child
she returns to the" village. Formerly all children born
within the year were taken to the temple by the parents,
wrapped in a net and painted cloth, and laid to sleep
under a cake made of honey and iguana-flesh. Notice
was taken of dreams, and if the child appeared well and
happy, they augured riches and long life for it, if weak
and sorrowful, it would be poor and unfortunate; if no
dreams occurred, it betokened an early death. Acting on
this superstition, parents often became careless about the
future of their children, and suffered them to grow up
without attention. Priests were not allowed to marry,
and the care and education of the sons of prominent men
were entrusted to them.38
38 Esquemelin relates that the natives on the Belize coast and adjacent
islands carried the new-born infant to the temple, where it was placed
MOSQUITO DIVERSIONS. 735
Drinking is the chief amusement, and to hecome
helplessly drunk is the sum of all enjoyment. Fre
quent sihkrans or feasts are held, lasting for days, at
which large numbers assist to drain the canoeful of
liquor prepared for the occasion. Occasionally sur
rounding villagers are invited, and a drinking-bout is
held, first in one house and then in another, until the
climax is reached in a debauch by both sexes of the
most revolting character. Q.uarrels are generally put
off for these occasions, but, as the wives have carefully
hidden all weapons, recourse is had to the fist, with
which the combatants exchange blows in turn until one
has had enough. These trials of endurance are also
held in sport; the Smoo or Woolwa, for instance, who
wishes to be held most worthy of the fair sex, en
gages in a lowta or striking-match with a rival, each one
presenting his bent back to the other in turn, until the
bravest stands declared. Death is not unfrequently the
result of such trials. Even boys, carried away by emu
lation, hold lighted sticks to each other's skin. In
early times the people of Honduras held regular festi
vals at the beginning of each month, at the time of
electing officers, at harvest time, and three other grand
celebrations during the year, for which much food and
drink were prepared. As the wine took effect, the par
ticipants were seized with a desire to move to the exhil
arating sound of drum, flute, and rattle, and a simple
dance was organized. That of the Carib is merely a
forward and backward movement of hands and feet,
accompanied by a peculiar intonation of voice, and at
their seekroes, or festivals in commemoration of the de
parted, they stalk in a circle, one following the other,
naked in a hole filled with ashes, exposed to the wild beasts, and left there
until the track of some animal was noticed in the ashes. This became patron
to the child who was taught to offer it incense and to invoke it for protection.
Zee-Roovers, pp. 64-9, 149. The genitals are pierced as a proof of constancy
and affection for a woman. Id., pp. 151-3. Compare Herrera, Hist. Gfn., dec.
iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii.-vi.; Young's Narrative, pp. 73, 75, 123,
125; Bell, in Loud. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 251, 254-5, 257-8; Pirn
and Seemann's Dottings, pp. 249, 306-8; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i.,
p. 335; Delaporte, Reisent torn, x., p. 409; Crowe's Cent. Amer., pp. 49, 245-7.
736 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
and singing in a loud and uncouth tone. Their pas seul
is livelier, however, the performer skipping up and
down, bending the body in different ways, and making
the most grotesque movements. They are not satisfied
with a mere drinking-bout at their reunions, but spread
a good table, to which guests often bring their own
liquor. The Towkas and others prefer the circle dance,
walking at a slow, swinging pace, beating their knuckles
against emptied calabashes, and joining in a refrain, at
the end of which they strike their cups one against
another's. At each additional potation, the walk is in
creased in speed, until it assumes a trot and ends in a
gallop, the calabashes rattling in accordance. The
Sambo dance is like a minuet, in which the performers
advance and recede, making strange gesticulations. The
women have also a dance among themselves, — for they
are not allowed to join with the men, — in which they
form a ring, holding each other round the waist with
the left hand, bending, wriggling, shaking calabash rat
tles, and singing until exhausted. Dramatic representa
tions usually accompany these saltatory exhibitions,
wherein the various phases of a lover's trials, comical
sketches, or battles are depicted. The people of Hondu
ras are fond of disguising themselves with feather tufts,
and skins of animals, whose actions and cries they imi
tate. The favorite entertainment of the Sambos is to
put on a head-dress of thin strips of wood painted in
various colors to represent the beak of a sword-fish,
fasten a collar of wood round the neck, from which a
number of palm-leaves are suspended, and to daub the
face red, black, and yellow. Two men thus adorned
advance toward one another and bend the fish-head in
salute, keeping time with a rattle and singing, " shovel-
nosed sharks, grandmother!" after which they slide off
crab-like, making the most ludicrous gestures imagin
able. This fun exhausted, fresh men appear, introducing
new movements, and then the spectators join in a 'walk
around,' flourishing white sticks in their hands, and
repeating the above-mentioned refrain in a peculiar buz-
GUAJIQUERO DANCE. 737
zing tone produced by placing in the mouth a small
tube covered with the membrane of a nut.39
The Gruajiqueros in an interesting performance de
scribed by Squier, depict incidents from their history.
A square piece of ground having a tree in the centre is
marked off, and two poles adorned with feathers are
erected in opposite corners, one bearing the head of a
deer, the other that of a tiger. A dull, monotonous
music is heard, and two parties of youth, fantastically
dressed up and painted, move up to the square in a slow,
but not ungraceful dance, and station themselves round
the poles that bear their respective insignia. A man,
stooping as if bent with age, starts out from the deers,
dances round the ground, trying to arouse the mirth of
the spectators with his grotesque movements. The
tigers also dispatch a man, who does his best to excel
the other one in contortions and grimaces. After a
while they meet, and commence a discussion which ends
in open rupture, the rising passions being well delineated.
The two men who represent ambassadors then return to
their party with an account of the mission, the result of
which is a general excitement, both factions starting
out, dancing backwards and forwards, up and down the
square, until they meet under the tree, in the centre.
The leader of each then steps out and recites the glories-
and prowess of his tribe, amidst the applause of his own
men, and the disapproval of the others. As soon as
they are worked up to the requisite pitch of irritation,
the dialogue ceases, the music strikes up, and a mimic
combat ensues, in which the armies advance and re
treat, close and separate, using short canes for weapons.
At last the tigers lose their standard and take to flight,
whereat the victors execute a dance of triumph; but
finding how dearly the victory has been bought, their
39 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., vi.; Bell, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 255-6. The Woolwas 'liaben gewisse Jahresfeste
bei welchen weder ein Fremder noch Weiber und Kinder des eigneii Stam-
mes zugelassen werden. Bei diesen Festen fuhren sie mit lantern Geschrei
ihre Ta'nze auf, "wobei ihnen ihr Gott Gesellschaft leistet." ' Froebel, Aus
Amerika, torn, i., pp. 407-8.
Voh T. 47
738 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
joy is turned into sorrow, and they bend their head
upon the knees, breaking out in loud lament. In a few
moments one of them starts up and begins a panegyric on
the fallen brave, which is followed by a mimic sacrifice
and other ceremonies. The vanquished are now seen to
approach with downcast eyes, bringing tribute, which
they lay at the feet of the victors, who receive it with
imperious bearing. The music at these entertainments
is not of a very inspiring nature ; drums, consisting of a
section of hollow tree covered with skin, which are gene
rally beaten with the hand, and flutes of bamboo with
four stops on which eight notes are played with different
•degrees of speed for variety, being the usual instruments.
The Guajiqueros also use the chirimaya, two flutes joined
in one mouthpiece; the syrinx, or Pan's pipe; a long
calabash with a narrow opening at the small end, into
which the performer blows suddenly, at intervals, to
mark time; and a sort of drum consisting of a large
earthen jar, over the mouth of which a dressed skin is
tightly stretched. To the centre of the skin, and passing
through an opening in the bottom, is attached a string
which the performer pulls, the rebound of the membrane
producing a very lugubrious sound. In western Hon
duras the so-called strum-strum is much used. This is
a large gourd cut in the middle, and covered with a thin
board having strings attached. The marimba, and the
Jews-harp which has been introduced by the trader, are,
however, the favorite instruments for a quiet reunion,
and the few tunes known to them are played thereon with
admirable skill and taste. Songs always accompany their
dances and are usually impromptu compositions on suit
able subjects, gotten up for the occasion by the favorite
singers of the village, and rendered in a soft, but mono
tonous and plaintive tone. They have no national melo
dies, but on the receipt of any good or bad message, their
feelings generally find vent in a ditty embodying the
news. Talking is a passion with them, and as soon as a
piece of news is received at a village, two or three younger
men will start with their women and children for the
BEVERAGES OF HONDURAS. 739
next hamlet, where it is discussed for hours by the as
sembled population, who in their turn dispatch a messen
ger to the next village, and thus spread the news over
the whole country in a very short time. In story-tell
ing, those who concoct the biggest lies receive the most
applause. Of course, the pipe must be smoked on these
occasions, but as their own tobacco has become too mild
for them, recourse is had to the vilest description of
American leaf. When this is wanting, the smoke-dried
leaves of the trumpet and papah tree are used by men as
well as women. The favorite drink is mishla, prepared
chiefly from cassava- roots ; but others from bananas, pine
apples, and other fruits are also used. A number of
young women provided with good teeth, untiring jaws,
and a large supply of saliva, are employed to chew
about half of the boiled and peeled roots requisite to make
a canoeful of liquor, the remainder being crushed in a
mortar. This delectable compound is stirred with cold
water, and allowed to ferment for a day or two, when it
assumes a creamy appearance, and tastes very strong and
sour. Plantains are kneaded in warm water, and then
allowed to stand for a few days till the mixture ferments,
or the fruit is left in the water in small pieces, and the
kneading performed in the cup previous to drinking. A
fermented drink from powdered cacao and indigenous
sugar-cane juice is called ulung, and pesso is the name
given to another made from crushed lime-rinds, maize
and honey ; in early times mead wras a favorite drink in
Honduras. The cocoa-nut palm yields monthly a large
quantity of liquor known as caraca. The tip of the
undeveloped shoots are cut off, and the branch bent down
so as to allow the fluid to drip into a calabash placed
beneath. Its seeds, when crushed and steeped in hot
water give the acchioc.40
Sard's Waikna, pp. 205-9, 226-9, 232-3, 299; Mosquitoland, Beric.ht, pp. 108,
141-2, 146-7, 196, 201-2, 267; Crowe's Cent. Amer., p. 247; Pirn and See-
mann's Pollings, pp. 306, 405; Young's Narrative, pp. 30-3, 72, 77-8, 125, 132-
740 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
No name for a supreme good spirit is found in the
vocabulary of the Mosquitos; all their appeals are ad
dressed to Wulasha, the devil, the cause of all misfor
tunes and contrarieties that happen. The intercessors
with this dread being are the suJcias, or sorceresses, gen
erally "dirty, malicious old hags, who are approached with
gifts by the trembling applicant, and besought to use
their power to avert impending evils. They are sup
posed to be in partnership with their devil, for whom
they always exact the half of the fee before entering
upon any exorcising or divination. These witches exer
cise a greater power over the people than the chief — a
power which is sustained by the exhibition of certain
tricks, such as allowing poisonous snakes to bite them,
and handling fire, which they have learned from pre
decessors during their long preparation for the office,
passed amidst exposure and fasts in the solitude of the
wilderness. The people of Honduras had also evil sor
cerers who possessed the power of transforming men into
wild beasts, and were much feared and hated accord
ingly; but their priests or hermits who live in com
munion with materialized gods, in small, elevated huts,
apart from the villages, enjoyed the respect of all, and
their advice was applied for on every matter of import
ance. None but the principal men could approach them
without the necessary offering of maize and fowl, and
they humbly knelt before them to receive their oracular
answer. Preparatory to important undertakings, dogs,
cocks, and even men were sacrificed to obtain the favor
of their idols, and blood was drawn from tongue, ears,
and other members of the body. They thought it like
wise necessary to their welfare to have naguas, or guar
dian spirits, whose life became so bound up with their
own that the death of one involved that of the other.
The manner of obtaining this guardian was to proceed
to some secluded spot and offer up a sacrifice: with the
5; Esquemelin, Zee-Eoovers, pp. 150-1. The natives of Honduras kept small
birds which ' could talk intelligibly, and whistle and sing admirably.' Cock-
burn's Journey, pp. 52-3, 46, 70-2, 88-99.
MOSQUITO CUSTOMS. 741
beast or bird which thereupon appeared, in dream or in
reality, a compact for life was made, by drawing blood
from various parts of the body. Caribs and Woolwas
assemble at certain periods every year, to propitiate con
trolling spirits with ceremonies transmitted from their
forefathers. A variety of ghosts, as Lewire, the spirit
of the water, are supposed to play their pranks at night,
and it is difficult to induce anyone to leave the hut
after dark, unless in company. The belief in dreams
is so firmly rooted that their very course of life is in
fluenced by it. Every dream has a direct or indirect
meaning ; thus, a broken calabash betokens loss of wife ;
a broken dish, the death of a mother. Among other
superstitions, it was believed that the lighting of an owl
upon the house-top would be followed by the death of
an inmate ; when thunder roared, cotton-seed was burned ;
broken egg-shells and deer-bones were carefully pre
served lest the chickens or the deer should die or disap
pear. Aware of the peculiar influence of the moon on
man and matter, they are careful not to sleep in its
glare, nor to fish when it is up, and mahogany-cutters
abstain from felling trees at certain periods for fear the
wood may spoil. They are wonderfully good path
finders, and will pass through the densest forest without
guiding marks; as swimmers they are not to be sur
passed. Their mode of greeting a friend is very effu
sive, according to Dampier. One will throw himself at
the feet of another, who helps him up, embraces him,
and falls down in his turn to be assisted up and com
forted with a pressure. Cockburn says that the Hon
duras people bend one knee to the ground and clap their
hands in token of farewell.41
Their licentious life, and fruit and fish diet, with lim
ited use of salt, have left their constitution very suscep-
41 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iv-vi.; Cockbum's Journey,
pp. 36, 45-6; Dampier' s Voyages, vol. i., pp. 8-9, 86; Mosquitoland, Bericht,
pp. 142-3; Martin's Brit. Col., vol. ii., p. 413; Bard's Waikna, pp. 228-32,
239-43, 256-8, 273-4. Sivers was thought possessed of the devil, and care
fully shunned, because he imitated the crowing of a cock. Sivers, Mttelameri*
ka, p. 178.
742 WILD TKIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA.
tible to epidemics as well as other diseases. The most
common disorders are affections of the bowels, such as
dysentery and diarrhoea, but chills, rheumatism, con
sumption, and measles are not unfrequent. Children
suffer much from worms, and their abdomen is some
times enormously swollen. A very painful, though
not dangerous eye-disease termed unkrihikun is preva
lent; and the burrowing of the tick in the skin causes
wounds and inflammation if the fly be not speedily re
moved ; the chegoe, or sand-flea, attacks the feet in the
same manner. But small-pox and leprosy are the great
est scourges of this country, the former having here as
elsewhere in America committed enormous ravages
among the population. Leprosy — that living death
reflecting the sins of former generations, so capricious
in the selection of its victims, taking the parent, yet
leaving the child intact, or seizing upon the offspring
without touching its mother — may certainly be less de
structive, but it is nevertheless fearful in its effect; half
of the natives of the Mosquito country being more or
less marked by it, either in the shape of white or livid
spots, or red, white, and scabbed bulpis. All sickness
and affliction is supposed to be the work of the evil
spirit who has taken possession of the affected part ; su-
kias must, therefore, be called in to use their incanta
tions and herbs against the enemy. The witch appears
with her face painted in hideous devices, and begins
operations by placing some herbs beneath the pillow of
the patient, blowing smoke over him, rubbing the
body with the hands, and muttering strange words. If
this is not effective, a decoction is made from the herbs,
to be used as a drink or fomentation, and the patient is
fenced in with painted sticks, with strict orders to let
no one approach ; the witch herself bringing the food to
the patient, whistling a plaintive strain and muttering
over the invalid for some time to chase away the evil.
No pregnant woman, or person who has lately buried a
friend, must come near the house during the illness, nor
must any one pass to the windward of it; lest the sick
MOSQUITO MEDICAL TKEATMENT. 743
be deprived of breath; any presumed breach of these
injunctions leaving a safe loophole for the sorceress, in
case her remedies fail. During epidemics, the sukias
consult together and note their dreams, to ascertain the
nature and disposition of the spirit. After muttering
incantations all night, and invoking all sorts of terrible
monsters, they plant small painted sticks, mounted by
grotesque figures, to the windward of the village, and
announce the expulsion of the evil. Should the scourge
continue, it is supposed that the spirits are obstinate, and
the people remove to other parts, burning the village.
The instructions of the sukia are always scrupulously
followed, and the credulous native may be seen lying on
the beach for days, exposed to all weathers, smeared
with blood and waiting for restoration from ills. Scari
fications are much resorted to, and fever patients throw
themselves into cold water, where they remain until
dead or until the fever leaves them. In Honduras, on
the other hand, the patient is taken out of the water
after a short immersion, and rolled to and fro before a
fire, until half dead with fatigue, when he was left to
be restored by sleep; blood is let from the thighs, legs,
and shoulders ; vomiting is promoted by certain herbs ;
vermin are administered for jaundice. In sickness a
rigid diet is observed, the patient subsisting chiefly on
iguana broth. Snake-bites are cured by chewing the
guaco-root, and poulticing the wound therewith; the
Caribs apply an oil obtained from the head of the tom-
my-goff as an antidote for its bite. Herrera states
that the comfort of a sick person was but little regarded ;
bread and drink were placed near the patient's head,
and if strong enough to partake thereof, well and good,
but if not he might die; nobody took any notice of
him. after this. The Mosquitos are not entirely devoid
of affection, but their grief seems to be reserved for the
dead, not the dying.42
42 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v., dec. v., lib. i., cap. x.;
Crowe's Cent. Amer., pp. 245-7; Young's Narrative, pp. 23, 26, 28, 73, 82;
Sell, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 253, 260-1; Mosquitoland,
Bericht, pp. 132, 148-51; Bard's Waikna, pp. 243-4.
74A WILD TEIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
The corpse is wrapped in a cloth and placed in one
half of a pitpan which has been cut in two; friends
assemble for the funeral and drown their grief in mush-
la, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing
themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and
inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing
suicide. As it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to
obtain possession of the body, musicians are called in to
lull it to sleep, while preparations are made for its re
moval; all at once four naked men, who have dis
guised themselves with paint, so as not to be recognized
and punished by Wulasha, rush out from a neighboring
hut, and, seizing the rope attached to the canoe, drag
it into the woods, followed by the music and the crowd.
Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow,
arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the
departed in the land beyond ; then the other half of the
boat is placed over the body. A rude hut is constructed
over the grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food,
drink, and other articles placed there from time to time
by relatives. The water that disappears from the porous
jars is thought to have been drunk by the deceased, and
if the food is nibbled by birds it is held to be a good
sign. On returning from the grave the property of the
deceased is destroyed, the cocoa-palms being cut down,
and all who have taken part in the funeral undergo
a lustration in the river. Relatives cut off the hair, the
men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape
of the neck to the forehead ; widows, according to some
old writers, after supplying the grave with food for
a year, take up the bones, and carry them on the
back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night, for
another year, after which they are placed at the door,
or upon the house-top. On the anniversary of death,
friends of the deceased hold a feast called seelcroe, at
which large quantities of liquor are drained to his
memory. Squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an
occasion of this kind, says that males and females were
dressed in ule cloaks fantastically painted black and
CHAEACTEB OF THE MOSQUITOS. 745
white, while their faces were correspondingly streaked
with red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk-
around, the immediate relatives prostrating themselves
at intervals, calling loudly upon the dead, and tearing
the ground with their hands. At no other time is the
departed referred to, the very mention of his name being
superstitiously avoided. Some tribes extend a thread
from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in a
straight line over every obstacle. Froebel states that
among the Woolwas all property of the deceased is
buried with him, and that both husband and wife cut
the hair and burn the hut on the death of either, plac
ing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.43
Hospitality, a gentle and obliging disposition, faith
fulness in the fulfilling of engagements, honesty and
docility, balanced by an inapt-ness to make any avail of
natural benefits, and a supineness in matters of veracity
and judgment, by reason of which they fall into many
excesses, especially in drink, characterize both Mosquitos
and Caribs. The apathy and slowness of the unadul
terated aboriginal are, however, in striking contrast to the
vivacious and impressible nature of the Caribs, whose ver
satility evidences a rather higher intelligence, which is
again overshadowed by an inordinate vanity, based chiefly
upon their greater strength and stature. Both possess a
certain industry, the one being more plodding, the other
more energetic though less patient; this trait is also
noticeable in their pastimes, where the native is far less
exuberant and noisy than his darker neighbor. With
regard to the effect of negro admixture on character,
comparisons may be made among the Caribs themselves,
when it will be found that the black race is much more
43 The dead ' are sewed up in a mat, and not laid in their grave length
ways, but upright on their feet, with their faces directly to the east.' Amer.,
Span. ScttL, p. 46. 'Em anderer Eeligionsgebrauch der alten Mosquiten
war, dass sie bey dem Tode ernes Hausvaters alle seine Bedieuten mit ihm
begruben.' Delaporte, Beisen, torn, x., p. 408. Bard's Waikna, pp. 68-73,
245-6; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 136,143-4; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, pp.
307-8; Sell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 255; Frobel, Aus Ame-
rika, torn, i., p. 407; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v-vi.;
Esquemelin, Zee-Hoovers, pp. 152-3.
746 WILD TRIBES OF CENTEAL AMERICA.
mercurial and vehement than the purer type, and pos
sesses greater volubility. The severe discipline kept up,
and the disposition, among the women at least, to pro
vide for the morrow, augurs well for their future. The
bravery and love of freedom which so long kept the
Spanish invaders at bay both on the western and north
ern borders and on the coast was subsequently subdued,
instance the mild disposition of the independent Xi-
caques, Poyas, and Secos, who are now inclined rather
to peaceful diplomacy than to warlike demonstrations ;
yet the Caribs manifested considerable spirit during a
late conflict with the Honduras government, and proved
themselves efficient soldiers. The character given to the
nations of this subdivision by ancient waiters, contains
many unenviable qualities, for not only are they de
scribed as lazy, vicious, lying, inconstant, but as cruel,
void of affection, and of less intelligence than the Mex
icans; nevertheless they are obedient, peaceable, and
quiet. The only characteristic we have concerning the
Albatuins is that they were savage, and until of late
the Ramas bore the same character. Among the in
dustrious Towkas we find that gentle melancholy
which characterizes some of the Guatemalans; while
their brothers, the Smoos, have the reputation of being
a very simple people whom the neighbors take delight
in imposing upon, yet their women are said to be more
ingenious than the Sambo women. Proceeding to the
Toonglas and Sambos, we observe a preponderance of
bad qualities, attributable, no doubt, to their intercourse
with buccaneers and traders. By most writers they are
characterized as a lazy, drunken, debauched, audacious
race, given to thieving; capricious, quarrelsome, treacher
ous and exacting among themselves, though obliging to
strangers, their only redeeming traits being hospitality,
and a certain impulsiveness which is chiefly exhibited
in grief, and indicates something good at heart. Their
want of energy, which deters them alike from household
work and the commission of great crimes, will not pre
vent them from undertaking wearisome voyages to dis-
THE ISTHMIANS. 747
pose of mere trifles; and their superstitious fears and
puerility under affliction, are entirely lost when facing
the raging surf or hungry shark. Other writers take ad
vantage of this trait to show that they are high-spirited
enough to carry anything through when once aroused,
and add that they have proved themselves faithful to
their masters, are docile and intelligent, abhorring to
appear mean and cowardly.44
The ISTHMIANS, by which name I designate all the
nations occupying the territory lying between the San
Juan River and the southern shore of Lake Nicaragua
on the north, and the gulf of Uraba, or Darien, and the
River Atrato on the south, present several peculiarities
when compared with the other nations of Central Amer
ica. The inhabitants of these regions are a hardy and
active race, jealous of their independence and ever hos
tile to those who attempt to penetrate their country.
Their resoluteness in excluding all foreigners is mate
rially strengthened by the rugged and malarious nature
of the country, by its deep ravines, its miasmatic swamps,
its abrupt heights, its rapid streams, its tangled under
growth, and densely wooded districts. The air of the
table-lands and valleys is hot and moist, the soil exceed
ingly fertile, but the interior and mountainous locali
ties have a milder and more temperate climate with but
little variation except that of the dry and wet seasons.
In the lowlands of Panama, the swampy nature of the
surface, with the great humidity of the atmosphere, pro
duces a luxuriant vegetation, and the consequent quan
tity of decomposed vegetable matter under the influence
of a vertical sun, engenders a miasma deadly to the un-
acclimated. The rich and marshy nature of the soil,
44 Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. viii., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi.,
lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; Young's Narrative, pp. 78-82, 85, 87, 122, 133; Bell,
in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 250-2, 257-8; Sard's Waikna,
pp. 245, 317, 324; Mosquitoland, Bericht, pp. 135, 139-40, 144-5, 236; Strange-
ways' Mosquito Shore, p. 329; Puydt, Rapport, in Amerique Centrale, p. 71; Pirn
and Seemann's Dottings, pp. 248-9, 279, 308-9; Boyle's Eide, vol. i., pref.,
pp. 13, 18; Morelet, Foyage, torn, ii., pp. 240, 289, 302; Crowe's Cent. Amer.,
pp. 49, 243.
748 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
however, sends forth immense palm-trees, in the branches
of which the natives build their houses, thus obtaining
a purer air and greater safety from the numerous wild
animals and dangerous reptiles that infest that region.
A great portion of the territory is rich in minerals which
were once produced by the natives in great quantities,
but which, unfortunately, were the loadstone that drew
upon them the ruthless Spanish plunderers.
In the northern part of Costa Rica along the head
waters of the Rio Frio the Guatusos, or Pranzas, are lo
cated. Mr Squier is inclined to think they are of the
same stock as the Nahuas. Some striking physical
peculiarities observed among them have given rise to
various surmises and startling conclusions regarding
their origin. Dwelling in the western part of the state
are the Terrabas and the Changuenes, fierce and bar
barous nations, at constant enmity with their neigh
bors. In the south-east and extending to the borders
of Chiriqui dwell the Talamancas composed of a number
of different tribes and declared by some to be allied in
race with the Guatusos. Besides these are the Buricas,
Torresques, Toxas, and others.45 In the mountains of
Chiriqui are the Valientes, so called by the Spaniards from
their heroic resistance to the invaders. Many of the
warlike nations who occupied the country at the time of
the discovery derived their names from the caciques
that governed them. The people who dwell along the
shore of the Carribean Sea, between Porto Belo and
Uraba, and occupy the Limones, Sasardi, and Pinos
islands are supposed to be a branch of the once powerful
45 The Guatusos ' are said to be of very fair complexion, a statement
which has caused the appellation of Indios blancos, or Guatusos — the latter
name being that of an animal of reddish-brown colour, and intended to desig
nate the colour of their hair.' Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 24; Id., Aus Amer.,
torn, i., p. 244. Speaking of Sir Francis Drake's mutineers and their escape
from Esparsa northward, he says : ' It is believed by many in Costa Rica
that the" white Indians of the Rio Frio, called Pranzos, or Guatusos .... are
the descendants of these Englishmen.' .Boyle's Ride, vol. ii., pp. 210, 27, and
vol. i., pref., pp. xx-xxii. 'Talamanca contains 26 different tribes of In
dians; besides which there are several neighbouring nations, as the Chan-
guenes, divided into thirteen tribes; the Terrabas. the Torresques, Urinamas,
and Cavecaras.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 373; tiquier's Cent. Amer., p. 413;
Ilassel, Mex. Guat., p. 407; Torquemada, Monarq. Ind., torn, i., pp. 331-3.
ISTHMIAN NATIONS. 749
Darien nations who to the present day remain uncon-
quered. Their province is situated on the western shore
of the gulf of Uraba, and their town was originally near
the mouth of the River Atrato. The town and the river
as wel^as the province were called by the natives Da
rien. This town was conquered in 1510 by a little band
of shipwrecked Spaniards under the Bachiller Enciso.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Francisco Pizarro, and men of
like metal were there, and this was the first successful
conquest and settlement on Tierra Firme. Whence, as
the conquests of the Spaniards widened, the name Darien
was at length applied to the greater part of the Isthmus.
Still further westward were the once powerful province
of Cueva, and the site of the ancient city of Panama, dis
covered in 1515 by Tello de Guzman. This was a
famous fishing-station, the word Panama signifying in
the native tongue a place where many fish are taken.
Along the western shore of the bay of Panama dwelt
several independent and warlike nations, those of Cutara,
Paris, Uscoria, besides many others who waged con
tinual war against each other with the object of in
creasing their territories and adding lustre to their
names.46
Slight differences only are observable in the Isthmian
physique. The people are generally well-built, muscular,
and of average height, although old authorities, such as
Herrera, Andagoya, and Gomara, describe a tribe, whom
46 ' The indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered over
Bocas del Tore, the northern portions of Veraguas, the north-eastern shores
of Panama and almost the whole of Darien, and consist principally of four
tribes, the Savanerics, the San Bias Indians, the Bayanos, and the Cholos.'
Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 317. ' At the time of the conquest of Darieu,
the country was covered with numerous and well-peopled villages. The in
habitants belonged to the Carribbee race, divided into tribes, the principal
being the Mandinghese, Chucunaquese, Dariens, Cunas, Anachacunas, &c.
On the eastern shore of the Gulf of Uraba dwelt the immense but now nearly
exterminated tribe of the Caimans, — only a few remnants of the persecutions
of the Spaniards, having taken refuge in the Choco Mountains, where they
are still found ...The Dariens, as well as the Anachacunas, have either
totally disappeared or been absorbed in other tribes.' Puydt, in Lond. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 91-2; Fitz-Eoy, in Id., vol. xx., pp. 163-4; Ro-
qu2tte,in. Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1855, torn, cxlvii., p. 30; Bateman, in N.
Y. Century, 6th Decem., 1860; Andayoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn,
iii., p. 406; Macgregor's Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 823; Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., p. ccii. See Tribal Boundaries.
750 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
they locate near E scoria and Quarecas, as being very
tall — veritable giants. Women, as a rule, are small and
of delicate proportions, but after attaining a certain age,
incline to obesity. The mountain tribes are generally
shorter in stature, with more pleasing features than the
coast-dwellers. A notable difference between the Isth
mians and the other aborigines of the Pacific States, is
the short, rather flat nose, in contradistinction to the
almost universal aquiline cast. In color they are of a
medium bronze tint, varying according to localities, the
mountain tribes being the darker. Black, straight, and
very abundant coarse hair, black or dark eyes, and
excellent teeth predominate.47 In Costa Rica, on the
Rio Frio, is the frequently spoken of but never accurately
described nation — the Guatusos — whom somewhat myth
ical accounts describe as of fair complexions, with light
hair and blue eyes. Likewise Albinos are spoken of by
Wafer, who relates having seen people "milk white,
lighter than the colour of any Europeans, and much
like that of a white horse." Furthermore, it is said
that their bodies were covered with a milk-white down,
which added to the whiteness of their skin; hair and
eyebrows white, and eyes oblong, with the corners point
ing downwards. During daylight they were weak-
sighted, restive, and lacking energy, but after sundown,
their cheerfulness, activity, and eyesight returned — the
latter being apparently as good as that of other people.48
47 Savanerics, 'a fine athletic race.' Seemami's Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 318.
'Tienen los caseos de la cabe^a gruessos.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p.
138. ' The Chocos are not tall noi- remarkable in appearance, but always
look well conditioned.' Michler's Darien, p. 65. ' Son apersonados.' Ddvila,
Teatro Ecles., torn, ii., fol. 56; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 77, 87; Keif ridge's Darien
Surveys, pp. 10, 36; Colon, Hist. Alntirante, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i.,
p. 107; Puydt, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 95-7; Peter J\far-
tyr, dec. viii., lib. vi; Gisbo'rne's Darien, p. 155; Cockburn's Journey, p. 235;
D Avity, L'Ame'rique, torn, ii., p. 98; Winthrop's Canoe and Saddle, p. 365;
Afacgregor's Progress of Amer., vol. i., p. 823; Fransham's World in Miniature,
p. 25. ' Afirmana Pasqualde Andagoya, auer visto algunos tan grandes, que
los otros hombres eran enanos con ellos, y que tenian buenas caras, y cuer-
pos.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi.; Andagoya, in Navarrete,
Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 41'2; Gage's New Survey, p. 174; Darien, Defence
of the Scots' Settlement, pp. 69-70; Cullen's Darien, pp. 65, 67.
48 Golfo Dulce. ' Modicae sunt staturoe, bene compositis membris, mori-
bus blandis et non invenustis.' Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 329. ' It is a uni
versal belief along the Atlantic coast, from Belize to Aspinwall, that the Frio
DKESS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 751
Cotton textures and the bark of a certain tree, beaten
in a wet state until soft and pliant, were the materials
used by the Isthmians to cover their nakedness, if, in
deed, they covered it at all. Where cotton was used, as
in parts of Costa Rica, the costume was simply a small
strip of cloth which both men and women wound round
the loins or, as on the islands in the gulf of Nicoya, the
women passed it between the legs, and fastened it to a
string round the waist. These latter ornamented their
scanty raiment prettily with various designs painted in
colors, and also with seeds and shells. Near the bay of
Herradura the men wore a kind of mantle covering the
whole front and back of the wearer, made of the above-
mentioned bark, in the centre of which was a hole
through which the head passed. The women of this
locality only wrap themselves in a piece of bark, with
out taking the trouble to fashion a mantle of it. Yet
more simple was the dress of the men near Cartago ; a
few cotton strings wound round the foreskin of their
virile member, sufficed them.19 Near Panama and Da-
rien, the caciques only wore long cotton mantles thrown
over the shoulder and reaching nearly to the*feet, the
common people going naked, only encasing their privy
parts in a kind of funnel made of gold, silver, shell, or
bamboo, according to the wealth of the wearer, and
which was held in place by a string fastened to two
tribe have white complexions, fair hair, and grey eyes.' Boyle's Ride, vol. i.,
pp. 20, 236, and pret'., pp. xxi-xxii.; Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy.,
1856, torn, cli., pp. 6, 12; Id., in Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 62; Wafer's New
Voy., pp. 131-7.
49 ' El mieinbro generative traen atado por el capullo, ha^iendole entrar
tanto adentro, que a algunos no se les pares^e de tal arnia sino la atadura,
?ue es unos hilos de algodon alii revueltos.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., toin.iii., pp.
09-11, 179. See also: Cockburn's Journey, pp. 181-3, 188; Wagner and
Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 557-9; Boyle's Ride, vol. i., p. 251. Referring'to Vasco
Nunez de Balboa, ' La gente que hallo andaua en cueros, sino eran senores,
cortesanos, y mugeres.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 82, 66, 87. Uraba;'Ex
(Balboa}, p. 9; Wafer's New Voy., pp. 37, 87, 102, plate, 132-4, 138-48, plate;
Wallace, in Miscellanea Curiosa, vol. iii., p. 418; Warburton's Darien, p. 322;
Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 26; Andagoya, in Id., pp. 307-8, 407,
412; Ilerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.. vi.. and dec. iv., lib. i., cap.
x.; Michkr's Darien, pp. 43, 65-6, 86.
752 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
holes in the sides which was passed round the waist.
Women in the same localities wore cotton petticoats
reaching to the knees, or, if ladies of quality, to the
ankles. Near the gulf of Nicoya, women wore the long
hair parted in the middle from the front to the back of
the head, and plaited into two braids which hung down
on either side over the ears. The men tied the hair up
in a stiff queue with a cotton band, which was at times
arranged so as to rise straight over the crown of the
head. Necklaces of colored beads or of tiger's teeth
were worn as ornaments. Like many nations of the
Hyperborean group, the Chorotegans of Nicoya pierced
the lower lip and inserted a round piece of bone. Their
arms they painted with a mixture of their own blood
and charcoal. In portions of Yeragua and Behetrias
even the funnel or cotton strings were omitted, and the
Gugures, Mandingos, and many others on the Pacific
seaboard, like the people of Yeragua, went entirely na
ked, the chiefs only wearing long mantles. All of the
Isthmians were fond of ornaments; among those which
deserve special notice is the nose-pendant. This was a
crescent- shaped piece of gold or silver, of various sizes
for different occasions, those used on holidays hanging
down so as to cover the mouth, while those for ordinary
use only reached the upper lip. Besides the nose-pend
ant were ear-rings and a number of heavy necklaces of
gold, silver, tiger's teeth, colored seeds, shells, and coral,
according to the wealth of the wearer. Under their
breasts the richer women also wore gold bars as a sup
port, which were held up by strings passed over the
shoulders. Guanines, or figures of animals made of gold,
were worn around the neck by the men on the coast of
Yeragua, Chiriqui, and Uraba; others again wore on
their heads fillets or crowns of gold or of the claws of
wild beasts, or of feathers. Thus did these naked sav
ages decorate themselves, often to the extent of several
pounds weight. Women considered it a mark of beauty
to have thick legs, and to that end wore bandages
round them. Another Hyperborean custom is here
ISTHMIAN BODY-PAINTING. 753
met with — the anointing of the body with oil — which
in these tropics is extracted from the bixa or seed of the
arnotto, and over which they sprinkled down and feath
ers. Painting the body was everywhere practiced, and
was carried to a great extent, the different colors and
figures employed each having its peculiar significance.
On going to war, paint was used more freely than at
other times, and the greater the warrior the thicker the
paint. Among the men of Cueba painting had a double
object; it served as an ornament to the person, and also
as a mark of distinction of rank. The chief, when he
inherited or attained his title, made choice of a certain
device, which became that of all his house. Freemen
were painted from the mouth downward, and on the
arms and chest, while slaves were only painted or tat
tooed from the mouth upward. All the lords, servitors,
and vassals who were freemen, were painted in exactly
the same manner. If the son of a chief adopted the
ancestral totem, he could not afterward change it on
coming into his inheritance, but if during his father's
life-time he declined to use the distinctive badge of his
house, he could, when he became chief, choose any new
device he might fancy. A son who did not adopt his
father's totem was always hateful to him during his
lifetime. The natives on the northern coast of Chiriqui
painted the body in wavy lines, from the shoulders to
the heels ; through the cartilage of the nose they stuck a
porcupine-quill, and in the chin the tooth of a wild
beast. The women had holes made in their cheeks
through which they stuck little bunches of feathers:
they also wore tiger's claws in their ears. At San Bias,
some of the men painted themselves in black streaks,
and the women in red. At Porto Belo, the king was
painted black and all his subjects red. The natives of
Escoria tattooed breast and arms; the women of Darien
across the bridge of the nose from one cheek to the
other; they also blacken their teeth. Others have
figures of birds, animals, or trees painted all over the
body, according to fancy; their favorite colors being
Vol. I. 48
754 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA.
black, red, and yellow, which are laid on with pencils
made of wood, chewed at the end till they become soft.50
All the Isthmians pull out the hair from every part of
the body except the head, and rub themselves with
herbs, which prevent its further growth. Both sexes
pride themselves on the length of the hair, and most of
them allow it to grow to its full length and hang loose
over their shoulders, but keep it cut on the forehead as
low as the eyebrows. The men of Cariai and some
parts of Chiriqui, bind it with fillets and wind it in rolls
round the head, fastening it with a comb made of the
heart of the palm-tree ; others wear round their head a
band made of bark or certain fibres of plants, and at
festivals they often wear high caps, made from the gaudy
feathers of parrots. At Tanela married women cut their
hair short. It appears that head-flattening again crops
out in these parts. Las Casas states that infants had
their heads placed between two pads, one in front and
another behind, in order to increase the length of the
head and width of the forehead.51
In Costa Rica many of the natives live in small huts
built of plaited rushes. In the year 1545, Diego Guti
errez, governor of Nueva Cartago, in Costa Rica, at-
so Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., pp. 314, 316; Porras, in Navarrete, Col.
de Viages, torn, i., p. 285; Colon, in Id., p. 298; Coc/cburn's Journey, pp.
240-1; Gage's New Survey, p. 191; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 88, 284;
and Dapper, Neue Welt, pp. 99, 319; Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol.
xxxviii., pp. 95-8; Self ridge's Darivn Surveys, p. 10; Cullen's Darien, pp. 67-
8; Esquemelin, Z^e-Roovers, p. 142; Las Casas, Hist. Apologe'tica, MS., cap.
ccxlii-ccxliv. The women of Cueba ' se ponianuna barra de oro atravessada
en los pechos, debaxo de las tetas, que se las levanta, y en ella algunos paxa-
ros e otras figuras de relieve, todo de oro fino: que por lo menos pessaba cjen-
to e (jinqiienta e ami dosqientos pessos una barreta destas .... Destos caracoles
grandes se hac,en uuas conte^icas blancas de muchas maneras, e otras colo-
r.idas, e otras negras, e otras moradas, e canuticos de lo mesmo: e ha<jen
briijaletes en que con estas quentas mezclan otras, e olivetas de oro que se
poiien en las munecas y en^itna de los tobillos e debaxo de las rodillas por
gentileqa: en especial las mugeres. . . .Traen assimesmo qar^illos de oro en las
orejas, e horadanse las nariqes hecho un agugero entre las ventanas, e cuel-
gm de alii sobre el labio alto otro <jar<jillo.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp.
126, 138.
51 Their hair ' they wear usually down to the middle of the Back, or lower,
hanging loose at its full length . . .All other Hair, except that of their Eye
brows and Eye-lids, they eradicate.' Wafer's New Voy., pp. 132-3; Gis-
borne's Darien, p. 155; Macgregor's Progress oj Amer., p. 824; D'Avity,
L'Ame'rique, torn, i., p. 98.
DWELLINGS ON THE ISTHMUS. 755
tempted to explore that territory. Arriving at the
province of Suere upon a river of that name at a point
some twelve leagues distant from the North Sea, he
came to a village, and there occupied a house belonging
to the chief of the district. The old Milanese chronicler,
Girolamo Benzoni, who accompanied the expedition,
describing the dwelling of the cacique, says it was
shaped like an egg and was forty-five paces in length
and nine in breath. The sides were of reeds and the
reof of palm-leaves all interlaced and well executed.
There were but few other houses in the village and
those of inferior character. Padre Zepeda, a Jesuit, who
in 1750 lived among the Guatusos for several months,
speaking of their towns and gardens, says that when
the rains commence, they construct small huts in the
trees, where they live safe from the danger of floods.52
Unlike most other nations, the Isthmians do not build
their villages in squares, but generally form long streets,
keeping the houses well apart from each other, probably
as a precaution against conflagrations. On many parts of
the coast of Darien and on the gulf of Uraba, the villages
are built in the water. Others are on the banks of rivers,
and many of them are spacious and constructed with
great skill and attention to details. The supporting
posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm-trees. Three
or four of these are driven into the ground at equal dis
tances, proportioned according to the intended length of
the house, and across the top is laid the ridge-pole; on
each side a number of shorter posts are sunk, from
which long rafters are laid to the ridge-pole ; the whole
is then covered with palm-leaves, both roof and sides.
Other houses are plastered inside and outside with mud,
and these have a flooring of open bamboo work, raised
six or eight feet from the ground. The dwellings are
divided into two or more rooms, having no doors to the
entrances, which are reached by ladders. Sometimes the
52 Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, f ol . 86 ; Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des
Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 9; Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 246; Id., Cent.
Amer., p. 26; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 253.
756 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
house is built without walls, in which case the roof
descends to below the level of the floor, and the struc
ture is left open at both ends, having the appearance of
an elevated platform. The Savanerics and some others
on the coast of Yeragua build circular or pyramidal
dwellings, by driving strong posts into the ground
sloping toward each other, so as to unite in a point
where they are strongly bound with withes or vines,
across which are tied small sticks, some peeled, others
with the bark on, or blackened, thereby producing a
pleasing effect. The walls inside are lined with reeds
beautifully interwoven. The upper portion of the struc
ture is thatched on the outside with straw and on the
apex is placed an ornament of baked clay. In the centre
of the dwelling is a spacious apartment, and round the
walls are small rooms in which different families reside.53
Each village has a public, town, or council house, or
fort, one hundred or more feet in length, constructed in
the same manner as the dwellings, but with no interior
partitions; in the walls are loop-holes for the discharge
of arrows. There is an entrance at each end, and thick
doors, made of split palm-tree and bamboo strongly
bound together with withes, are kept in readiness to shut
out the enemy. The doors are kept in position by strong
posts set in the ground behind them. In the province
of Veragua they build strong wooden fences or palisades
round some of the villages, to protect them from attacks
of enemies and wild beasts. During the expedition of
Gaspar de Espinosain 1517, Diego de Albitez, who in
vaded the province of a cacique named Tabraba, some
distance south-west from Panama, found the inhabitants
53 Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 95; Seemann's Voy.
Herald, vol. i., pp. 319, 321-2; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, p. 151; Michler's
Darien, p. 84; Wafer's Neic Voy., pp. 149-52; Cockburn's Journey, pp. 234-
5. On the banks of the Rio Grande, the Spaniards under Johan de Tavira
found ' muchas poblaqiones en barbacoas 6 casas muy altas, fechas e arma
das sobre postes de palmas negras fortfssimas e quassi inexpugnables'. . . .
* Hay otra manera de buhfos 6 casas en Nata redondos, como unos chapiteles
nmy altos.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 50, 131, 8, 46. ' En otras muchas
partes hacian sns casas de madera y de paja de la forma de una campana.
Estas ernn muy altas y muy capaces que moraban en cada una de ellas diez y
mas vecinos.' Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, ATS,, cap. 43.
ISTHMIAN EDIFICES. 757
protected by strong fortifications. Their forts are built
with much skill. The ground is first enclosed by a deep
trench, upon the inner bank of which trees are planted,
and the interstices filled up with logs and rocks. In
many parts of the country the inhabitants were found
living in the tops of trees like birds, laying sticks across
from one branch to another, and building their houses
upon them. In 1512, Yasco Nunez de Balboa surveyed
several channels at the mouth of the River Atrato in
quest of gold and plunder. The surrounding country
was low and marshy, but the soil sent forth immense
palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives built
their houses. Yasco Nunez, entering an affluent of the
Rio Negro, discovered a large tree-top village, the name
of whose ruler was Abieiba. The houses were divided
into several apartments, each of a size sufficient to accom
modate several families. They were built of wood and
willows, and were so pliable and yet so strong, that the
swaying to and fro of the branches, to which the elastic
tenement yielded, did not in the least interfere with the
safety of the occupants. Ladders, made of a single
large bamboo split in two, were used in making the
ascent and descent. These were drawn up at night, or
in case of the invasion of an enemy. On the coast of
Yeragua Columbus discovered similar dwellings, and he
says that he could not account for the custom, unless it
was through fear of griffins which abound in that coun
try, or of enemies, each tribe being at war with every
other tribe along the coast. The true cause, however,
of their taking to trees for places of residence, is to
place themselves beyond the reach of sudden and vio
lent floods, which are caused by the swelling of streams
after storms in the mountains, and also in order to be
out of the reach of reptiles and wild beasts in which
that country abounds.54 Some of the Isthmians built
54<H:illaron muchos pueblos cercados, con palenques de madera.' Her-
rera, H'tst. Gm., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. ix., dec. i., lib. ix., cap. ii.. vi. ' Ten-
gano le lor case in cima de gli alberi.' Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol.
160. See also: Ir vine's Columbus, vol. iii., p. 176; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol.
75; Colon, Hist. Almimnte, in Barcia, Historiadores, torn, i., p. 108.
758 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
large enclosures for the chiefs, which early contempo
rary writers call the king's palace. Yasco Nunez de
Balboa, on his march through the province of Comagre,
situated on the northern coast of Darien about thirty
leagues from the gulf of Uraba, relates that he visited
the dwelling or palace of the cacique Comagre, which
he describes as follows: It was one hundred and fifty
by eighty paces in dimension, constructed upon heavy
posts, which stood within a stone wall. The upper
part of the building was beautifully finished with tim
bers, interlaced in such a manner as to strike the be
holder with amazement. The building contained various
apartments — chambers, pantry, and wine-cellar. In one
very large apartment were sacredly kept the remains of
the king's ancestors arranged round the walls.55
The Costa Ricans live chiefly by hunting and fishing,
and many of them cultivate maize, beans, and bananas;
the Talamancas, especially, are agriculturists. Accord
ing to Father Zepeda, and others who penetrated some
distance into the country of the Gruatusos, they had
large fields under cultivation. Salt is seldom used by
any of these tribes, and none of them ever eat dogs, as
they keep them for hunting purposes. Their chief game
is wild hogs and deer, but they are not very particular
as to their animal diet, for they eat whatever they can
catch, including reptiles. Their mode of cooking fish
renders them exceedingly palatable, which is by roast
ing them wrapped in plantain-leaves. Bananas are
usually pulled when green, and buried in sand to ripen.56
Many of the other Isthmians are agriculturists, and
55 Of Coraagre's palace it is said, ' Longitudinem dimensi passuum cen
tum quinquaginta, latitudinem uero pedum octoginta, in uacuo dinumera-
runt: laquearibus et pauiruentis arte eximia laboratis.' Peter Martyr, dec.
ii., lib. iii. Compare further: Montanus, Nicuwe Weereld, pp. 64-5, 87; Dap
per, Neue Welt, pp. 71-2, 98; Darien, Defence of the Scots' Settlement, p._Sl.
56 Squier, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p,
Ride, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xxiii.; Ifassd, Mex. Guat., p. 407; Cockburn's
Journey, pp. 2J4, 224-5; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 558-9. On the
Chara Islands, ' comen los indios en estas islas muchos venados e puercos,
que los hay en grand 'ssima cantidad, e mahiz, e fesoles muchos e de diver-
sas maneras, e muchos e buenos pescados, e tambien sapo . . . . e ninguna
cosa viva dexan de comer por sueia que sea.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen.t torn, iii.,
p. 110.
FOOD OF THE ISTHMIANS. 759
grow considerable quantities of maize, plantains, cacao,
pimiento, and cocoa-nuts ; their means of subsistence are
further largely supplemented by game and fish. A
staple article of food among the coast tribes is turtle, of
which they capture large numbers. Monkeys afford
them a favorite meal, and they are especially fond of
iguanas, young alligators, and their eggs. From the
yucca as well as corn they make a good quality of bread.
The Doraches and Guaimies of Veragua subsist mainly
on wild roots and a fruit called pixbaex, somewhat resem
bling dates, which toasted, makes an agreeable and
wholesome food. Most of their dishes are highly sea
soned with pimiento, a kind of pepper produced by a
small shrub which is very abundant on Tierra Firme.
The toocan bird lives chiefly on the berry, which it dis
charges from the stomach almost immediately after swal
lowing it; the natives prefer it thus, as its bitterness is
partly absorbed by the bird. It is said that the Ca-
ribs ate human flesh whenever they had an opportunity.
Herrera says that some of the Isthmians purchased
slaves, whom they sold to the Caribs for food, and the
inhabitants of Paria supplied boys to the natives of Tu-
braba for the same purpose. They cooked the flesh of
their enemies, and ate it seasoned with salt and aji
(chile).57 When a piece of ground is to be planted, a
number of the villagers collect and cut down the brush
wood on a selected spot ; the seed is then scattered among
the wood as it lies. In due time the grain, which is
well sheltered from the sun by the branches, springs up
and overtops them, and when fit for harvesting the ears
are gathered. After this, the underwood and corn
stalks are set on fire, and the ground continues to be
57 ' Hanno la maggior parte di questa costiera per costume di mangiar
came kurnana e quando maugiauano de gli Spagiiuoli, v'erano di coloro
che ricusauano di cibarsene, temendo ancora che nel lor corpo, non gli
facessero quelle carni quaiche danno.' Benzoni, Hist. Hondo Nuovo, fol.
49. On the coast ' they live principally upon fish, plantains, and bananas,
with Indian corn arid a kind of cassava.' Se> 'fridge's Darien Surveys, pp. 10,
20. Compare Colon, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, i., p. 308; Ualboa,
in /(/., torn, iii., pp. 364-5; Alcedo, Dice., torn, v., p. 293; Cullen's Darien,
pp. 65, 68-9; Colombo, Hist. Ammiraylio, p. 412; Meyer, Nach dem Sacra
mento, pp. 20-2.
760 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
used for agricultural purposes. In hunting deer and
wild swine, dogs are used to drive them out of the dense
forest; at other times they set fire to a part of the woods,
and as the animals try to escape, they kill them with
spears and arrows. Birds are killed with a blow-pipe.
When fishing they use nets made of mahoe-bark or silk-
grass, and in places where rocks prevent their using a
net, they catch them with their hands or shoot them
with arrows. Fishing by torchlight with spears is fre
quently practiced. The Savanerics poison pools with
pounded leaves of the barbasco, and thus obtain fish
without much labor. For duck-hunting they also em
ploy the often-described trick of placing a calabash on
the head, and in this manner approach the game. The
men of Cueba are celebrated for making pure white salt
from sea water — an article much used in this locality.
In the same province a kind of communism obtained ; all
provisions were delivered to the chief, who distributed
to each his share. Part of the community were em
ployed as agriculturists, and part as hunters and fisher
men. At his meals the cacique was served by women,
some of his principal men eating with him.58
In their personal habits the Isthmians are cleanly;
they bathe generally twice a day and sometimes oftener ;
but commonly at sunrise and sunset. The interior of
their dwellings has a neat appearance, and order and
cleanliness prevail in all their domestic arrangements.59
Bows and arrows, long spears, javelins, flint-edged
clubs, and blow-pipes, are the weapons used in these
parts. The bows are beautifully made, those of the
58 ' Cogen dos y tres vezes al ano maiz, y por esto no lo engraneran. ' Go-
mara, Hist. Ind., fol. 82, 88. ' Seguian mucho la caqa de venados, y de
aquellos puercos con el ombligo al espinazo.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii.,
lib. Hi., cap. v., xv. For further details see Michler's Darien, pp. 65, 68, 81;
Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 403, 407; Montanus,
Nieuwe'Weereld, p. 71; and Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 79; Seemann's Voy. Herald,
vol. i., pp. 315, 319; Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. vii.; Oviedo, Hist. Gen.,
torn, iii., pp. 132-3, 136, 139; Wafer's New Voy., pp. 88, 101, 106-7, 129-
130, 152-6, 170-7.
59 Jfichler's Darien, p. 65; Cockburn's Journey, p. 236. 'Tienen por cos-
tumbre, assi los indios como las indias, de se banar tres o quatro ve(jes al
dia, por estar limpios e porque di(jen que descansan en lavarse.' Oviedo.
Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 135-6.
WEAPONS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 761
Costa Ricans being about seven feet long, of a dark-
colored, very hard wood, with the string of well-twisted
silk-grass. Arrows are of the same wood, very long, and
pointed with a porcupine-quill or fish-bone. The bows
and arrows of those farther south are much shorter, and
of black palm-wood, as are also their lances and javelins.
The arrows are pointed with flint or fish-bone, or are
hardened in the fire and barbed ; the shaft is of reed
having a piece of hard wood eight or ten inches in length
inserted in the end. The inhabitants of Coiba and some
of the tribes on the western shore of the gulf of Uraba,
do not use bows and arrows. In this respect, so far as I
have observed, they form an exception; as among the
almost innumerable tribes situated between the gulf of
Uraba and the Arctic Ocean I know of none others
where bows and arrows are not used. These people in
battle employ a long wooden sword, and wooden spears,
the ends of which are hardened in the fire and tipped
with bone; they also make use of slings and darts.
Their javelins are thrown with much force and dexterity
by means of a stick slightly grooved to hold the pro
jectile. It is called estorica and is held between the
thumb and two fingers, there being a small loop on the
side, near the centre, in which the forefinger is placed ;
the dart is cast straight from the shoulder, while the
projector is retained in the hand. I have noticed a
somewhat similar contrivance employed by the Aleutian
Islanders.60 The blow-pipe which is used with much
effect, is about six or seven feet long, and the darts shot
from it are made of Mucaw-wood, very thin with an
60 In Cueva, ' no son flecheros, e pelean con macanas e con lanc,as luengas
y con varas que arrojaii, coino dardos con estoricas (que son cierta manera
de avientos) de unos bastones bien labrados.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii.,
pp. 127, 129. ' Sunt autem ipsorum arma, non arcus, non sagittse uene-
natse, uti habere indigenas illos trans sinum orientales diximus. Cominus
hi certant ut plurimum, ensibus oblongis, quos macanas ipsi appellant,
ligneis tamen, quia ferrum non assequuntur: et prseustis sudibus aut osseis
cuspidibus, missilibus etiam ad prseluim utuntur.' Peter Martyr, dec.ii., lib.
iii., also, dec. iv., lib. x., dec. v., lib. ix. Compare further, Herrera, Hist Gen.,
dec. i., lib. ix., cap. vi., lib. x., cap. i.; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de
Viages,tom. iii., p. 403; Porras, in Id., torn, i., p. 285; Cockburn's Journey,
p. 225; D'Avity, L'Amerique, p. 98; Otis' Panama, pp. 77-8; Puydt, in Lond.
Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., pp. 95, 98.
762 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
exceedingly sharp point, notched, so that when an
object is struck it breaks off and it is almost impossible
to extract the broken point; others are poisoned so that
a slight wound causes death in a short time. One end
is wrapped with a little cotton, until it fits the tube
which is placed to the mouth and the dart blown out.
It is quite effective for a distance of one hundred yards.
Different varieties of poison have been described by
writers and travelers. Herrera speaks of one which he
says was made with certain grey roots found along the
coast, which were burnt in earthen pipkins and mixed
with a species of poisonous black ant ; to this composition
were added large spiders, some hairy caterpillars, the
wings of a bat, and the head and tail of sea-fish called
tavorino, very venomous, besides toads, the tails of snakes,
and manzanillas. All these ingredients were set over a
fire in an open field and well boiled in pots by a slave till
they were reduced to a proper consistency. The unfor
tunate slave who attends to the boiling almost invariably
dies from the fumes. Another poisonous composition is
spoken of as having been made of fourteen different in
gredients and another of twenty-four, one that kills in
three days, another in five, and another later, and when
one was employed it was stated that sometimes the
wounded lived as many days as the poison had been made.
The natives said that fire, sea water, and continency were
the antidotes against the venom, others affirmed that
the dung of the wounded person taken in pills or other
wise was a cure. Peter Martyr writes that the poison
was made by old women skilled in the art, who were
shut up for two days in a house where they boiled the
ingredients; if at the expiration of the time, the women
were found in good health instead of being half dead,
they were punished and the ointment was thrown away.
Captain Cochrane in his Journal in Colombia, says that
they obtain the poison from a small frog called the rana
de veneno. These frogs are kept in a hollow cane and
regularly fed. When required for use, they take one
and pass a pointed stick down its throat and out at one
WEAPONS, AKMOE, AND WAKS. 763
of its legs. The pain brings to the back of the toad a
white froth, which is a deadly poison and in it the darts
are rubbed; below the froth a yellow oily matter is
found which is carefully scraped off, as it is also a
powerful poison, but not so lasting as the first substance,
which will retain its deadly properties for a year while
the yellow matter looses its strength after five or six
months.61 The javelins used by the Caribs were not
made pointed but square at the end, they also have very
long pikes and heavy clubs. When Bartolome Hurtado
in 1516 visited the island of Caubaco he relates that the
cacique presented him with a golden armor valued at
one thousand castellanos. At the island of Cabo seven
leagues distant, the warriors wore a thick matted armor
of cotton impervious to arrows; they were armed with
pikes and in their march were accompanied with drums,
conchs, and fifes.62
Wars arise chiefly from the jealousies and ambition
of rival chieftains. Battles are frequent and sanguinary,
often lasting for many days, and are fought with tena-
61 'The pipe was made of two pieces of reed, each forming a half circle;
these being placed together left a small hole, just large enough for the ad
mission of the arrow. . . .The arrows are about eight inches long. , the point
very sharp, and cut like a corkscrew for an inch up ... This is rolled in the
poison . . .The arrow will fly one hundred yards, and is certain death to man
or animal wounded by it; no cure as yet having been discovered. A tiger,
when hit, runs ten or a dozen yards, staggers, becomes sick, and dies in four
or five minutes. A bird is killed as with a bullet, and the arrow and wounded
part of the flesh being cut out, the remainder is eaten without danger.'
Cochrane's Journal in Colombia, vol. ii., pp. 405-7. ' Thatpoyson killeth him
that is wounded, but not suddenly. . . Whoso is wounded, Hues a miserable
and strict life after that, for he must abstaine from many things.' Peter
Martyr, dec. viii., lib. viii. ' Some woorali (corova) and poisoned arrows
that I obtained from the Indians of the interior were procured by them,
from Choco . . their deadly effect is almost instantaneous.' Cullen's Da
rien, p. 67. ' We inquired of all the Indians, both men and boys, at Caledo
nia Bay and at San Bias for the "curari" or "urari" poison. . . they brought
us what they represented to be the bona-ftde poison . . It turned out to be
nothing but the juice of the manzanillo del play a. So, if this is their chief
poison, and is the same as the "curari," it is not so much to be dreaded.'
Selfridae's Darien Surveys, pp. 136-7. See further, Fitz-lioy, in Lond. Geog.
So'c., Jour., vol. xx., p. 164; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi.;
Michler's Darien, p. 77; Dawpier's Voyages, vol. i., p. 41.
^Acosta, N. Granada, p. 6; Gomara, Ilixt. Ind., fol. 88; Carli, Cartas,
pt i., p. 17. ' Traian susc-oseletes fechos de algodon, que les llegaban e aba-
xuban de las espaldas dellos, e les llegaban a las rodilbis e deride abaxo, e las
mangas fasta los codos, e tan gruesos como un colchou de cama, son tan
fuertes, queuua ballesta no lospasa.' Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, ii., p. 516.
764 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
cious courage. Throughout Darien it is customary to
place sentinels at night in the highest houses of the
towns, to keep watch and give warning of the approach
of an enemy. At the commencement of a campaign,
chiefs and captains experienced in war are nominated
by the head of the tribe, to lead the men in battle and
conduct the operations ; they wear certain insignia, so
as to be distinguished from the rest of the men, lofty
plumes on the head, and a quantity of golden orna
ments and jewels, besides which they are painted in a
different style. All, however, adorn themselves when
going to battle, with a profusion of necklaces, bracelets,
and golden corselets. The men are cheered on to battle
and encouraged during the fight by the blowing of large
shells and the beating of drums. In the province of
Cueba, women accompany the men, fighting by their
side and sometimes even leading the van. The action
is commenced with the slings and estoricas, but they
soon meet at close quarters, when the heavy wooden
swords and javelins are brought into use. Certain rules
and military regulations are observed whereby the brave
are rewarded, and offenders against military discipline
punished. Nobility is conferred on him who is wounded
in war, and he is further rewarded with lands, with
some distinguished woman, and with military command ;
he is deemed more illustrious than others, and the son
of such a father, following the profession of arms, may
inherit all the father's honors. He who disobeys the
orders of his chief in battle is deprived of his arms,
struck with them, and driven from the settlement. All
booty is the property of him who captured it. The
prisoner is the slave of the captor ; he is branded on the
face and one of his front teeth knocked out. The Caribs,
however, used to kill and eat .their prisoners. Wafer
mentions that upon some occasions, he who had 'killed
an enemy cut off his own hair as a distinguishing mark
of triumph, and painted himself black, continuing so
painted until the first new moon.63
63 ' Cuando iban a la guerra llevaban coronas de oro en las cabezas y unas
ISTHMIAN DISHES AND IMPLEMENTS. 765
The Isthmians sleep in hammocks, often beautifully
made, and suspended between two trees or upright posts.
Owing to the material of which they are composed they
are exceedingly cool and well adapted to the climate.
Gourds, calabashes, and cocoa-nut shells are employed
for water-bowls and drinking-cups. Their other house
hold utensils consist of earthen jars, flint knives, stone
hatchets and boxes ingeniously made of palm-leaves,
and covered with deer or other skins. Drums of differ
ent sizes, some very large, others small, are made of the
hollow trunk of a tree covered at the ends with deer's hide.
Those of the largest size are kept at the chiefs residence
or at the town-house. Hammocks are made of finely
woven cloth, or more frequently of plaited grass of
various colors and curiously ornamented. Wooden mor
tars, made from the knotty part of a tree, are used to
pound yucca, from which they make their cassava. The
metate or rubbing-stone is also in use among them.
They have nets of different kinds for both fishing and
hunting. At night, as a light for their dwellings they
use torches made from palm-wood dipped in oil and
beeswax. The lords and principal men of the provinces
of Darien and Uraba are reputed to have drunk from
golden cups of rich and beautiful workmanship. Peter
Martyr gives an account of golden trumpets and a great
number of bells found by the Spaniards in a town situ
ated on the River Dabaiba (Atrato). The bells were
used at ceremonies and festivals, giving forth a sweet
and pleasant sound ; the tongues or clappers were beau
tifully made, of fish-bones. In another part of the
country, on the gulf of Uraba, says Peter Martyr, as
rendered by the ancient translator: " They founde also a
patenas grandes en los pechos y braceletes y otras joyas en otros lugares del
cuerpo.' Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. Ixv., ccxliv. ' El herido en
la guerra es hidalgo, y goza de grandes franquezas.' Gomara, Hist, Ind., fol.
88. 'A los que pueden matar maiaii, e a los que prenden los hierran e se
sirven dellos por esclavos.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 129, 126. See
further: Quintana, Vidas Espanoles (Balboa), p. 8; Herrera, Hist. Gen.,
dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; Andacjoya, in Navarrete, Col deViages, torn, iii.,
pp. 399, 403, 412; Peter Martyr, dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. viii., lib. \iii.; Wafer's
New Voy., p. 133.
766 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEEICA.
great multitude of shetes, made of the silke or cotton of
the gossampine tree: likewise diuers kindes of vessels
and tooles made of wood, and many of earth: also many
brest plates of gold, and ouches wrought after their man
ner."
They manufacture strong cords from the bark of the
mahoe-tree, which is taken off in long strips, beaten with
sticks, cleaned, and then twisted. A finer description
of thread is made from a species of pita, of which the
leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in prepara
tion as flax, being steeped in water for several days, then
dried in the sun and afterwards beaten, producing fine
silky threads, from which their hammocks and finer
kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. From
the same plant they make excellent baskets and mat
ting; the materials are first dyed in different colors,
prettily mixed and woven together so closely as to hold
water. They are of a soft texture and exceedingly du
rable. The Dorachos are famed for the manufacture of
pottery, water-bottles, and other household utensils, ele
gantly shaped and prettily painted. Cotton cloths are
woven by women, and considering the rude and simple
implements they work with, the fineness of texture and
blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience.
The process of weaving is thus described by Wafer:
"The Women make a Roller of Wood, about three Foot
long, turning easily about between two Posts. About
this they place Strings of Cotton, of 3 or 4 yards long,
at most, but oftner less, according to the use the Cloth
is to be put to, whether for a Hammock, or to tie about
their Waists, or for Gowns, or for Blankets to cover
them in their Hammocks, as they lie in them in their
64 ' La mania de la hamaca no es hecha red, sino entera e muy gentil tela
delgada e ancha . . . Hay otras, que la manta es de paja texida e de colores e
labores.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 131, 130, 138, 142, 181. 'Muy
bneuas redes con anzuelos de hueso que hacen de concha de tortuga.' Vega,
Hist. Descub. Amer., p. 145. 'Teniaii los Reyes y Senores ricos y senalados
vasos con que bebian.' Las Casas, Hist. Apolof/etica, MS., cap. Ixv. Com
pare further: Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap.
i., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. i.; Peter Martyr, dec. ii., lib. i., dec. vii., lib. x.;
Jfichler's Darien, pp. 66, 77; Meyer, Nach dem Sacramento, pp. 21-2.
ISTHMIAN BOATS AND NAVIGATION. 767
Houses; which are all the Uses they have for Cloth:
And they never weave a piece of Cotton with a design
to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve for the partic
ular use. The Threads thus coming from the Roller are
the Warp; and for the Woof, they twist Cotton -yarn
about a small piece of J/acaw-wood, notch 'd at each end;
And taking up every other Thread of the Warp with the
Fingers of one Hand, they put the Woof through with
the other Hand, and receive it out on the other side:
and to make the Threads of the Woof lie close in the
Cloth, they strike them at every turn with a long and
thin piece of J/ocattf-wood like a Ruler, which lies across
between the Threads of the Warp for that purpose."65
The canoes and rafts of the Isthmians are admirably
adapted to the navigation of their rivers and gulfs,
and the men who manage them are skillful boatmen.
The canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the
single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark.
The largest are thirty-five feet in length by three in
breadth, and are capable of carrying many persons, besides
a considerable amount of cargo. They are so lightly
built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them
over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often car
ried on the head. They draw very little water, and are
propelled with paddles by two persons, one in the stern,
the other in the bow. When passing over rapids, palancas,
or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which answer
the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank
or overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of
water prevents the pole reaching the bottom. The rafts
are made from an exceedingly light and soft timber
similar to cork- wood. Three or four logs are bound to-
65 Laet, Novus Orbis, p. 348; Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 320; Pirn
a^d Seemann's Dotlings, p. 29; Cockburn's Journey, pp. 172-3, 243-4; Wafer's
We 10 Voy., pp. 92-4, 100-2. Referring to Chiriqui earthen relics; 'The
vessels. . . .are neatly and sometimes very gracefully formed of clay. . . .Sev
eral bear resemblance to Roman, Grecian, and Etruscan jars;. . .Dr. Merritt
mentioned that the natives of the Isthmus now make their rude earthen
utensils of a peculiar black earth, which gives them the appearance of
iron.' Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 176. In Veragua 'vide sabanas grandes de
algodon, labradas de muy sotiles labores; otras pintadas muy sutilmente a
colores con pinceles.' Colon, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, i., p. 308.
768 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
gether with ropes and across them are laid smaller tim
bers of the same wood, fastened down with hard wooden
pegs that are easily driven through. The rafts are chiefly
employed for fishing or crossing large rivers. Canoes
are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing pur
poses:60
The native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell,
ivory-nuts, cacao, caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts,
dried venison, lard, and deer-skins ; these are offered in
considerable quantities to foreigners, and in exchange
they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets
and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. The
value of the pearls was lessened on account of their
practice of throwing oysters into the fire in order to
open them, which partially destroyed their lustre. The
natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and
salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products.
At Pueblo Nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article
of trade. The native traders are very shrewd, and as
a rule practice fair dealing. On his march through the
country, Yasco Nunez de Balboa found the people in
possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls.
Everywhere along his route he received presents of gold ;
indeed, in some places he found this metal in greater
abundance than food.67
The streams of this region are subject to frequent
swellings, caused by heavy rains. After the subsiding
C6 ' En estas islas de Chara e Pocosi no tienen canoas, sino balsas' .... In
the Province of Cueba ' tienen canoas pequenas, tambien las usan grandes
. . . .hay canoa quo lleva dinqtienta 6 sessenta hombres e mas.' Ovicdo, Hist.
Gen., torn, iii., pp. 110, 159. See also: Michler's Darien, pp.48, 66-7; Wafer's
New Voy., p. 96; Montanus, Nienwe Weereld, p. 67; and Dapper, Neue Welt,
p. 75; Puydl, in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 99; Acosta, N.
Granada, p. 43.
e? Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 74, 88; Balboa, in Navarrete, Col.de Viages,
torn, iii., pp. 384-5; Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. vi.; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec.
i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. x., cap. iii.; Belcher's Voyage, vol. L, p. 250;
Selfridge's Darien Surveys, pp. 10-11; Puydi, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol.
xxxviii., p. 99; Gisborne's Darien, p. 154; Otis' Panama, p. 77; Cullen's Da
rien, pp. 65-6. ' Qtiando los indios no tienen guerra, todo su exercicjio es
tractur e trocar quarito tienen unos con otros. . . .unos llevan sal, otros mahiz,
otro^ mantas, otros hamucas, otros algodon hilado d por hilar, otros pesca-
dos salados; otros llevaii oro.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 140, torn, ii.,
p. 340.
AKTS AND GOVERNMENT. 769
of these floods, the natives procure gold from the river
beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and
pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large
quantities. In the district of Yeragua and in Darien
they have workers in gold, crucibles for melting metals,
and implements of silversmiths. They understand the
alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many
kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different
varieties of animals. The relics which from time to
time have been exhumed in Chiriqui and other parts of
the Isthmus, prove that the natives had an excellent
knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing
in gold and stone. Painting and glazing on jars and
other descriptions of pottery was an art in which the
men of Chiriqui were famous.68 The Isthmians possessed
only a very slight knowledge of the computation of time.
They calculate the hour of the day by the height
of the sun in the heavens, and have no division of time
into years, months, or weeks. Their enumeration is
limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by twen
ties to one hundred ; their knowledge of numbers does
not go further.69
In the provinces of Cueba, Cornagre, and other parts
of Darien the eldest son succeeded to the government
upon the death of his father. As soon as the funeral
ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratula
tions of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged
of whom conducted him to a chamber and laid him in a
hammock. His subjects then came to offer their sub
mission accompanied with presents, which consisted of
large stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. They
68 « Este cacique Davaive tiene grand fundicion de oro en su casa; tiene
cient hombres a la contina que labran oro.' Balboa, in Navarrete, Col. de
Viages, torn, iii., pp. 364-5. ' Hay grandes mineros de cobre: hachas de
ello, otras cosas labradas, fundidas, soldadas hube, y fraguas con todo su
aparejo de platero y los crisoles.' Colon, in Id., torn, i., p. 308. In Panama,
'graiides Entalladores, y Pintores.' Ddvila, Teatro Edes., torn, ii., fol. 56.
Compare further: Benzoni, Hist. Mondo Nuovo, fol. 88; Herrera, Hist. Gen.,
dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. x.; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, pp. 29-30; Peter Mar
tyr, dec. iii., lib. iv.; Bidwett's Isthmus, p. 37.
69 Wafer's New Voy., pp. 178-86; Lussan, Jour, du Voy., p. 46; Puydt,>
in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 99.
Vol. I. 49
770 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
greeted him with triumphal songs in which they re
counted the deeds of his ancestors, as well as those of
other lords of the land, telling him who were his friends
and who his enemies. Much wine was consumed and
the rejoicing lasted several days. Afterwards ambassa
dors were dispatched to inform all the neighboring
caciques of the new accession, desiring their good will
and friendship for the future. In the province of Pana
ma upon the death of the lord, the eldest brother suc
ceeded him, and if there were no brothers the succession
went to a nephew by the sister's side. The chiefs held un
disputed authority over their people and were implicitly
obeyed. They received no tribute but required personal
service for house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling
the ground ; men so employed were fed and maintained
by the chief. In Cueba the reigning lord was called
quebi, in other parts he was called tiba. The highest in
rank after the tiba had the title of sacos, who commanded
certain districts of the country. Piraraylos were nobles
who had become famous in war. Subject to the sacos
were the cobras who enjoyed certain lands and privi
leges not accorded to the common people. Any one
wounded in battle, when fighting in presence of the tiba,
was made a cabra and his wife became an espave or
principal woman. A constable could not arrest or kill
a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once
struck by the tiba, however, any person might kill him,
for no sooner was he wounded by his chief than his
title and rank dropped from him. Constables were
appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and
execute judgment on the guilty. Justice was adminis
tered without form by the chief in person who decided
all controversies. The cases must be stated truthfully,
as the penalty for false testimony was death. There
was no appeal from the decision of the chief. Theft
was punishable with death and anyone catching a thief
in flagrante delictu, might cut off the offender's hands
and hang them to his neck. Murder was also punished
by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both
PUNISHMENTS AND SLAVERY. 771
parties. In Darien, he who defloured a virgin had a
brier thrust up his virile member, which generally
caused death. The facts had to be proved on oath, the
form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. As
I have said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble;
consequently if one committed a crime punishable with
death, the chief must kill him with his own hand, and
notice was given to all the people by beating the large
war drum so that they should assemble and witness the
execution. The chief then in presence of the multitude
recited the offence, and the culprit acknowledged the
justice of the sentence. This duty fulfilled, the chief
struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with
a macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any
one of the spectators gave him the finishing stroke.
Criminals who were executed were denied the right of
burial. The -Caribs had no chiefs, every man obeyed
the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either
government or laws.70
Slavery was in force among the various nations in
habiting the Isthmus, and every principal man retained
a number of prisoners as bondsmen ; they were called
pacos, and, as I have already mentioned, were branded
or tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the
face or arm, or had one of their front teeth extracted.
When traveling, the slaves had to carry their lord's
effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to carry his
litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne
on the shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved
at intervals by two others, the change being made without
?o ' Besftn los pies al hijo, o sobrino, que hereda, estando en la cama: que
vale tanto como juramento, y coronacion.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 255-6,
88. 'Todos tenian sus Reies, y Seiiores, a quien obedecian.' Torquemada,
Monarq. Ind., tom.ii., p. 346. 'Los hijos heredauan a los padres, siendo
auidos en la principal muger .... Los Caziques y senores eran muy tenidos y
obedecidos.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i.,
cap. x. See also, Ouiedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 129-30, 142, 156-7; Quin-
tana, Vidasde Espanoles, (Balboa J p. 9; Andagoya, in Navarrete, Col. de Viac/es,
torn, iii., p. 399; Wafer's New Voy., p. 163; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 73; Wal
lace, in Miscellanea Curiosa, vol. iii., p. 418; Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 97; Funnell's Voyage, pp. 131-2; Selfridge's Darien
Surveys, p. 20.
772 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
stopping. On his march across the Isthmus in 1513,
Vasco Nunez found some negro slaves belonging to the
cacique of Quarecas, but the owner could give no infor
mation relative to them, except that there were more of
that .color near the place, with whom they were con
tinually at war.71
Caciques and lords married as many wives as they
pleased. The marriage of the first wife was celebrated
with a great banquet, at the close of which the bride
was handed over to her husband. Subsequent wives
were not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took
the place of concubines, and were subject to the orders
of the first wife. The number of wives was limited
only by the wealth of the lord. Yasco Nunez took pris
oner the cacique Turnanama with all his family, among
which were eighty wives. The children of the first wife
were legitimate, while those of others were bastards and
could not inherit. Marriage was not contracted with
strangers or people speaking a different language, and
the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of
noble blood. Divorces were brought about by mutual
consent and for slight causes, and sometimes wives were
exchanged. If a woman was barren, they promptly
agreed upon a separation, which took place when the
woman had her menstrual period, in order that there
might be no suspicion of pregnancy. When a maiden
reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut up, some
times for a period of two years. In some parts of Da-
rien, when a contract of marriage was made, all the
neighbors brought presents of maize or fruits, and laid
them at the door of the bride' s father ; when the offer
ings were all made, each one of the company was given
a calabash of liquor ; then followed speeches and dancing,
and the bridegroom's father presented his son to the
bride, and joined their hands; after which the bride
was returned to her father, who kept her shut up in a
house with him for seven days. During that time all
71 Qviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 8, 126, 129; Gornara, Hist. Ind., fol.
77; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, p, 66; Dapper, Neue Welt, p. 74.
FAMILY KELATIONS OF THE ISTHMIANS. 773
the friends assisted in clearing a plantation and build
ing a house for the couple, while the women and chil
dren planted the ground. The seven days having
elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much
liquor was drunk. The bridegroom took the precaution
to put away all weapons which were hung to the ridge
pole of his house, in order to prevent any serious fight
ing during their drunken orgies, which lasted several
days, or until all the liquor was consumed. If a man had
several wives, he often kept each one in a separate
house, though sometimes they all lived together; a
woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to
herself.72 Women are easily delivered, and the young
infant is tied to a board on its back or between two
pillows, and is kept so confined until able to walk, the
board being removed only to wash the child. Male
children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and
when able to carry a few provisions for themselves, they
accompany their fathers on hunting expeditions. Girls
are brought up to household duties, cooking, weaving,
and spinning. Prostitution was not infamous; noble
ladies held as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny any
thing asked of them, and they gave themselves up to
any person that wooed them, willingly, especially to
principal men. This tendency to licentiousness carried
with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to
avoid the consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that
they might not be deprived of them, as to keep their
breasts from softening ; for, said they, old women should
bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse them
selves. Sodomy was practiced by the nations of Cueba,
72 Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 98; Mdcgregor's
Progress of Amer., pp. 823-5, 829; Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap.
ccxliv. ' Casauanse con hijas de sus hermanas:. y los senores tenian muchas
mugeres.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap.
x. ' De las mugeres principales de sus padres, y hermanas 6 hijas guardan
que no las tomen por mugeres, porque lo tienen por malo.' ^Andagoya, in
Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 402-3. Of wives: 'They may haue
as many as they please, (excepting their kindred, and allies) vnlesse they be
widdowes. . . .in someplace a widdow marryeth the brother of her former
husb md, or his kinsman, especially if hee left any children.' Peter Martyr,
dac. vii., lib. x , dec. viii., Lb. viii.
774 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA.
Careta, and other places. The caciques and some of
the head men kept harems of youths, who, as soon as
destined to the unclean office, were dressed as women,
did women's work about the house, and were exempt
from war and its fatigues. They went by the name of
camayoas, and were hated and detested by the women.73
Their public amusements were called areitos. a species
of dance very nearly resembling some in the northern
provinces of Spain. They took place upon occasions of
a marriage or birth, or when they were about to go forth
on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest.
One led the singing, stepping to the measure, and the
rest followed, imitating the leader. Others again en
gaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while singers
and improvisator! related the deeds of their ancestors
and historical events of the nation. The men indulged
freely in fermented liquors and wines, the drinking and
dancing lasting many hours and sometimes whole days,
until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground.
Actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various
pursuits of fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while oth
ers, in the guise of jesters and fools, assisted in enliven
ing the scene. Their principal musical instruments
were drums and small whistles made of reeds ; they had
also javelins with holes pierced in them near the end,
so that when cast into the air a loud whistling noise was
produced.74 They have various kinds of wines and
liquors both sweet and sour. One is obtained from a
73 The women ' observe their Husbands with a profound Respect and Duty
upon all occasions; and on the other side their Husbands are very kind and
loving to them. I never knew an Indian beat his Wife, or give her any hard
Words. . . .They seem very fond of their Children, both Fathers and Mothers.'
Wafer's New Voy., pp. 156-66. 'Tienen mancebias publicas de mugeres, y
aun de hombres en muchos cabos.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 87. See also:
Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, in., pp. 18, 20, 133-4; Quintana, Vidas de Espanoles,
(Balboa], pp. 9-10.
74 ' Pipes, or fluites of sundry pieces, of the bones of Deere, and canes of
the riuer. They make also little Drummes or Tabers beautified with diuers
pictures, they forme and frame them also of gourdes, and of an hollo we piece
of timber greater than a marines arme.' Peter Martyr, dec. viii., lib. viii.
See also: Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 127, 130, 137, 156; Gomara, Hist.
Ind., fol. 88; Darien, Defence of the Scots' Settlement, pp. 72-3; Macgregor's
Progress of Amer., pp. 825, 832; Warburtoris Darien, p. 32i; Las Casas,
Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxliii.
INTOXICATING LIQUORS. 775
species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top,
and inserting a leaf into the cut. The liquor drawn off
soon ferments, and in two or three days is fit to drink;
or it is boiled with water and mixed with spices.
Another kind called chicha is made from maize ; a quan
tity of the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and
left to sprout, when it is bruised and placed in a large
vessel filled with water, where it is allowed to remain
until it begins to turn sour. A number of old women
then collect and chew some of the grain, which they
spit out into large gourds until they have a sufficient
quantity; this, as soon as it ferments, is added to the
water in the vessel, and in a short time the whole under
goes fermentation. When the liquor is done working it
is drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxi
cating liquor is thus produced, which is their favorite
beverage. They have another method of making chicha,
by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity
is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the
fire and left to settle and cool. In two days it becomes
clear and fit to drink, but after five or six days it begins
to acidify so that only a moderate quantity is made at
a time. Different varieties of wines and liquors are
made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits,
and we are told that the first Spanish explorers of the
country found large quantities of fermented liquors
buried beneath the ground under their house-tree, be
cause if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid
from constant agitation. The cellar of the king Coma-
gre is described as being filled with great vessels of
earth and wood, containing wine and cider. Peter Mar
tyr, in his account of the visit of Yasco Nunez and his
company to the king, says "they drunke wines of sun
dry tastes both white and black." Tobacco is much
used by the Isthmians ; the natives of Costa Rica roll
the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass
threads; they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a
short time, pass it out through the mouth and nostrils.
The cigar used by the natives of the isthmus of Panama,
776 WILD TRIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
is much larger. Mr Wafer thus describes their manner
of making and smoking it: " Laying two or three Leaves
upon one another, they roll up all together side-ways
into a long Roll, yet leaving a little hollow. Round this
they roll other Leaves one after another, in the same
manner but close and hard, till the Roll be as big as ones
Wrist, and two or three Feet in length. Their way of
Smoaking when they are in Company together is thus :
A Boy lights one end of a Roll and burns it to a Coal,
wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too fast.
The End so lighted he puts into his Mouth, and blows
the Smoak through the whole length of the Roll into
the Face of every one of the Company or Council, tho'
there be 2 or 300 of them. Then they, sitting in their
usual Posture upon Forms, make, with their Hands
held hollow together, a kind of Funnel round their
Mouchs and Noses. Into this they receive the Smoak
as 'tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and
strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their
Breath, and seeming to bless themselves, as it were, with
the Refreshment it gives them." After eating heartily,
more especially after supper, they burn certain gums
and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep.75
The Isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but
light and soft as a cat, and they are exceedingly active
in all their movements. When traveling they are
guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by observ
ing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side
being always the thickest. When fatigued by travel
they scarify their legs with a sharpened reed or snakes'
teeth. They are very expert swimmers and the dwell-
75 In Comagre, 'vinos blancos y tintos, hechos de mayz, y rayzes de frutas,
y de cierta especie de palma, y de otras cosas: los quales vinos loauan los Cas-
tellanos quando los beuian.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. L, lib. ix., cap. ii.
* Tenia vna bodega con muchas cubas y tinajas llenas de vino, hecho de grano, y
fruta, bianco, tinto, dulce, y agrete de datiles, y arrope.' Gomara, Hist. Ind.,
fol. 73. ' Hacian de maiz vino bianco i tinto . . . .Es de mm buen sabor aun-
que como unos vinos bruscos 6 de gascufi i.' Las Casas, Hist. Ind., MS., torn,
ii., cap. xxvi. See also: Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 136-7, 141-2; torn,
iv., pp. 96-7; Montanus, Nieuwe Weereld, pp. 64, 285; Dapper, Neue Welt, pp.
71, 321; Wafer's New Voy., pp. 87, 102-3, 153-5, 164, 169-70; Puydt, in
Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 96.
ISTHMIAN SORCERESS. 777
ers on the coast pass much of their time in the water.
In salutation they turn their backs to each other. No
one will accept a gift from a stranger unless with the
especial permission of the chief.76
They believe largely in spirits and divinations, and
have sorcerers called places who are held in much re
spect and awe. The piaces profess to have the power
of foretelling the future and raising spirits. When
putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary
place, or shut themselves up in a house, where, with
loud cries and unearthly sounds they pretend to consult
the oracle. Boys destined to be piaces are taken at the
age often or twelve years to be instructed in the office;
they are selected for the natural inclination or the
peculiar aptitude and intelligence which they display
for the service. Those so chosen are confined in a soli
tary place where they dwell in company with their in
structors. For two years they are subjected to severe
discipline, they must not eat flesh nor anything having
life, but live solely on vegetables, drink only water, and
not indulge in sexual intercourse. During the probation
ary term neither parents nor friends are permitted to
see them ; at night only are they visited by professional
masters, who instruct them in the mysteries of the
necromantic arts. In the province of Cueba masters in
these arts are called tequincis. It is asserted of the piaces
that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three
months before the time. The people were much troubled
with witches, who were supposed to hold converse with
evil spirits, and inflicted many ills especially upon chil
dren.77
76 « Quando hablan vno con otro, se ponen do espaldas.' Colon, Hist.
Almirante, in Barcia, Ilistoriadores, torn, i., p. Ill; Wafer's New Voy., pp.
177-9.
K Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 255; Pder Martyr, dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii.,
lib. viii.; Wafer's New Voy., pp. 37-9; Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii.,
cap. v.; Selfridge's Darien Surveys, pp. 10-11; Vega, Hist.* Descub. Amer., p.
145. ' Deste n ombre tequina se ha^e mucha diferenc,ia; porque a qualquiera
ques mas habil y experto en algun arte, . . . . le Hainan tequina, que quiere
dec,ir lo mesmo qtie maestro: por manera que al ques maestro de las respon-
siones e inteligeucias con el diablo, llamaiile tequina en aquel arte, porque
aqueste tal es el que administra sus ydolatrfas e cerimonias e sacrifices, y el
778 WILD TEIBES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
The Isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race.
The ills most common to them are fevers and venereal
disease. The latter, as Oviedo affirms, was introduced
into Europe from Hayti, or Espanola, where it was prev
alent as well as throughout Tierra Firme. This is a sub
ject that has given rise to much contention among
authors, but the balance of testimony seems to indicate
that the venereal disease in Europe was not of American
origin, although the disease probably existed in America
before the coming of Europeans. The remedies em
ployed by the Isthmians for the complaint were gua-
yacan wood, and other medicinal herbs known to
them. They are much troubled with a minute species
of tick-lice that cover their limbs in great numbers,
from which they endeavor to free themselves by apply
ing burning straw. Another insect, more serious in its
consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the chegoe,
or pulex penetrans; it burrows under the skin, where it
lays its eggs, and if not extracted will in time increase
to such an extent as to endanger the loss of the limb.
The natives remove it with any sharp-pointed instru
ment. They are liable to be bitten by venomous snakes,
which are numerous in the country and frequently cause
death. Whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the
sufferer immediately ties above the wounded part a
ligature made from plants well known to the natives,
and which they usually carry with them ; this enables
him to reach a village, where he procures assistance, and
by means of herbal applications is often cured. Some
of them are subject to a skin disease somewhat similar
in its appearance to ringworm ; it spreads over the whole
body until eventually the skin peels off. Those who are
thus afflicted are called carates. These people are gen
erally very hardy and strong, with great powers of en
durance. The piaces, as medicine-men, consult their
que habla con el diablo.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 127. 'Tenian 6
habia entre estas gentes unos sacerdotes que llamaban en su lengua "Piachas"
muy espertos en el arte magica, tanto que se revestia en ellos el Diabolo y
hablaba por boca de ellos muchas falsedades, conque los teuia cautivos.' Las
Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxlv.
MEDICAL PKACTICE. ' 779
oracles for the benefit of all those who require their
services. The sucking cure obtains in these parts as
well as northward. When summoned to attend a pa
tient, if the pain or disease is slight, the medicine-man
takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to
the part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; sud
denly he rushes outside with cheeks extended, and feigns
to spit out something, cursing and imprecating at the
same time; he then assures his patient that he has
effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain.
When the sickness is of a more serious nature, more
elaborate enchantments are enacted, ending in the prac
titioner sucking it out from the sick person's body, not,
however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor, and
contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick
down his own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so
he casts up that which he pretends to have drawn out
from the sufferer. Should his conjurations and tricks
not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid cer
tain herbs and decoctions, with which he is well
acquainted; their knowledge of medicine is, however,
more extensive in the treatment of external than of
internal diseases. The compensation given to the piace
is in proportion to the gravity of the case, and the
ability of the individual to reward him. In cases of
fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of practicing
phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unneces
sary suffering. The operator shoots a small arrow from
a bow into various parts of the patient's body until a
vein be accidentally opened ; the arrow is gauged a short
distance from the point to prevent its penetrating too
far.78 Oviedo tells us that in the province of Cueba the
78 The priests ' comunmente eran sus medicos, e conosqian muchas hier-
vas, de que usaban, y eran apropriadas a diversas enferinedades.' Oviedo,
Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 126, 138-9, 141, torn, i., pp. 56-7. 'According to
the diners nature, or qualitie of the disease, they cure them by diuers super
stitions, and they are diuersly rewarded.' Peter Martyr, dec. viii., cap. viii.
Compare further; Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 88; Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica,
MS., cap. ccxlv. ; Wafer's New Voy., p. 28; Selfridye's Darien Surveys, p. 10;
Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., <7bur., vol. xxxviii., p. 9t; Purchas his Pilgrimage,
vol. v., p. 893.
780 WILD TKIBES OF CENTRAL AMEKICA.
practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent,
and with dire consequences. The persons, men and
women, who indulged in the habit were called by the
Spaniards chupadores. They belonged to a class of sor-
cerersrand the historian says they went about at night
visiting certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for
hours, continuing the practice from day to day. until
finally the unfortunate recipients of their attentions be
came so thin and emaciated that they often died from
exhaustion.79
Among certain nations of Costa Rica when a death
occurs the body is deposited in a small hut constructed
of plaited palm-leaves ; food, drink, as well as the weap
ons and implements that served the defunct during life
are placed in the same hut. Here the body is preserved
for three years, and upon each anniversary of the death
it is redressed and attended to amidst certain ceremo
nies. At the end of the third year it is taken out and
interred. Among other tribes in the same district, the
corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded
with a large pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends
dancing and singing round the flames until all is con
sumed, when the ashes are collected and buried in the
ground. In Yeragua the Dorachos had two kinds of
tombs, one for the principal men constructed with flat
stones laid together with much care, and in which were
placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wines
79 ' Quedame de de<jir que en aquesta lengiia de Cueva hay mnclios ii
dios hechiQeros e en especial un c,ierto genero de malos, que los chripstiam
in-
. , , * , tianos
en aquella tierra Hainan chupadores. . . .Estos chupan a otros hasta que los
secan e matin, e sin calentura alguna de dia en dia poco a poco se enflaques-
?en tanto, que se les pueden contar los huesos, que se les pares^en solamente
cubiertos con el cuero; y el vientre se les resuelve de manera quel ombligo
traen pegado a los lomos y espina^o, e se tornan de aquella forma que pin-
tan a la muerte, sin pulpa ni carne. Estos chupadores, de noche, sin ser
sentidos, van a ha^er mal por las casas agenas : e ponen la boca en el om
bligo de aquel que chupan, y estan en aquel exerc^io una 6 dos horas
6 lo que les paresc,e, teniendo en aquel trabaxo al pac,iente, sin que sea pode-
roso de se valer ni defender, no dexando de sufrir su dano con silen^io. &
conosc,e el assi ofendido, e vee al malhechor, y aun les hablau: lo qual, assi
los que hac^en este mal como los que le pades<jen, han confessado algunos
dellos; e dicen questos chupadores son criados e naborias del tuyra, y quel
se los manda assi haqer, y el tuyra es, como esta dicho, el diablo.' Oviedo,
Hist. Gen., torn, iii., pp. 159-60.
ISTHMIAN GRAVES AND MOURNING. 781
for the dead ; those for plebeians were merely trenches,
in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds
of maize and wine and the place filled with stones. In
some parts of Panama and Darien only the chiefs and
lords received funeral rites. Among the common people
a person feeling his end approaching either went himself
or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends,
who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn and
a gourd of water, there left him to die alone, or to be
assisted by wild beasts. Others with more respect for
their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches
where they placed maize and wine and renewed the
same annually. With some, a mother dying while suck
ling her infant, the living child was placed at her breast
and buried with her in order that in her future state
she might continue to nourish it with her milk. In
some provinces when the cacique became sick, the
priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and if
they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one
half of his jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a
sacrifice to the god they reverenced, in the belief that
he would guide him to his final rest ; the other half was
buried in the grave. The relatives of the deceased
shaved the head as a sign of mourning and all his weap
ons and other property were consumed by fire in order
that nothing should remain as a remembrance of him. In
Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when a cacique
died, those of his concubines that loved him enough,
those that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well
as certain servants, killed themselves and were interred
with him. This they did in order that they might wait
upon him in the land of spirits. They held the belief
that those who did not accompany him then, would,
when they died a natural death, lose the privilege of
being with him afterwards, and in fact that their souls
would die with them. The privilege of attending on
the cacique in his future state was believed to be only
granted to those who were in his service during his life
time, hence such service was eagerly sought after by
782 WILD TBIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be
admitted as servants in his house. At the time of the
interment, those who planted corn for him during his
lifetime had some maize and an implement of husbandry
buried, with them in order that they might commence
planting immediately on arrival in the other world. In
Comagre and other provinces the bodies of the caciques
were embalmed by placing them on a cane hurdle,
hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a stone,
or log; and round or below the body they made a slow
fire of herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually
until only skin and bone remained. During the process
of embalming, twelve of the principal men sat round the
body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads,
letting them hang down to their feet ; at intervals one
of them beat a drum and when he ceased he chanted
in monotonous tones, the others responding. Day and
night the twelve kept watch and never left the body.
When sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with
many ornaments of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set
up in an apartment of the palace where were kept
ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors,
each one in his place and in regular succession. In
case a cacique fell in battle and his body could not be
recovered, or was otherwise lost, the place he would
have occupied in the row was always left vacant.
Among other tribes the body after being dried by fire
was wrapped in several folds of cloth, put in a ham
mock, and placed upon a platform in the air or in
a room. The manner in which the wives, attendants,
and servants put themselves to death was, with some,
by poison; in such case, the multitude assembled to
chant the praises of their dead lord, when those who were
to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead
instantly. In some cases they first killed their children.
With others the funeral obsequies of a principal chief
were conducted differently. They prepared a large
grave twelve ox fifteen feet square and nine or ten feet
deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and
FUNERAL RITES ON THE ISTHMUS. 783
covered it with painted cloth ; in the middle of the grave
they placed jars and gourds filled with maize, fruit, and
wines, and a quantity of flowers. On the bench was
laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled,
while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear
rings and bracelets. All being prepared the assembled
multitude raised their voices in songs declaring the
bravery and prowess of the deceased ; they recounted his
liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the
affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany
him. The singing and dancing usually lasted two days
and during its continuance wine was freely served to the
performers and also to the women who were awaiting
their fate. At the expiration of such time they became
entirely inebriated and in a senseless condition, when
the final act was consummated by throwing dead and
doomed into the grave, and filling it with logs, branches,
and earth. The spot was afterwards held in sacred
remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it.
At the end of a year funeral honors were celebrated in
memory of the dead. A host of friends and relatives
of equal rank with the deceased were invited to partici
pate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of
food and wine such as he whose memory they honored
delighted in, also weapons with which he used to fight,
all of which were placed in a canoe prepared for the
purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the de
ceased. The canoe was then carried on men's shoulders
round the court of the palace or house, in presence of
the deceased, if he was embalmed, and afterwards
brought out to the centre of the town where it was
burned with all it contained, — the people believing that
the fumes and smoke ascended to the soul of the dead
and was pleasing and acceptable to him.80 If the body
so ' Ay muchos, que piensan, que no ay mas de nacer, y morir : y aquel-
los tales no se entierran con pan, y vino, ni con mugeres, ni mocos. Los que
creen la immortal idad del alma, se entierra: si son Senores, con oro, armas,
plumas, si no lo son, con mayz, vino, y mantas.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol.
255, 88. ' Hums reguli penetrale ingressi cameram reperiunt pensilibus
repletam cadaueribus, gossampinis funibus appensis. Interrogati quid sibi
784 WILD TKIBES OF CENTKAL AMERICA.
had been interred they opened the sepulchre ; all the
people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting
cries while the bones were being collected, and these
they burned all except the hinder part of the skull,
which was taken home by one of the principal women
and preserved by her as a sacred relic.
The character of the Costa Ricans has ever been that
of a fierce and savage people, prominent in which qual
ities are the Guatusos and Buricas, who have shown
themselves strongly averse to intercourse with civiliza
tion. The Talamancas are a little less untameable,
which is the best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said.
The Terrabas, also a cruel and warlike nation, are nev
ertheless spoken of by Fray Juan Domingo Arricivita
as endowed with natural docility. The natives of Boca
del Toro are barbarous and averse to change. In Chi-
riqui they are brave and intelligent, their exceeding
courage having obtained for them the name of Valientes
or Indios Bravos from the early discoverers; they are
also noted for honesty and fair dealing. The same war
like and independent spirit and fearlessness of death pre
vails among the nations of Yeragua. Panama, and
Darien. The inhabitants of Panama and Cueba are
given to lechery, theft, and lying ; with some these qual
ities are fashionable; others hold them to be crimes.
The Mandingos and natives of San Bias are an inde
pendent and industrious people, possessing considerable
intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable disposi-
uellet ea superstitio : parentum esse et auorum atanorumque Comogri regul-
ea cadauera, inquiunt. De quibus seruandis maxiinam esse apud eos curami
et pro religione earn pietatem haberi recensent: pro cuiusque gradu indu,
menta cuique cadaueri imposita, auro gemmisque superintexta.' Peter Mar
tyr,, dec. ii., lib. iii., dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. ix.
4 Viendo la cantidad e numero de los muertos, se conosce que tantos senores
ha avido en aquel Estado, e qual fue hijo del otro 6 le sub(jedio en el sefiorio
segund la orden sub^esiva en que estan puestos.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn,
iii., pp. 155-6, 142. For further accounts see Wagner and Scherzer, Costa
Rica, pp. 556, 560; Cockburn's Journey, p. 183; Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol.
i., pp. 314, 316, 319; Pirn and Seemann's Dottings, p. 30; Herrera, Hist. Gen.,
dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. ii., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., dec. iv.,
lib. i., cap. xi.; Quintana, Vidas de Espailoles, (BalboaJ p. 10; Andagoya, in
Navarrete, Col. deViages, torn, iii., pp. 401-2; Carli, Cartas, pt i., pp. 105-6;
Las Casas, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. ccxlii., ccxlvii.; Purchas His Pil-
grimes, vol. v., p. 894.
ISTHMIAN CHARACTEK. 785
tion. The inhabitants of Darien are kind, open-hearted,
and peaceable, yet have always been resolute in oppos
ing all interference from foreigners; they are fond of
amusements and inclined to indolence; the latter trait
is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable exception
being the Cunas and Chocos of the Atrato Valley, who
are of a gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open-
hearted when once their confidence is gained ; they are
likewise industrious and patient, and M. Lucien de Puydt
says of the former: "Theft is altogether unknown
amongst the Cunas." Colonel Alcedo, speaking of their
neighbors, the Idibaes, calls them treacherous, incon
stant, and false. In the interior and mountain districts
the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the coast ;
the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality.
On the gulf of Uraba the people are warlike, vainglori
ous, and revengeful.81
Thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and
humid shores of Darien I have followed these Wild
Tribes of the Pacific States, with no other object in
view than faithfully to picture them according to the
information I have been able to glean. And thus I
leave them, yet not without regret : for notwithstanding
all that has been said I cannot but feel how little we
know of them. Of their mighty unrecorded past, their
interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and con
vulsions, their inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and
si The Terrabas 'naciones ____ las mas bravas e* inddmitas de todas ----
Indies dotados de natural docilidad y dulzura de gemo.'Arricivita, Cronica
Serdfica, p. 19. Speaking of the natives of Panama; 'muy denotes del tra-
bajo, y enemigos de la ociosidad.' Ddvila, Teatro Ecles., torn, ii., p. 56.
Darien: 'Son inclinados a juegos y hurtos, son muy haraganes.' Gomara,
Hist. Ind., fol. 88. San Bias tribes: 'They are very peaceable in their na
tures' ____ Chucunas and Navigandis: 'The most warlike'. . . Coast tribes,
'from contact with foreigners, are very docile and tractable'. . . .The Sassar-
dis: ' As a whole, this tribe are cowardly, but treacherous.' Self ridge's Darien
Surveys, pp. 10-11, 36. Compare further, Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 24; Squier,
in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 6; Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pref.,
p. xii.; Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 557; Gage's Neio Survey, p. 426;
Michler's Darien, p. 26; Alcedo, Dice., torn, ii., p. 413; Puydt, in Lcmd. Geog.
Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 96; Macgregor's Progress of Amer., p. 81" 0; Otis'
Panama, p. 77; (Mien's Darien, pp. 65-0, 68-9.
V
OL. I. 50
786 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
fears, how little do we .know of all this! And now as
the eye rests upon the fair domain from which they
have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise:
How long have these baskings and battlings been going
on? What purpose did these peoples serve? Whence
did they come and whither have they gone? — questions
unanswerable until Omniscience be fathomed and the
beginning and end made one.
TBIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The WILD TRIBES OP CENTRAL AMERICA, the last groupal division of this
"work, extend from the western boundary of Guatemala, south and eastward,
to the Rio Atrato. I have divided the group into three subdivisions, namely:
the Guatemalans, the Mosquitos, and the Isthmians.
The GUATEMALANS, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those
nations occupying the present states of Guatemala, Salvador, and portions
of Nicaragua.
The Lacandones are a wild nation inhabiting the Chammd mountains on
the boundary of Guatemala and Chiapas. ' Mountains of Chamma, inhab
ited by the wild Indians of Lacanddn .... a distinction ought to be drawn
between the Western and Eastern Lacandones. All the country lying on the
W., between the bishopric of Ciudad Real and the province of Vera Paz,
'was once occupied by the Western Lacandones. . . .The country of the Eastern
Lacandones may be considered as extending from the mountains of Chamma,
a day and a half from Coban, along the borders of the river de la Pasion to
Peten, or even further.' Escobar, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., pp. 93-
•4. Upon the margin of the Rio de la Passion. Juarros' Hist. Guat., p.
271. 'TJn tribu de Mayas sauvages appeles Lacandons, qui habitent un dis
trict immense dans le centre du continent, embrasse toute la partie occiden-
tale du Peten; erre sur les bords superieurs de I'llsumasinta et le pays qui se
trouve au sud de 1'endroit d'ou j'ecris.' Galindo, in Antiq. Mex., torn, i., div. ii.,
p. 67. ' The vast region lying between Chiapa, Tabasco, Yucatan, and the re
public of Guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of Indians,
the Lacandones and others.' Squier, in Hist. Mag., vol. iv., p. 65. ' The vast
region embracing not less than from 8000 to 10,000 square miles, surround
ing the upper waters of the river Usumasinta, in which exist the indomitable
Lacandones." Id., p. 67. 'Mais la contre'e qui s'etendait au nord de Caha-
bon, siege provisoire des Dominicains, et qui comprenait le pays de Dolores
•et celui des Itzas, etait encore a peupres inconnue. La vivaient les Choles,
les belliqueux et feroces Mopans, les Lacandons et quelques tribus plus ob
scures, dont 1'histoire a neglige les noms.-' Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p.
78, torn, i., p. 318. 'They are reduced to-day to a very insignificant
number, living on and near Passion river and its tributaries.' Berendt, in
Smithsonian Kept., 1867, p. 425. 'In the north of Vera Paz, to the west of
Peten, and all along the Usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes,
THE MAMES OF GUATEMALA. 787
called generally Lacandones.' Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.; Fossey,
Mexique, p. 471; Pimentel, Mem. sobre la Raza Indigena, p. 197.
The Mames ' occupied the existing district of GiiegUetenango, a part of
Quezaltenango, and the province of Soconusco, and in all these places the
Mam or Pocoman language is vernacular. It is a circumstance not a
little remarkable, that this idiom is also peculiar to places very, distant
from the country of the Mams: viz. in Amatitan, Mixco, and Petapa, in
the province of Sacatepeques; Chalchuapa, in St. Salvador; Mita, Jalapa,
and Xilotepeque, in Chiquimula.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 169. 'El Mame
6 Pocoman le usan los mames 6 pocomanes, que parecen no ser mas
que dos tribus de uua misma nacion, la cual formaba un estado pode-
roso en Guatemala. Se extendio por el distrito de Huehuetenango, en la pro-
vincia de este nombre, y por parte de la de Quetzaltenango, asi como por el
distrito de Soconusco en Chiapas. En todos estos lugares se hablaba mame
6 pocoman, lo mismo que en Amatitlan, Mixco y Petapa, de la provincia de
Zacatepec d Guatemala; en Chalchuapa, perteneciente a la de San Salvador;
y en Mita, Jalapa y Jiloltepec, de la de Chiquimula.' Balbi, in Pimentel,
Cuadro., torn, i., p. 81. 'Leur capitale etait Gueguetenango, au nord-est de
la ville actuelle de Guatemala, et les villes de Masacatan, Cuilco, Chiantla et
Istaguacan etaient enclavees dans leur territoire.' Squier, in Nouvelks An-
nales des Voy., 1857, torn, cliii., p. 177. ' A 1'ouest, jusqu'aux frontieres de
Chiapas, s'etendaient les Mams, proprement dits Mam-Yoc, dans leurs his-
toires, partages en plusieurs families egalement puissantes qui gouvernaient
souverainement cette contree, alors designee sous le noni commun d'Otzoya
(de otzoy, eortes d'ecrevisses d'or) : c'etaient d'un cote les Chun-Zak-Yoc,
qui avaient pour capitale Qulaha, que son opulence et son etendue avaient
fait surnommer Nima-Amag ou la Grande-Ville, dite depuis Xelahun-Quieh,
ou Xelahuh, et Quezaltenango; les Tzitzol, dont la capitale etait peut-etre
Chinabahul ou Huehuetenango, les Ganchebi (see note below under Ganche-
bis) et les Bamaq. Ceux-ci, dont nous avons connu les descendants, etaient
seigneurs d'Iztlahuacan (San-Miguel-Iztlahuacan), dont le plateau est encore
aujourd'hui parseme de ruines au milieu desquelles s'eleve 1'humble bour-
gade de ce nom: au-dessus domine, a une hauteur formidable, Xubiltenam
(ville du Souffle) Ganchebi, ecrit alternativement Canchebiz, Canchevez et
Ganchebirse. Rien n'indique d'une maniere precise ou regnait cette famille :
mais il se pourrait que ce fut a Zipacapan ou a Chivun, dont les ruines
existent a trois lieues au sud de cette derniere localite; la etait 1'ancien
Oztoncalco.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 264-5. 'Habi-
taban el Soconusco, desde tiempos remotos, y era un pueblo autocton; los
olmecas que llegaron de la parte de Mexico, les redujeron a la servidumbre,
y una fraccion de los vencidos emigre hasta Guatemala.' Orozco y Berra,
Geografia, p. 168. The Mamey, Achi, Cuaahtemalteca, Hutateca, and Chiri-
chota ' en la de los Suchitepeques y Cuaahtemala.' Palacio, in Pacheco, Col.
Doc. Ined., torn, vi., p. 7. Mame ' Parle dans les localites voisiues de Hue
huetenango.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, MS. Troano, torn, ii., p. viii. ' On
retrouve encore aujourd'hui leurs restes parmi les Indiens de la province
de Totonicapan, aux frontieres de Chiapas et des Lacandons, au nord-
ouest de 1'etat de Guatemala. La place forte de Zakuleu (c'est-a-dire, Terre
788 TBIBAL BOUNDAEIES.
blanche, mal a propos orthographic Socoleo), dont on admire les vastes
debris aupres de la ville de Huehuetenango, resta, jusqu'au temps de la con-
quete espagnole, la capitale des Mems. Cette race avait etc anterieurement
la maitresse de la plus grande partie de 1'etat de Guatemala.' Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 119-20.
The Pokomams, or Pokonchis, lived in the district of Vera Paz in Guate
mala, ' sous le nom d'Uxab et de Pokomani, une partie des treize tribus de
Tecpan, dont la capitale etait la grande cite de Nimpokom, etait maitresse
de la Verapaz et des provinces situees au sud du Motagua jusqu'a Palin ' (2
leagues N. W. of Kabinal). Brasseur deBourbourg, PopolVuh, introd., p. 264.
Us ' paraissent avoir occupe une grande partie des provinces guatemaliennes. '
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 84, 506. 'Toute la rive
droite du Chixoy (Lacandon ou haut Uzumacinta), depuis Coban (ecrit
quelquefois Coboan) jusqu'au fleuve Motagua, les montagnes et les vallees
de Gagcoh (San-Cristoval), de Taltic, de Kabinal et d'Urran, une partie
des departements actuels de Zacatepec, de Guatemala et de Chiquimula,
jusqu'au pied des volcans de Hunahpu (volcans d'Eau et de Feu), devinrent
leur proie.' Id., pp. 121-2. « Le pocomchi, le pokoman, le cakchi, semes
d'Amatitan a Coban.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, MS. Troano, torn, ii., introd.,
p. viii. In 'La Verapaz, la poponchi, caechi y colchi.' Palacio, in Pacheco,
Col. Doc. Ine'd., torn. vi.,p .7. 'La lengua pocomana se habla en Amatitan,
Petapa, San Chrisobal, Pinula, y Hermita 6 Llano de la Culebra de Guate
mala.' Hervds, Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 305. 'Ala nacion Poconchi pertene-
cen los lugareso misiones llamadas Santa Cruz, San Christobal, Taktik,
Tucuru, y Tomasiu.' Ib.
The Quiches inhabit the centre of the state of Guatemala. ' Quiche then
comprehended the present districts of Quiche, Totonicapan, part of Quezal-
tenango, and the village of Rabinal; in all these places the Quiche language
is spoken. For this reason, it may be inferred with much probability, that
the greater part of the province of Sapotitlan, or Suchiltepeques, was a col
ony of the Quichees, as the same idiom is made use of nearly throughout the
whole of it.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 168. 'Les Quiches, or Utletecas, habi-
taient la frontiere du sud, les chefs de Sacapulus et Uspatan a Test, et les
Lacandones independants au nord. Us occupaient probablement la plus
grande partie du district actuel de Totonicapan et une portion de celui de
Quesaltenango.' Squier, in Nouuelles Annales des Voy., 1857, torn, cliii., p.
177. ' Leurs postes principaux furent etablis sur les deux cotes du Chixoy,
depuis Zacapulas jusqu'a Zactzuy.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ.,
torn, ii., pp. 131-2; Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., pp. 286, 288, 291.
The Cakchiquels are south of the Quiches. ' The territory of the Kachi-
queles was composed of that which now forms the provinces of Chimalte-
nango and Sacatepeques, and the district of Solola; and as the Kachiquel
language is also spoken in the villages of Patulul, Cotzumalguapan, and
others along the same coast, it is a plausible supposition that they were
colonies settled by the Kachiquels, for the purpose of cultivating the desirable
productions of a warmer climate than their own.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p.
169. ' La capitale fut, en dernier lieu, Iximche ou Tecpau-Guatemala, lors
de la declaration de 1'mdependence de cette nation.' Brasseur de Bourbourg ,
GUATEMALANS. 789
Popol Vuh, introd., p. 270. 'Der westliche Theil der Provinz [Atitan] mit
16 Dorfern in 4 Kirchspielen, von Nachkommen der Kachiquelen und Zutu-
gilen bewohnt.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 338. ' Los paises de la nacion Cak-
chiquila son Chimaltenango, Zumpango, Tejar, Santo Domingo, San Pedro
las Huertas, San Gaspar, San Luis de las Carretas, y otros diez lugares, todos
pertenecientes a las misiones de los PP. dominicos; y a las de los PP. ob»
servantes de san Francisco pertenecen Isapa, Pason, Tepan-guatemalan
Comalapa, San Antonio, San Juan del Obispo, y otros quince lugares a lo
menos de la misma nacion Cakchiquila, cuyas poblaciones estan al rededor
de Guatemala.' Hervds, Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 305.
The Zutugils dwelt near the lake of Atitlan. 'The dominion of the
Zutugiles extended over the modern district of Atitau, and the village of
San Antonio, Suchiltepeques.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., p. 169. 'La capital de
los cachiqueles era Patinamit d Tecpanguatemala, ciudad grande y fuerte; y
la de los zutuhiles, Atitan, cerca de la laguna de este nombre y que se tenia
por inexpugnable.' Pimentel, Cuadro, torn, ii., pp. 121-2.
The Chortis live on the banks of the Motagua River. The Chiquinmla
4 Indians belong to the Chorti nation. ' Gavarrete, in Panama Star and Herald,
Dec. 19, 1867; Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 48.
Brasseur de Bourbourg describes quite a number of very ancient
nations, of some of which he endeavors to fix the localities, and which
I insert here. Dan or Tamub founded a monarchy on the Guatemalan
plateau. Their ' capitale, Am 'g-D.in, existait, suivant toute apparence,
entre les monts Tohil et Mainah, a trois lieues a peine au nord d'Ut-
latlan.' Popol Vuh, introd., pp. 148, 262. ' Ilocab etendait sa domina
tion a 1'ouest et au sud de Tamub, et la cite d'Uquincat, siege principale
de cette maison, occupait un plateau etroit, situe entre les memes ravins
qui ceignent un peu plus bas les ruines d'Utlatlan.' 'La ville d'Uquincat
(forme antique), Avec le filet (a mettre le mai's), etait sur un plateau
au nord-ouest de ceux d'Utlatlan, dont elle n'etait separee que par ses
ravins; on en voit encore les ruines connues aujourd'hui sous le nom de
P '-Ilocab, en Ilocab.' Id., p. 263. Agaab, ' dont les possessions s'etendaient
sur les deux rives du Chixoy ou Lacandon.' ' C'etait une nation puissante
dont les principales villes existaient a peu de distance de la rive gauche du
fleuve Chixoy ou Lacandon (Eio Grande de Sacapulas). L'une d'elles etait
Carinal, dont j'ai visite le premier, en 1856, les belles ruines, situees sur les
bords du Pacalag, riviere qui se jette dans le Lacandon, presque vis-a-vis
1'einbouchure de celle de Eabinal, dans la Verapaz.' Ib. Cabinal, ' la capi
tale etait a Zameneb, dans les montagnes de Xoyabah ou Xolabah, [Entre
les rochers].' Id., p. 270. Ah-Actulul, ' sept tribus de la nation Ah-Actulul,
qui s'etaient etablies sur des territoires dependants de la souverainete*
d' Atitlan.' ' Ces sept tribus sont: Ah-Tzuque, Ah-Oanem, Manacot, Mana-
zaquepet, Vancoh, Yabacoh et Ah-Tzakol-Quet ou Queh. — Ac-Tulul peut-etre
pour Ah-Tulul.' Id., p. 274. ' Ah-Txiquinaha, ceux ou- les habitants de
Tziquinaha (Nid d'oiseau), dont la capitale fut Atitlan, sur le lac du meme
nom.' Id., p. 296. Acutee, 'nom aussi d'une aucienne tribu dont on re-
trouve le souvenir dans Chuvi-Acutec, au-dessus d'Acutec, sur le territoire
de Chalcitan, pres de Malacatan et de Huehuetenango.' Id., pp. 342-3.
Cohah, 'nom d'une tribu antique dans 1'orient des Quiches.' Id., p. 353.
790 TRIBAL BOUNDARIES.
The Chontales dwell in the mountain districts N.E. of Lake Nicaragua,
besides having miscellaneous villages in Guerrero, Oajaca, Tabasco, Guate
mala, and Honduras. ' En el Departamento de Tlacolula . . . . y se encuentran
choutales en Guerrero, en Tabasco y en Guatemala.' Orozco y Berra, Geo-
grafta, pp. 186-7. In San Salvador, Choluteca, Honduras, Nicaragua.
Palado, in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, vi., pp. 7, 26, 35.' Qmechapa . . .
20 Leguas sudostlich von Oajaca und 10 Leguas sudwestlich von Nejapa
An den Granzen des Landes der Chontales.' ' Tlapalca tepee. Haupt-
ort im Lande der Chontales.' Muhlenpfordt, Mejico, torn, ii., pt i., pp. 172-3,
175, 192. ' Les Chontales s'etaient vus en possession de toute la contree
qui s'etend entre la mer et la chaino de Quyecolani . . . etaient en posses
sion non seulement de Nexapa, mais encore de la portion la plus importante
de la montagne de Quiyecolani.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ.,
torn, iii., pp. 3, 47. ' Au nord-ouest du grand lac, les Chondals occupaient
le district montagneux appele encore aujourd'hui Chontales, d'apres eux.'
Holinski, La Californie, p. 290. ' Inhabitants of the mountainous regions to
the north-east of the lake of Nicaragua.' Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 52. ' Au
nord des lacs, les Chontales barbares habitaient la cordillere.' Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 110. ' The Chontals covered Chon
tales, northward of Lake Nicaragua, and lying between the tribes already
given, and those on the Caribbean Sea.' Stout's Nicaragua, p. 114. ' Bewoh-
ner der Gebirgsgegenden nordostlich vom See von Nicaragua.' Froebel, Aus
Amer., torn, i., p. 285. 'In Nicaragua die Chontales im Hochlande im N.
des Managua-Sees.' Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 246. 'Deste lugar [Yztepe-
que] cornienqan los Chontales.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap.
x. ' The Chondals or Chontals, the third great division mentioned by
Oviedo, occupied the wide, mountainous region, still bearing the name of
Chontales, situated to the northward of Lake Nicaragua, and midway be
tween the nations already named and the savage hordes bordering the Carib
bean Sea.' Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 311. ' On the northern
shores of the Lake of Nicaragua.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang, p. 48. * The Lencas
.... under the various names of Chontals, and perhaps Xicaques and Payas,
occupying what is now the Department of San Miguel in San Salvador, of
Comayagua, Choluteca, Tegucigalpa, and parts of Olancho and Yoro in
Honduras, including the islands of Koatan, Gaanaja, and their dependencies.'
Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 252.
The Pipiles ' n'y occupaient guere quelques cantons sur les cotes de
1' ocean Pacifique, dans la province d'ltzcuintlan et ne s'internaient que vers
les frontieres de 1'etat de San-Salvador, le long des rives du rio Paxa.' Bras
seur ds Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 120. 'Welche den ganzen
westlichen Theil des heutigen Staates von S. Salvador siidlich vom Rio
Lsmpa, das sogen. Raich Cozcotlan bewohnten.' Wappfius, Geog. u. Stat.,
pp. 322, 326. ' Are settled along the coasts of the Pacific, from the province
of Escuintla to that of St. Salvador In a short time these Pipiles multi
plied immensely, and spread over the provinces of Zonzonate, St. Salvador,
and St. Miguel.' Juarros' Hist. Guat., pp. 202, 224. Among 'los Izalcos y
oosta de Guazacapan San Salvador Honduras Nicaragua.' Palado,
in Pacheco, Col. Doc. Ined., torn, vi., p. 7.
NATIONS OF NICAKAQUA. 791
Nonohualcas. 'A la falda de nn alto yolcan (San Vicente) estan cautro
lugares de indios, que llaman los Nunualcos.' Id., p. 25.
Tlascaltecs. ' In mehreren Puncten San Salvadors, wie z. B. in Isalco,
Mexicaaos, Nahuisalco leben noch jetzt Indianer vom Stamme der Tlaskal-
teken.' Scherzer, Wanderungen, p. 456.
The Cholutecs ' occupied the districts north of the Nagrandans, extending
along the Gulf of Fonseca into what is now Honduras territory.' Stout's
Nicarauga, p. 114. ' The Cholutecans, speaking the Cholutecan dialect, sit
uated to the northward of the Nagrandans, and extending along the Gulf of
Fonseca, into what is now the territory of Honduras. A town and river in
the territory here indicated, still bear the name of Choluteca, which how
ever is a Mexican name.' Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310.
These Soconusco exiles settled ' dans les terres qui s'etendent au nord et a
1'ouest du golfe de Conchagua, aux frontieres de Honduras et de Nicaragua.'
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn. ii. p. 79. ' Beyond them (Na
grandans) on the gulf of Fonseca, a nation called the Cholutecans had their
seats.' Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 53.
Maribios, a tribe formerly inhabiting the mountain region about Leon.
'Ihre Wohnsitze bildeten die Provinz Maribichoa.' Froebel, Aus Amer., torn,
i., p. 333.
' Ay en Nicaragua cinco leguajes .... Coribici . . . Chorotega .... Chondal
Orotiiia Mexicano.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 264. ' Hablauan en Nica
ragua, cinco lenguas diferentes, Coribizi, que lo hablan mucho en Chuloteca
. . . .Los de Chontal, ... .la quarta es Orotina, Mexicana es la quinta.' Her-
rera, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. '-In Nicaragua there were fiue
linages, and different languages: the Coribici, Ciocotoga, Ciondale, Oretigua,
and the Mexican.' Purchas his Pilgrimage, vol. v., 887; Oviedo, Hist. Gen.,
torn, iv., p. 35; Busckmann, Ortsnamen, p. 132.
The Chorotegans ' occupied the entire country north of the Niquirans,
extending along the Pacific Ocean, between it and Lake Managua, to the
borders, and probably for a distance along the shores of the gulf of Fouseca.
They also occupied the country south of the Niquirans, and around the gulf
of Nicoya, then called Orotina.' Squier's Nicaragua., (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 310.
' Welche die Gegenden zwischen der Siidsee und dem Managua-See von der
Fonseca-Bai siidwarts bis zu den aztekisch sprechenden Indianern bewohnen
und auch siidlich von den Niquirians bis zur Bai von Nicoya sich ausbreiten.'
Wappiius, Geog. u. Stat., p. 246. ' North of the Mexican inhabitants of
Nicaragua (the Niquirans), between the Pacific Ocean, Lake Managua, and
the Gulf of Fonseca.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 48. Before the conquest they
occupied ' les regions aujourd'hui a peu pres desertes qui s'etendent entre
le territoire de Tehuantepec et celui de Soconusco, sur les bords de 1' Ocean
Pacifique.'. . . .To escape the Olmec tyranny they emigrated to 'golfe de
Nicoya; de la, ils retournerent ensuite, en passant les monts, jusqu'au lac de
Nicaragua et se fixerent sur ses bords.' Driven off by the Nahuas ' les uns,
se dirigeant au nord-ouest, vont fonder Nagarando, au bord du lac de Mana
gua, tandis que les autres contournaient les rivages du golfe de Nicoya, que
1'on trouve encore aujourd'hui habites par leurs descendants.' Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Popol Vuh, introd., pp. cc., ccii. ' Als die Spanier naeh Nicara-
792 TRIBAL BOUNDAEIES.
gua kamen, war diess Volk an der Kiiste verbreitet .... wohnten langs der
Kiiste des Australoceans.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 397-8.
The Dirians ' occupied the territory lying between the upper extremity of
Lake Nicaragua, the river Tipitapa, and the southern half of Lake Managua
and the Pacific, whose principal towns were situated where now stand the
cities of Granada, then (called Salteba,) Masaya, and Managua, and the vil
lages of Tipitapa, Diriomo and Diriamba.' Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,)
vol. ii., p. 310. « Groupes dans les localites encore connues de Liria, de
Diriome, de Diriamba, de Monbacho et de Lenderi, sur les hauteurs qui form-
ent la base du volcan de Mazaya.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ.,
torn, ii., p. 111. ' Occupied Masaya, Managua, Tipitapa, Diriomo, and
Diriamba.' Stout's Nicaragua, p. 114; Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 287.
The Nagrandans. ' Entre les Dirias et la Choluteca etait situee la province
des Mangnes ou Nagarandas (Torquemada dit que Nagarando est un mot
de leur langue. Oviedo les appelle Nagrandas), dont les fertiles campagnes
s'etendaient, au nord et a 1'ouest du lac de Managua, jusqu'a la mer; on y
admirait les cites florissantes de Chinandega, de Chichigalpa, de Pozoltega, de
Telica, de Subtiaba, de Nagarando, appelee aussi Xolotlan, de Matiares et
une foule d'autres, reduites maintenant, pour la plupart, a de miserables
bourgades.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat, Civ., torn, ii., pp. 111-12.
' The Nagrandans occupied the plain of Leon between the northern extreme
of Lake Managua and the Pacific.' Stout's Nicaragua, p. 114. 'An welche
sich weiter nordwestwarts (the last mention was Dirians) die Bewohner der
Gegend von Leon, welche Squier Nagrander nennt. . . .anschlossen.' Froebel,
Aus Amer., torn, i., p. 287. ' Chorotega tribe of the plains of Leon, Nica
ragua.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 130; Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii.,
p. 310.
The Niquirans ' settled in the district of Nicaragua, between the Lake of
Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 134. ' Au centre
du pays, sur le lac Nicaragua, appele Cocibolca par les indigenes, vivaient
les Niquirans.' Ilolinski, La California, p. 290. Onietepec. 'This island
was occupied by the Niquirans.' Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p.
313; Boyle's Ride, vol. i., p. 74.
The Orotinans occupied ' the country around the Gulf of Nicoya, and to
the southward of Lake Nicaragua.' Squier's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii.,
p. 310. ' Am Golfe von Orotina oder Nicoya. . . .Unter den geographischen
Namen im Laiide der Orotiner stosst man auf den Vulkaii Orosi, im jetzigen
Costa Rica, wahrend einer der Yulkane in der Kette der Maribios, bei Leon,
also im Lande der Nagrander, Orota heisst.' Froebel, Aus Amer., torn, i.,
p. 287. ' Les Orotinas, voisins du golfe de Nicoya, dont les villes princi-
pales etaitent Nicoya, Orotina, Cantren et Chorote.' Brasseur de Bourbourg,
Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., pp. 110. ' Settled the country south of Lake Nicara
gua around the Gulf of Nicoya.' Stout's Nicaragua, p. 114.
The MOSQUITOS, as a subdivision of this group, inhabit the whole of Hon
duras, the eastern portion of Nicaragua, and all that part of the coast on the
Caribbean Sea known as the Mosquito Coast.
The Xicaques ' exist in the district lying between the Rio TJlua and Rio
Tinto It seems probable that the Xicaques were once much more
MOSQUITO NATIONS. 793
•widely diffused, extending over the plains of Olancho, and into the Depart
ment of Nueva Segovia, in Nicaragua.' Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 244. ' Se
rencontrent principalement dans le departement de Yoro (some) a 1'em-
bouchure de la riviere Choloma, et le reste est disperse dans les montagnes
a 1'ouest de la plaine de Sula. Dans le departement de Yoro, ils sont repan-
dus dans le pays depuis la riviere Sulaco jusqu'a la baie de Honduras.' Id.,
in Nouvelks Annales des Voy., 1858, torn, clx., pp. 133-4. Yoro department;
' Welche am oberen Lauf der Fliisse und in dem Berg- und Hiigellande
zwischen der Kiiste und dem Thale von Olancho \vohnen.' Wappdus, Geog.
u. Stat., p. 317.
The Poyas. ' In the triangle between the Tinto, the sea, and the Bio
Wanks, or Segovia.' Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 244. ' Inhabit the Poyer
mountains, beyond the Embarcadero on the Polyer Biver.' Young's Narra
tive, p. 80. ' Den westlichen Theil des Distrikts Tagnzgalpa, zwischen den
Fliissen Aguan und Barbo.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 389. ' Inhabit the heads
of- the Black and Patook rivers.' Bell, iuLond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii.,
p. 258.
The Towkas, ' bewohnen die siidlichen Gegenden des Distrikts (Taguz-
galpa) und das Gebirge.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., pp. 390-1. 'Their principal
residence is at the head of Patook Biver.' Young's Narrative, p. 87. ' They
dwell along the Twaka river which is a branch of the Prinz Awala.' Bell, in
Lond. Geoy. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 258.
The ' Toonglas inhabit along the other branch of the same river.' Ib.
The Smoos ' inhabit the heads of all the rivers from Blewfields to Patook.'
Id., p. 256.
The Cookras ' reside about one hundred and thirty miles from its mouth'
(the Bio Escondido). Strangeways' Mosquito Shore, p. 30.
The Caribs ' now occupy the coast from the neighborhood of the port of
Truxillo to Carataska Lagoon Their original seat was San Vincent, one
of what are called the Leeward Islands, whence they were deported in a body,
by the English, in 1798, and landed upon the then unoccupied island of
lioatan, in the Bay of Honduras.' They afterwards removed to the main
land ' in the vicinity of Truxillo, whence they have spread rapidly to the
eastward. All along the coast, generally near the mouths of the various
rivers with which it is fringed, they have their establishments or towns.'
Bard's Wailcna, p. 316. ' Now settled along the whole extent of coast from
Cape Gracias a Dios to Belize.' Froebel's Cent. Amer., p. 185. ' Dwell on
the sea coast, their first town, Cape Town, being a few miles to the west
ward of Black Biver.' Young's Narrative, pp. 71, 122, 134. In Boatan: ' Die
Volksmenge besteht aus Caraiben und Sambos, deren etwa 4,000 auf der In-
sel seyn sollen.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 386. 'Unter den Caraibendorfern
sind zu nennen: Stanu Creek. . . .unfern im S. von Belize, und von da bis
zur Siidgrenze Settee, Lower Stanu Creek, Silver Creek, Seven Hills und
Punta Gorda.' Wappdus, Geog. u. Stat., p. 300 See also: 8-ivers, Mittelameri-
ka, pp. 154, 179; Morelet, Voyage, torn, ii., p. 289.
The Ramas extend from Greytown to Blewfields, a region ' uninhabited
except by the scanty remnant of a tribe called Bamas. ' ' Inhabit a small
island at the southern extremity of Blewfields Lagoon; they are only a miser-
794 TBIBAL BOUNDARIES.
able remnant of a numerous tribe that formerly lived on the St. John's
and other rivers in that neighbourhood. A great number of them still live
at the head of the Bio Frio, which runs into the St. John's River at San Carlos
Fort.' Sell, in Land. Geog. Soe., Jour., vol. xxxii., pp. 242, 259. ' Bama Cay,
in Blewfiels Lagoon. This small island is the refuge of a feeble remnant
of the once powerful Bama tribe.' Pirn and Seemann's Dotlings, p. 278.
The Mosquitos inhabit ' the whole coast from Pearl Key Lagoon to Black
Biver, and along the banks of the Wawa and Wanx, or Wanks Bivers for a
great distance inland.' Sell, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxii., p. 250.
' L'interieur du pays est occupe par la nation sauvage et indomptable des
Mosquitos-Sombos. Les cotes, surtout pres le cap Gracias a Dios, sont
habitees par une autre tribu d'Indiens que les navigateurs anglais ont appeles
Mosquitos de la cote.' Malte-Brun, Precis de la Geog., torn, vi., p. 472.
An dem Ende dieser Provinz (Honduras), nahe bey dem Cap, Gratias-a-
Dios, findet man die beruhmte Nation der Mosquiten.' Belaporte, Reisen,
torn, x., p. 404. 'Nearly the whole coast of Honduras; and their most
numerous tribe exists near the Cape Gracios a Dios.' Bonny castk's Span.
Amer., vol. i., p. 172. ' Ocupan el terreno de mas de sesenta leguas, que
corren desde la jurisdiccion de Comaniagua, hasta la de Costa-Bica.' Bevista
Mex., torn, i., p. 404. 'Die Sambo, oder eigentlichen Mosquitoindianer
welche den grossten Theil der Seekiiste bis zum Black river hinauf und die
an derselben belegenen Savannen bewohnen.' Mosquitoland, Benefit, p. 19.
' Inhabiting on the Main, on the North side, near Cape Gratia Dios ; between
Cape Honduras and Nicaragua.' Dampier's Voyages, vol. i., p. 7. 'Inhabit
a considerable space of country on the continent of America, nearly extend
ing from Point Castile, or Cape Honduras, the southern point of the Bay of
Truxillo, to the northern branch of the river Nicaragua, called usually St.
Juan's; and comprehending within these limits nearly 100 leagues of land
on the sea coast, from latitude 11 to 16 deg.' Henderson's Honduras, pp. 211-
12. The Sambos 'inhabit the country from Sandy Bay to Potook.' Strange-
ways1 Mosquito Shore, p. 330. ' The Sambos, or Mosquitians, inhabit the
sea coast, and the savannas inland, as far west as Black Biver.' Young's
Narrative, p. 71. 'The increase and expansion of the Caribs has already
driven most of the Sambos, who were established to the northward and west
ward of Cape Gracias a Dios, into the territory of Nicaragua, southward of
the Cape.' Squier's Honduras [Lond., 1870,] p. 169; Id., Cent. Amer., p. 228.
The ISTHMIANS, the last sub-division of this group, embrace the people
of Costa Bica, together with the nations dwelling on the Isthmus of Panama,
or Darien, as far as the gulf of Uraba, and along the river Atrato to the
mouth of the Napipi, thence up the last-named river to the Pacific Ocean.
' The Indian tribes within the territory of Costarrica, distinguished by the
name of Parcialidades, are the Valientes, or most eastern people of the state ;
the Tiribees, who occupy the coast from Bocatoro to the Banana; the Tala-
mancas and Blancos, who inhabit the interior, but frequent the coast
between the Banana and Salt Creek; the Montafios and Cabecares, who are
settled in the neighbourhood of the high lands bounding Veragua, and the
Guatusos, inhabiting the mountains and forest between Esparsa and Baga-
ISTHMIAN NATIONS. 795
ses, and towards the north of these places. ' Galindo, in Lond. Geog. Soc.,
Jour., vol. vi., p. 134. From Boca del Toro towards the west coast dwell the
Viceitas, Blancos, Valientes, Guatusos, Tiribis, and Talamancas. Wagner
and Scherzer, Costa Rica, p. 554. Blancos, Valientes, and Talamancas ' ent-
lang der Ostkiiste zwischen dem Rio Zent und Boca del Toro, im Staate
Costa Rica.' Id., p. 573.
The Guatusos 'vom Nicaragua - See an den Rio Frio aufwarts und
zwischen diesem und dem San Carlos bis zum Hochlande.' Wappdus,
Geog. u. Stat., p. 357. 'Inhabit a territory lying between the Merivales
mountains on the west, the lake of Nicaragua and the San Juan river
on the north, the Atlantic shore on the east, and the table land of San
Jose upon the south.'. . . .The Rio Frio 'head-waters are the favorite haunt
or habitation of the Guatusos occupy the north-east corner of Costa
Rica.' Boyle's Ride, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xix., p. 298. They inhabit 'the
basin of the Rio Frio,' Squier's Cent. Amer., p. 405; Id., in Nouvelles An-
nales des Voy., 1856, torn, cli., p. 5; Id., in IRst. Mag., vol. iv., p. 65; Vigne's
Travels, vol. i., p. 77.
The Guetares ' viven enc,ima de las sierras del puerto de la Herradura e
se extienden por la costa deste golpho al Poniente de la banda del Norte
hasta el confiii de los Chorotegas.' Oviedo, Hist. Gen., torn, in., p. 108.
The Blancos ' welche ungefahr 5 Tagereisen sudostlich von Angostura in
den Bergen hausen.' Wagner and Scherzer, Costa Rica, pp. 556, 554.
The Valientes and Ramas, ' zwischen dem Punta Gorda und der Lagune
von Chiriqui.' Mosquitoland, Bericht, p. 9.
Inhabiting the Isthmus were numerous tribes speaking different lan
guages, mentioned by early writers only by the name of the chief,
which was usually identical with that of both town and province. In the
province of Panama there were ' quatro senores de lenguas diferentes. . . .De
alii se baxaua a la prouincia de Nata .... treynta leguas de Panama otro
llamado Escoria, ocho leguas de Nata. . . .Ocho leguas mas adelante, la buelta
de Panama, auia otro Cazique dicho Chiru, de lengua dif erente : yotrassiete
leguas mas adelante, hazia Panama, estaua el de Chame, que era el remate
de la lengua de Coyba : y la prouincia de Paris se hallaua doze leguas de
Nata, Les hueste.' Herrera, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. Westward
from the gulf of Uraba ' hay una provincia que se dice Careta yendo mas
la costa abajo, fasta cuarenta leguas desta villa, entrando la tierra adentro
fasta doce leguas, esta un cacique que se dice Comogre y otro que se dice
Poborosa.' Balboa, in Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., p. 366. 'En la
primera provincia de los darieles hay las poblaciones siguientes: Seraque,
Surugunti, Queno, Moreri, Agrazenuqua, Occabayanti y Uraba.' Hervds,
Catdlogo, torn, i., p. 280. 'Treinta y tantas leguas del Darien habia una
provincia que se decia Careta, y otra cinco leguas de ella que se dice Acla
La primera provincia desde Acla hacia el ueste es Comogre En esta tierra
esta una provincia que se llama Peruqueta, de una mar a otra, y la isla de las
Perlas, y golfo de S. Miguel, y otra provincia, que llamamos las Behetrias
por no haber en ella ningun senor, se llama Cueva: es toda una gente y de
una lengua Desde esta provincia de Peruqueta hasta Adechame que son
cerca de 40 leguas todavia al ueste, se llama la provincia de Coiba, y la len-
796 TEIBAL BOUNDARIES.
gua es la de Cueva desde Burica hasta esta provincia, que se dice To-
breytrota, casi que cada senor es diferente de lengua uno de otro Desde
aqui tornando a bajar cerca de la mar, venimos a la provincia de Nata
esta 30 leguas de Panama tenia por contrario a un senor que se decia Es-
coria, que tenia sus poblaciones en un rio grande ocho leguas de Meta. . . .
Esta es lengua por si. Y ocho leguas de alii hacia Panama esta otro senor
que se dice Chiru, lengua diferente. Siete leguas de Chiru, hacia Panama,
esta la provincia de Chame: es el remate de la lengua de Coiba. . . .Chiman
dos leguas de Comogre. . . .desde este Chiman. . . la provincia de Poco-
rosa, y de alii dos leguas la vuelta del ueste. . . .la de Paruraca, donde comi-
eiiza la de Coiba, y de alii la misma via cuatro leguas la de Tubanama, y
de alii a ocho leguas todo a esta via la de Chepo, y seis leguas de alii
.... la de Chepobar, y dos leguas delante la de Pacora, y cuatro de alii
... .la de Panama, y de alii otras cuatro. . . .la de Periquete, y otras cuatro
adelante la de Tabore, y otras cuatro adelante. . . .la de Chame, que es
remate de la lengua y provincia de Coiba . . . . de Chame a la provincia del
Chiru hay ocho leguas. . . .y este Chiru es otra lengua por si.' Andagoya, in
Navarrete, Col. de Viages, torn, iii., pp. 397-8, 407-8, 410.
The Guaimies. ' En la provincia de Veraguas, situada a 9 grades de lati-
tud boreal, esta la nacion delos Guaimies d Huamies. Hervds, Catdlogo, torn.
i., pp. 280-1. 'Los quales indios, segun decian, no eran naturales de
aquella comarca: antes era su antigua patria la tierra que esta junto al rio
grande de Darien.' Cieza de Leon, in Id., p. 281.
' The Indians who at present inhabit the Isthmus are scattered over
Bocas del Toro, the northern portions of Veraguas, the north-eastern shores
of Panama, and almost the whole of Darien, and consist principally of
four tribes, the Savanerics, the San Bias Indians, the Bayanos, and the
Cholos. Each tribe speaks a different language.' Seemann's Voy. Herald,
vol. i., p. 317. 'Les Goajiros, les Motilones, les Guainetas et les Cocinas,
dans les provinces de Rio-Hacha, de Upar et de Santa-Marta; et les Da-
riens, les Cunas et les Chocoes, sur les rives et les affluents de 1'Atrato et
les cotes du Darien.' Eoqudte, in Nouvelles Annales des Voy., 1855, torn,
cxlvii., pp. 24-5.
' The Savanerics occupy the northern portion of Veraguas.' Ib.
The Dorachos occupied western Veragua. Id., p. 312.
The Manzanillo, or San Bias Indians, ' inhabit the north-eastern portion
of the province of Panama.' Id., p. 320. ' The chief settlement is about San
Bias, the rest of the coast being dotted over with small villages.' Gisborne's
Darien, p. 156. ' Their principal settlements are on the upper branches of
the Chepo, Chiman, and Congo, on the Tuquesa, Ucurganti, Jubuganti, and
Chueti, branches of the Chuquanaqua, and on the Pucro and Paya.' Cullen's
Darien, p. 69. ' The whole of the Isthmus of Darien, except a small portion
of the valley of the Tuyra, comprising the towns of Chipogana, Pinogana,
Yavisa, and Santa Maria, and a few scattering inhabitants on the Bayamo
near its mouth, is uninhabited except by the San Bias or Darien Indians . . .
They inhabit the whole Atlantic coast from San Bias to the Tarena, mouth
of the Atrato, and in the interior from the Sucubti to the upper parts of the
Bayamo.' Self ridge's Darien Surveys, p. 10.
NATIONS OF THE ISTHMUS. 797
The Mandmgos ' occupy the coast as far as the Bay of Caledonia.' Pitydt,
in Land. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxxviii., p. 92; Eeichardt, Cent. Amer., p.
161; Ludewig's Ab. Lang, p. 61.
The Bayanos, ' about the Eiver Chepo.' Id., p. 18; Seemann's Voy. Herald,
vol. i., p. 321.
The Cholos, ' extending from the Gulf of San Miguel to the bay ef Choco,
and thence with a few interruptions to the northern parts of the Kepublic of
Ecuador.' Seemann's Voy. Herald, vol. i., p. 321. 'Inhabiting part of the
Isthmus of Darien, east of the river Chuquanaqua, which is watered by the
river Pay a and its branches in and about lat. 8° 15' N., and long. 77° 20' W.'
Latham, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xx., p. 189.
' The Cunas have established themselves on the shores of the Gulf of
Uraba, near the outlets of the Atrato.' Puydt, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol.
xxxviii., p. 92.
The Cunacunas, ' on the south-easterly side of the Isthmus.' Ludeicir/'s Ab,
Lang., p. 59. ' The remnants of the Chucunaquese who in 1861 dwelt on
the banks of the river which bears their name have gone up towards the
north.' Ib.
The Chocos, 'on the Leon and the different tributaries of the Atrato.'
Michler's Darien, p. 26.
The Caimanes, ( between Punta Arenas and Turbo.' Ib.
The Urabds, 'en las selvas y bosques de la Provincia de Uraba.' Alcedo,
Dice., torn, v., p. 258.
The Idibas ' del Keyno de Tierra-Firme y Gobierno de Panama, son con-
finantes con los Chocoes y los Tatabes.' Id., torn, ii., p. 413.
The Payas 'on the river of that name.' Self ridge's Darien Surveys, p.
36.
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
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